Soil characteristics at the experimental sites’ soils.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9821",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Trauma and Emergency Surgery - The Role of Damage Control Surgery",title:"Trauma and Emergency Surgery",subtitle:"The Role of Damage Control Surgery",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"One of the most interesting and challenging fields of surgery is trauma and emergency surgery. The formation of a trauma surgical subspecialty has led to a more organized system of dealing with trauma as well as saving lives. Emergency surgery has been the evolution of this, as an effort to incorporate the knowledge and skills of trauma surgery, intensive care, and emergency general surgery, all in one specialty. This is a collection of chapters describing the nature of damage control surgery, which is one of the key concepts and strategies for managing the most challenging trauma and emergency surgery patients. The authors of this book represent a team of true global experts on the topic. In addition to the knowledge shared, the authors provide their personal clinical experience in a variety of different aspects of damage control surgery.",isbn:"978-1-83968-165-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-164-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-166-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87629",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"trauma-and-emergency-surgery-the-role-of-damage-control-surgery",numberOfPages:144,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"d5f6d0e79ff1167c8db9a24fa69ed232",bookSignature:"Georgios Tsoulfas and Mohammad Meshkini",publishedDate:"July 14th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9821.jpg",numberOfDownloads:3744,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:2,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 14th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 24th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 23rd 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 11th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 10th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"57412",title:"Prof.",name:"Georgios",middleName:null,surname:"Tsoulfas",slug:"georgios-tsoulfas",fullName:"Georgios Tsoulfas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/57412/images/system/57412.png",biography:"Dr. Georgios Tsoulfas received his medical degree from Brown University School of Medicine, Rhode Island, and completed his general surgery residency at the University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics, as well as a transplant research fellowship at the Starzl Transplant Institute, University of Pittsburgh. He then completed a two-year transplantation surgery fellowship at Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, and then joined the Division of Solid Organ Transplantation and Hepatobiliary Surgery at the University of Rochester Medical Center, New York, as Assistant Professor of Surgery. He has currently moved back to Greece, where he is a Professor of Transplantation Surgery and Chief of the Department of Transplantation Surgery at the Aristotle University School of Medicine. He has published more than 150 papers in peer-reviewed journals and PubMed, as well as 35 book chapters. He is a reviewer for more than forty international journals and serves on the editorial boards of several others.",institutionString:"Aristotle University of Thessaloniki",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"8",institution:{name:"Aristotle University of Thessaloniki",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"282716",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Meshkini",slug:"mohammad-meshkini",fullName:"Mohammad Meshkini",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282716/images/system/282716.png",biography:"Mohammad Meshkini, MD. is an Emergency Medicine specialist, graduated from Iran University of Medical Sciences. He is an instructor candidate for courses in Basic Life Support (BLS) and Advanced Cardiovascular Life Support (ACLS) courses from the American Heart Association (AHA), as well for the Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS) course from the American College of Surgeons (ACS) and the Ultrasound Trauma Life Support (AUTLS) course from the All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS). He has collaborated with the Iran Emergency Medical Services headquarters in Tehran, Iran. His fields of interest are traumatic patients and disaster management. Before choosing a career in emergency medicine, Dr. Meshkini pursued a Ph.D. in Disaster Healthcare Management.",institutionString:"Tabriz University of Medical Sciences",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Tabriz University of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"177",title:"Emergency Medicine",slug:"emergency-medicine"}],chapters:[{id:"74507",title:"Radiation Injury and Emergency Medicine",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95262",slug:"radiation-injury-and-emergency-medicine",totalDownloads:420,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The discovery of radiation has led to many advances. Guidelines have been created to minimize radiation exposure and treatment management following both unintentional and intentional exposure. The effects of radiation exposure on specific tissues varies. Tragic consequences can result, ranging from severe, acute injury to long- lasting effects that present years after the initial exposure. In this chapter we provide observations that demonstrate the importance of understanding guidelines to minimize radioactive exposure and the expectations and treatment management following exposure. For the safety and well-being of patients, health care professionals need to remain well-informed to minimize the risks of this tool.",signatures:"James Shen, Linda Ding, Kevin O’Connor, Ameer Elaimy, Carla Bradford, Fenhong Liu, Abdulnasser Khalifeh, Suhong Yu, Harry Bushe, Jonathan Saleeby, Kenneth Ulin, I-Lin Kuo, Yankhua Fan, Maryann Bishop-Jodoin, Paul Rava and Thomas J. FitzGerald",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74507",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74507",authors:[{id:"241806",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas J.",surname:"FitzGerald",slug:"thomas-j.-fitzgerald",fullName:"Thomas J. FitzGerald"},{id:"303603",title:"Ms.",name:"Maryann",surname:"Bishop-Jodoin",slug:"maryann-bishop-jodoin",fullName:"Maryann Bishop-Jodoin"},{id:"303607",title:"Dr.",name:"Ameer",surname:"Elaimy",slug:"ameer-elaimy",fullName:"Ameer Elaimy"},{id:"303608",title:"Mr.",name:"James",surname:"Shen",slug:"james-shen",fullName:"James Shen"},{id:"337281",title:"Ms.",name:"Linda",surname:"Ding",slug:"linda-ding",fullName:"Linda Ding"},{id:"337282",title:"Mr.",name:"Kevin",surname:"O’Connor",slug:"kevin-o'connor",fullName:"Kevin O’Connor"},{id:"337285",title:"Ms.",name:"Carla",surname:"Bradford",slug:"carla-bradford",fullName:"Carla Bradford"},{id:"337286",title:"Ms.",name:"Fenghong",surname:"Liu",slug:"fenghong-liu",fullName:"Fenghong Liu"},{id:"337287",title:"Mr.",name:"Abdulnasser",surname:"Khalifeh",slug:"abdulnasser-khalifeh",fullName:"Abdulnasser Khalifeh"},{id:"337288",title:"Ms.",name:"Suhong",surname:"Yu",slug:"suhong-yu",fullName:"Suhong Yu"},{id:"337289",title:"Mr.",name:"Harry",surname:"Bushe",slug:"harry-bushe",fullName:"Harry Bushe"},{id:"337291",title:"Mr.",name:"Jonathan",surname:"Saleeby",slug:"jonathan-saleeby",fullName:"Jonathan Saleeby"},{id:"337292",title:"Mr.",name:"Kenneth",surname:"Ulin",slug:"kenneth-ulin",fullName:"Kenneth Ulin"},{id:"337293",title:"Mr.",name:"I-Lin",surname:"Kuo",slug:"i-lin-kuo",fullName:"I-Lin Kuo"},{id:"337295",title:"Ms.",name:"Yankhua",surname:"Fan",slug:"yankhua-fan",fullName:"Yankhua Fan"},{id:"337296",title:"Dr.",name:"Paul",surname:"Rava",slug:"paul-rava",fullName:"Paul Rava"}],corrections:null},{id:"74247",title:"Evaluation and Treatment of Elevated Temperature in the Emergency Department",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94899",slug:"evaluation-and-treatment-of-elevated-temperature-in-the-emergency-department",totalDownloads:351,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Elevated patient temperature is a common vital sign abnormality in the emergency department that can be caused either by fever or hyperthermia. Fever is a frequent presentation, most commonly caused by infections of the respiratory or urinary tracts. Other occult sources include musculoskeletal, cardiac, neurological, and intra-abdominal infections. These infections can become complicated by sepsis and septic shock, conditions with high mortality. Treatment of the febrile acutely-ill patient should begin with fluids, antimicrobials, and source control. However, if this is ineffective or if the presentation is inconsistent with infection, consideration should be given to hyperthermia, rather than fever, being the cause of the patient’s elevated temperature. Several life-threatening and reversible conditions can mimic sepsis and present with elevated temperature. These mimics include toxicity from medications and illicit substances, neuroleptic malignant syndrome, malignant hyperthermia, and thyroid storm. Identification of these mimics as the source of elevated temperature can lead to earlier diagnosis and improved outcomes in these patients.",signatures:"Marina Boushra",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74247",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74247",authors:[{id:"327650",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",surname:"Boushra",slug:"marina-boushra",fullName:"Marina Boushra"}],corrections:null},{id:"73447",title:"Damage Control Surgery for Liver Trauma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94109",slug:"damage-control-surgery-for-liver-trauma",totalDownloads:423,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The liver is one of the most commonly injured organs of the abdomen after major trauma and may lead to the extravasation of major amounts of blood. Damage control surgery (DCS) as a concept exists for over one hundred years but has been more widely optimized and implemented over the past few decades. Minimizing the time from the trauma scene to the hospital and recognizing the patterns of injury and the “lethal triad” (acidosis, hypothermia, coagulopathy) is vital to understand which patients will benefit the most from DCS. Immediate patient resuscitation, massive blood transfusion, and taking the patient to the operating room as soon as possible are the critical initial steps that have been associated with improved outcomes. Bleeding and contamination control should be the priority in this first exploratory laparotomy, while the patient should be transferred to the intensive care unit postoperatively with only temporary abdominal wall closure. Once the patient is stabilized, a second operation should be performed where an anatomic liver resection or other more major procedures may take place, along with permanent closure of the abdominal wall.",signatures:"Ioannis A. Ziogas, Ioannis Katsaros and Georgios Tsoulfas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73447",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73447",authors:[{id:"57412",title:"Prof.",name:"Georgios",surname:"Tsoulfas",slug:"georgios-tsoulfas",fullName:"Georgios Tsoulfas"},{id:"320676",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioannis",surname:"Ziogas",slug:"ioannis-ziogas",fullName:"Ioannis Ziogas"},{id:"320677",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioannis",surname:"Katsaros",slug:"ioannis-katsaros",fullName:"Ioannis Katsaros"}],corrections:null},{id:"72751",title:"Liver Trauma Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92351",slug:"liver-trauma-management",totalDownloads:210,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Liver trauma is responsible for the majority of penetrating abdominal trauma and is the third most common injury caused by firearms. Presenting a 20% mortality rate, it is an organ with wide and complex vascularization, receiving blood from the hepatic veins and portal vein, as well as from the hepatic arteries. The diagnosis is not always simple in polytrauma patients and contains a wide range of exams such as computerized tomography and diagnostic peritoneal lavage. Treatment depends mostly on a few factors such as the patient’s hemodynamic stability, the degree of injury according to the AAST classification, the resources available, and the surgeon’s expertise. Considering these factors, minor lesions can be treated mostly with a conservative approach in hemodynamically stable patients. Embolization by arteriography has shown good results in major lesions in clinically stable patients as well. On the other hand, more complex lesions associated with hemodynamically unstable patients may indicate damage control surgery applying techniques such as temporary liver packing and clamping the pedicle to restore the hemodynamic status. This chapter aims to describe those techniques and their indications in liver trauma.",signatures:"Henrique A. Wiederkehr, Julio Wiederkehr, Barbara A. Wiederkehr, Lucas M. Sarquis, Oona T. Daronch, Lucas Scopel and João V. Zeni",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72751",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72751",authors:[{id:"83516",title:"Ms.",name:"Barbara A.",surname:"Wiederkehr",slug:"barbara-a.-wiederkehr",fullName:"Barbara A. Wiederkehr"},{id:"157302",title:"Mr.",name:"Henrique A.",surname:"Wiederkehr",slug:"henrique-a.-wiederkehr",fullName:"Henrique A. Wiederkehr"},{id:"179953",title:"Prof.",name:"Julio",surname:"Wiederkehr",slug:"julio-wiederkehr",fullName:"Julio Wiederkehr"},{id:"320146",title:"Mr.",name:"Lucas M.",surname:"Sarquis",slug:"lucas-m.-sarquis",fullName:"Lucas M. Sarquis"},{id:"320147",title:"Ms.",name:"Oona T.",surname:"Daronch",slug:"oona-t.-daronch",fullName:"Oona T. Daronch"},{id:"327221",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucas",surname:"Scopel",slug:"lucas-scopel",fullName:"Lucas Scopel"}],corrections:null},{id:"72626",title:"Damage Control in Hinchey III and IV Acute Diverticulitis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92669",slug:"damage-control-in-hinchey-iii-and-iv-acute-diverticulitis",totalDownloads:302,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Acute diverticulitis is one of the most common surgical causes of admission to Emergency Departments in Western Countries. Although most of the cases can be managed conservatively or electively, a number of them will require an emergency surgical treatment. Among these patients, an even smaller number of them will present with a full-blown catastrophic septic shock. These minorities of cases have accounted for a significant part of the overall mortality and morbidity of complicated acute diverticulitis itself. The implementation of Damage Control strategies has shown to be useful also in these septic catastrophes, where a profound derangement of physiology makes unsafe a classic approach. Damage Control, as we intend it, is not a surgical “technique.” A close collaboration between different specialties brought forth a strategy of treatment. The Surgeon, the Anesthetist, and the Intensivist are the three most involved specialists in the treatment of these cases. It is paramount for them to learn how to work side by side and in harmony, since the patients will benefit from each-one’s input in their care.",signatures:"Luca Ponchietti, Néstor Bueno Vidales, Andrea A. Casamassima, Fernando Gallego Estrada, Alessandro Garcea, Ioannis Gerogiannis, Alberto Lafita López, Diego Mariani, Olga Marin Casajús, Matteo Marconi, Nuno Filipe Muralha Antunes, Laura María Pradal Jarne, Jorge Vera Bella and Carlos Yánez Benítez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72626",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72626",authors:[{id:"317791",title:"Prof.",name:"Luca",surname:"Ponchietti",slug:"luca-ponchietti",fullName:"Luca Ponchietti"},{id:"320688",title:"Dr.",name:"Nestor",surname:"Bueno Vidales",slug:"nestor-bueno-vidales",fullName:"Nestor Bueno Vidales"},{id:"320689",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",surname:"Casamassima",slug:"andrea-casamassima",fullName:"Andrea Casamassima"},{id:"320690",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",surname:"Gallego Estrada",slug:"fernando-gallego-estrada",fullName:"Fernando Gallego Estrada"},{id:"320691",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessandro",surname:"Garcea",slug:"alessandro-garcea",fullName:"Alessandro Garcea"},{id:"320692",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioannis",surname:"Gerogiannis",slug:"ioannis-gerogiannis",fullName:"Ioannis Gerogiannis"},{id:"320693",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",surname:"Lafita Lòpez",slug:"alberto-lafita-lopez",fullName:"Alberto Lafita Lòpez"},{id:"320694",title:"Dr.",name:"Diego",surname:"Mariani",slug:"diego-mariani",fullName:"Diego Mariani"},{id:"320695",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",surname:"Marin Casajus",slug:"olga-marin-casajus",fullName:"Olga Marin Casajus"},{id:"320696",title:"Dr.",name:"Matteo",surname:"Marconi",slug:"matteo-marconi",fullName:"Matteo Marconi"},{id:"320697",title:"Dr.",name:"Nuno Filipe",surname:"Muralha Antunes",slug:"nuno-filipe-muralha-antunes",fullName:"Nuno Filipe Muralha Antunes"},{id:"320699",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",surname:"Vera Bella",slug:"jorge-vera-bella",fullName:"Jorge Vera Bella"},{id:"320700",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Yáñez Benítez",slug:"carlos-yanez-benitez",fullName:"Carlos Yáñez Benítez"},{id:"320701",title:"Dr.",name:"Pradal Jarne",surname:"Laura María Pradal Jarne",slug:"pradal-jarne-laura-maria-pradal-jarne",fullName:"Pradal Jarne Laura María Pradal Jarne"}],corrections:null},{id:"72502",title:"Diagnosis and Treatment of Midface Trauma in the Context of Polytrauma: Characteristics during COVID-19 Pandemic Conditions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92862",slug:"diagnosis-and-treatment-of-midface-trauma-in-the-context-of-polytrauma-characteristics-during-covid-",totalDownloads:665,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Midfacial trauma is never an immediate therapeutic emergency excepting cases with nasal bleeding and risk of aspiration or requiring a permeable airway that will allow intubation when appropriate. The patient with polytraumas and midfacial fractures who needs ear, nose, and throat (ENT) or oral and maxillofacial (OMF) surgery should be reassessed at 24 and 48 hours to determine the optimal operating time. The surgical indication should be established according to esthetic and functional deficits. We consider that the optimal operative moment for the lesions of the midface is at 4–5 days after the trauma, under the conditions of a stable hemodynamic, respiratory, and afebrile patient. We propose the schematic presentation of the principles of diagnosis and treatment for midface trauma. We will discuss also some aspects of midfacial trauma during coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic conditions. We must assume every patient with polytrauma as a COVID-19-positive patient. So, it is necessary to have a special circuit for a suspect COVID-19 polytrauma patient between emergency room (ER) department, operating room, and intensive care unit (ICU). All medical team must wear high-level personal protective equipment (PPE) during emergency treatment of a craniofacial trauma in the context of polytrauma until we get the result of RT-PCR testing.",signatures:"Daniela Vrinceanu, Bogdan Banica and Mihai Dumitru",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72502",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72502",authors:[{id:"312642",title:"M.D.",name:"Daniela",surname:"Vrinceanu",slug:"daniela-vrinceanu",fullName:"Daniela Vrinceanu"},{id:"315378",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihai",surname:"Dumitru",slug:"mihai-dumitru",fullName:"Mihai Dumitru"},{id:"321541",title:"Dr.",name:"Bogdan",surname:"Banica",slug:"bogdan-banica",fullName:"Bogdan Banica"}],corrections:null},{id:"70058",title:"Designing Flaps for Closure of a Variety of Skin Defects",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89547",slug:"designing-flaps-for-closure-of-a-variety-of-skin-defects",totalDownloads:941,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this article, I am presenting a variety of working models for closure of skin defects of different shapes along with their corresponding indications and mode of use. These working models can be enlarged or reduced in size using a regular copying machine in order to evaluate the best possibilities related to the position of the incision. The great advantage of this method is that the geometric results are always predictable. Furthermore, this method will improve the survival of the flaps and the cosmetic results. In summary, the surgeon can use a variety of skin incisions taking advantage of the minimal tension lines of the skin and also taking into consideration the anatomical characteristics of the region involved. In this article, I have used the minimal tension lines of the skin, because they are easy to demonstrate by simple measures, such as pinching of the skin in different directions. In addition, the surgeon can assess the mobility and the elasticity of the skin on an individual basis.",signatures:"Alfredo Alvarado",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70058",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70058",authors:[{id:"221775",title:"M.D.",name:"Alfredo",surname:"Alvarado",slug:"alfredo-alvarado",fullName:"Alfredo Alvarado"}],corrections:null},{id:"73048",title:"Finesse in Damage Control Reconstruction for Trauma in Plastic Surgery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92975",slug:"finesse-in-damage-control-reconstruction-for-trauma-in-plastic-surgery",totalDownloads:435,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Reconstructions of body, extremity and facial resurfacing facial defects are common encounters in plastic surgery. It may be owing to trauma, burn injury, tumor, congenital anomalies, miscellaneous kinds of malignancies. The face has its specific landmarks: the forehead, eyebrows, eyes with upper and lower eyelids, orbit, midface (nose, maxilla, zygoma), upper lip, cheeks, nasolabial folds, lower face (lower lip, mandible with angle), oral mucosa (buccal mucosa, upper lip sulcus, lower lip sulcus), mentum, and neck. Anatomical landmarks include forehead, eyebrow, and eyelids: upper/lower, orbit, midface: nose, maxilla, upper lip, nasolabial folds, and zygoma. Lower face: lower lip, mandible, oral mucosa, buccal mucosa, upper lip sulcus, lower lip sulcus. Strategic approaches include the following: tissue expansion, resection of tumor, and repair with resurfacing, repair of multilayer defect repair for functional purpose. Reconstruction for trauma is commonly encountered in the daily practice in plastic surgery. The trauma may be caused by miscellaneous causes, including traffic accident, fall, cutting, avulsion, contusion, electrical injuries, irradiation injuries, chemical injuries, etc., resulting in disfigurement, deformity and functional disabilities. The strategic approach is to achieve anatomical restoration, functional rehabilitation and aesthetic refinements for the afflicted individuals. 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However, climate change effects, low soil fertility and poor crop management keep yield below the world average. Some farmers are seeking solutions to these challenges by adopting region adapted improved varieties, use of soil amendments such as organic manures and inoculant application to improve nitrogen availability. Nitrogen is the most limiting nutrient in soybean production due to its high uptake by plants, vulnerability to leaching, denitrification and removal through crop harvest [2]. Inoculation of rhizobia enhances biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) in soybean production and is economically viable for use among smallholder farmers due to its low price over inorganic commercial fertilizer blends [3, 4]. Likewise, soybean producers have the quest to improve yield which necessitates inoculation with effective rhizobial strains [5, 6, 7]. Inoculation improves soybean yield and increases crop resilience to climatic changes effects across Africa such as drought incidences experienced in Mozambique through better water use efficiency (WUE) [8]. Although many African countries currently produce inoculant that is effective for both promiscuous and non-promiscuous soybean varieties and other legumes like beans, cowpea, and groundnuts [9], Mozambique as a country lacks the capacity and facilities for local production. However, production volumes of these inoculants seldom satisfy in-country or regional demand warranting importation of supplementary stocks from as far as south America [10]. Unfortunately, produced inoculants fail to reach smallholder farmers in Africa on time due to logistic constrains linking production and distribution. Development of promiscuous soybean varieties, capable of fixing nitrogen with indigenous rhizobia [11] offer a promising solution to improving BNF. In addition, advancement in research has led to isolation of promising indigenous rhizobia that establish symbiotic association with soybean [12, 13]. The research was based on the notion that African soils have indigenous rhizobia strains capable of colonizing soybean root. Unfortunately, isolated indigenous rhizobia strains are yet to be commercialized despite performing better than or like the well-known USDA 110 strain. Commercial production in solid or liquid form of identified indigenous rhizobia strains is necessary to improve their efficiency since naturally they occur in low populations in the soil coupled with low efficacy as effective nitrogen fixers.
Inoculants can be packaged in liquid, peat, or granular forms. Only the liquid or peat/powder forms of inoculants are found in Mozambique with the latter being more abundant and easier to handle among producers. Both forms of inoculants can be applied on seed or directly on soil before planting. Although both forms of inoculants improve yield, variations in the amount tend to occur due to other factors such as viability, storage and environment especially soil moisture in a specific site [14]. In many cases, seed yield inoculated with liquid formula seldom gives better than the peat inoculants. Liquid inoculants offer limited protection to the rhizobia hence survivability can be a challenge in sub-optimal conditions [15, 16, 17] while peat carriers provide more protection to the live cells to a limited extend as it is still important to plant the seed or cover the soil soon after application. Bacterial cells survival on the seed or soil in Mozambique could mainly be affected by desiccation and high temperatures [18]. The most common inoculant application method in Mozambique is on seed although there exists a potential for soil application especially among the large-scale commercial soybean producers who have the capacity to mechanize farm operations.
Soybeans acquire N from either BNF or soil and sometimes inorganic N fertilizer if applied. Maximum N demand in soybean occurs between the R3 and R5 stages of development [19]. Proportions of N absorbed from these sources differ with the cropping system and management. Since BNF is an energy consuming process, soybean will not invest in it where either the soil or fertilizer N is adequate. On the other hand, unavailability of N from any of the sources during plant growth will result in N translocation from other parts of the plant such as leaves to the grain, which diminishes the photosynthesis thus reducing yield potential [20]. Soybean plant N derived from BNF leads to improved productivity. Nitrogen availability in soybean production can be enhanced through inoculation. Inoculating soybean with liquid or peat based effective rhizobia strains promotes nodulation and plant growth that contribute to increased yield. Through BNF, soybean can satisfy between 50% and 60% of its nitrogen requirement [21]. Farmers in Mozambique rarely apply external inorganic fertilizer on soybean. Therefore, the N sources of soybean production is either soil or BNF where inoculants are applied, or effective indigenous rhizobia strains exist in the soil. More so, where inoculants are applied, there exists no means to quantify the amount of N fixed in the fields other than the yield obtained. Benefits of BNF are higher when phosphorus fertilizer is applied in addition to rhizobia inoculation on soybean [5] or cowpea [3] in Mozambique.
Carbon is released from the plant through the leaves as CO2 during transpiration. Likewise, water is lost from the plant by the same process through the stomata. Transpiration is important in plants as it facilitates mass-flow movement of nutrients from the roots to the above ground parts. This process is inversely correlated to availability of soil moisture content hence affecting plant WUE [22]. WUE is the ratio of plant dry matter production against the water used over a period. It can also be defined at a point in time as the ratio between the rate of carbon fixation and the rate of transpiration. 13C isotope discrimination is used to determine a fraction of carbon isotope during CO2 uptake and fixation and related to WUE that is an important physiological character as an indicator of plant adaptability to drought conditions through the functioning of the stomata [23]. It is strongly linked to the ratio of the intercellular and atmospheric concentration of CO2 (
Field studies using soybean variety ‘
Location | Angonia | Gurue | Nampula |
---|---|---|---|
pH | 6.4 | 6.2 | 6.6 |
P (ppm) | 25.0 | 44.8 | 0.3 |
K (ppm) | 122.8 | 421.0 | 90.4 |
Ca (ppm) | 772.8 | 1755.0 | 800.5 |
Mg (ppm) | 165.5 | 301.8 | 113.0 |
Na (ppm) | 29.4 | 17.9 | 29.3 |
EC (dS/cm) | 0.059 | 0.057 | 0.050 |
CEC (cmolc/kg) | 6.6 | 15.0 | 6.0 |
N (%) | 0.09 | 0.15 | 0.13 |
Sand (%) | 64.0 | 56.8 | 63.2 |
Silt (%) | 6.6 | 12.1 | 2.0 |
Clay (%) | 29.4 | 31.1 | 34.8 |
Soil characteristics at the experimental sites’ soils.
Two inoculants were sourced from Novozymes BioAg (Cell-Tech® liquid and Cell-Tech® peat) in Saskatoon, SK Canada and Soygro (Soyflo-liquid and Soycap-powder) in Potchefstroom South Africa. According to the manufacturers’ specifications, the inoculants contained 2 × 109 cells/ml or cells/g of
Liquid inoculants required for 2 kg soybean seed were weighed and diluted with 100 ml of distilled water before applying on seed in a plastic bag. The seeds were then mixed well for the surfaces to be fully coated with the inoculant. For the solid-based inoculants, the seeds were weighed into a plastic bag then moist with water for Cell-Tech® peat or Mollyflo for the Soycap-powder. Seeds were then mixed well in the plastic bag until all the surfaces were coated with a film of water or Mollyflo. Then respective quantities of solid-based inoculants added and mixed well to cover the surfaces of all the seeds. All the preparations were done under shade and the seeds planted within 2 h of mixing with the inoculant.
Volumes of inoculants to be applied on soil per plot were measured using a syringe into 2 l hand sprayers before adding 1 l of distilled water. The mixture was then agitated gently to equally distribute the inoculant cells in the water. Later the mixture was sprayed into open seed furrows followed immediately with seed placement and covering with soil. To apply the solid-based inoculants onto soil, quantities of respective plot inoculants were weight and mixed with 100 g moist fine sieved (1 mm sieve) soil in a wide mouth plastic container with a lid. Then soil and inoculant were mixed thoroughly by shaking. The lid was then perforated using a hot nail to open many holes like a saltshaker. This mixture was then applied in open furrow followed by immediate planting of seeds and covering with soil. To avoid scorching of the rhizobia strains to death in the sun, immediately planting the seeds and covering with soil is recommended.
A disc plow was used for land preparation followed by two passes of harrowing. Both seasons’ experiments were planted between 16 and 24 December depending on the onset of rains in each site. Experimental treatments were formulated by combining the two inoculants, their formula (liquid or solid) and place of application (seed or soil) plus a control (no amendment). These resulted in nine treatments that were layered out in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD). A non-promiscuous soybean variety Safari was planted in plots of 20 m2 in four replications. Plots consisted of seven rows of 8 m in length, 0.50 m row-spacing and 0.1 m between plants within rows. During establishment of the trials, similar treatments were planted by one person for all the four replicates to avoid contamination. Planting and weeding (twice) were done by hand at site-specific scheduling. The experiment was conducted under rainfed conditions for both seasons with no external water supply through irrigation. Pests were controlled once at beginning of flowering using 100 ml of Cypermethrin (200 g active ingredient/l) and 50 ml of Lambda Cyhalothrin (50 g active ingredient/l) applied using 15 l knapsack sprayer.
Data on nodulation, plant growth, nitrogen fixed, 13C related WUE, yield and yield components were collected. At R3 (flowering to podding) growth stage when pods had reached 10−12 mm long at one of the four uppermost nodes on main stem, five randomly selected soybean plants were excavated using a hoe and spade from each plot ensuring that all the roots were recovered. All the soil was washed out of the roots and all nodules plucked out carefully by hand. The nodules were counted and later placed in envelopes before drying in an oven at 60°C for 48 h to determine nodule dry weight. Plant biomass were also dried in an oven at 60°C until constant dry weight was achieved. Later the biomass was ground to pass through a 2-mm mesh sieve for plant tissue N analysis stable light isotope ratio mass spectrometer. At maturity, 10 plants were randomly selected and harvested for determination of pod density and seed weight. Pods from each plot were threshed manually and grain yield was determined. The moisture content of grain samples from each plot was measured using Farmex MT-16 grain moisture Tester (AgraTronix LLC, Streetsboro, Ohio, USA) and grain yield in kg ha−1 was adjusted to 13% moisture content. Above-ground plant biomass from whole plots were sun-dried to 10% moisture content for 10 days to determined harvest biomass weight.
The isotopic analyses of 15N and 13C were performed at the Mammal Research Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa using a Stable Light Isotope Laboratory on a Flash EA 1112 Series coupled to a Delta V Plus stable light isotope ratio mass spectrometer via a ConFlo IV system (Thermo Fischer, Bremen, Germany). Aliquots of 1.2 mg were weighed into toluene pre-cleaned tin capsules. During the analysis, a standard (Merck Gel: δ13C = −20.57‰, δ15N = 6.8‰, C% = 43.83, N% = 14.64) and a blank sample were run after every 12 samples. The air nitrogen was used as the reference isotope values for nitrogen. The 15N natural abundance expressed as the δ (delta) notation is the ‰ deviation of the 15N natural abundance of the sample from atmospheric N2 (0.36637 atom % 15N) was calculated [29] with the analytical precision values used being <0.2‰ for δ13C and < 0.2‰ for δ15N.
The percentage
Where, δ15Nref is the mean 15N natural abundance of the collected reference plants (maize), 15Nleg is the 15N natural abundance of soybean, and the
Where legume biomass N refers to the N content of plants shoots.
To perform the 13C/12C isotopic analysis, the plants shoots were weighed (sub-sampled) into tin capsules and analyzed on a mass spectrometer as described for the 15N/14N isotopic analysis. Shoot C content was calculated by relating plant %
Reference carbon isotope values were the Vienna Pee-Dee Belemnite (PDB). Change in 13C (∆13C) was calculated as follows
Where δ13Catm is 13C change in atmospheric CO2 (−8) and δ13Cplant in plant material.
The relationship between carbon fixation and stomatal conductance in soybean at R3 stage was determined based on the model linking the isotope discrimination (∆13C) to plant and atmospheric 13C [34]. A linear relationship was used to relate the isotope discrimination to plant physiological properties.
Where
Since the ratio of leaf conductance to water vapor is 1.6 g CO2, and therefor change in 13C can be related to the A/gH2O ratio as follows:
WUE defined as the ratio of the fluxes of net photosynthesis and conductance for water vapor (
Analyses of variance (ANOVAs) were performed using PROC GLM in Statistical Analysis System (SAS)® 9.4 [36]. First a combined analysis across locations and cropping seasons was performed. Since location and season effects were dominant, the two variables were combined to form environment. Secondly, a factorial ANOVA was performed, to evaluate the effects of environment, treatment, and their interactions. Environments effects were considered random and were significant for all the variables [37] while the treatments factors were fixed effects for each environment. Means were determined for treatments, and comparisons done using Tukey adjustment at
Formation of nodules is an indicator of BNF through the symbiotic relationship of soybean plant and the inoculant strains. Data on nodule count and dry weight per plant were collected for both crown and lateral nodules. There were no significant differences (
Treatment (inoculant application) | Angonia 2017 | Ruace 2017 | Ruace 2018 |
---|---|---|---|
Control | 9.0d | 8.5b | 11.1c |
Seed Cell-Tech liquid | 36.6bc | 42.6a | 48.1ab |
Seed Cell-Tech peat | 52.6abc | 57.5a | 60.5a |
Seed Soyflo-liquid | 38.8bc | 38.3a | 36.0ab |
Seed Soycap-powder | 63.9a | 58.6a | 56.1ab |
Soil Cell-Tech liquid | 37.9bc | 34.9a | 42.9ab |
Soil Cell-Tech peat | 53.4abc | 54.4a | 37.8ab |
Soil Soyflo-liquid | 32.8c | 34.2a | 37.6ab |
Soil Soycap-powder | 55.4ab | 54.4a | 28.7bc |
%CV | 10.3 | 13.2 | 14.7 |
<0.0001 | <0.0001 | 0.0001 |
Nodule count per plant of inoculated soybean.
The subscripts signify statistical differences at p<0.05. Same letters indicate no differences while different letters show significance in the treatments within the season.
Treatment (inoculant application) | Angonia 2017 | Ruace 2017 | Ruace 2018 |
---|---|---|---|
Control | 33.5d | 36.6b | 69.0b |
Seed Cell-Tech liquid | 134.3cd | 174.1a | 247.0ab |
Seed Cell-Tech peat | 259.4ab | 247.3a | 275.1ab |
Seed Soyflo-liquid | 155.4bc | 176.6a | 228.0ab |
Seed Soycap-powder | 294.3a | 295.7a | 310.7a |
Soil Cell-Tech liquid | 147.0bc | 165.1a | 249.5a |
Soil Cell-Tech peat | 238.9abc | 255.3a | 228.3ab |
Soil Soyflo-liquid | 169.6bc | 180.1a | 239.0a |
Soil Soycap-powder | 256.7ab | 256.7a | 220.5ab |
%CV | 28.8 | 26.9 | 35.6 |
<0.0001 | <0.0001 | 0.0127 |
Nodule weight (mg) per plant of inoculated soybean.
The subscripts signify statistical differences at p<0.05. Same letters indicate no differences while different letters show significance in the treatments within the season.
In Angonia and Ruace in 2017, nodule counts were lowest for the uninoculated soybean and the nodule count per plant was observed to be the highest from seed inoculated soybean with Soycap-powder (Table 2). Comparable nodules were formed for inoculated soybean at Ruace in 2018 except for Soycap-powder soil application. A common trend was observed between manufacturers/source liquid and solid inoculants regardless of the application on soil or seed. The liquid inoculants had numerically lower nodules formed than the solid (peat or powder) based. Generally, liquid based inoculants averaged at 36.5, 37.5 and 41.2 versus 56.3, 56.2 and 45.8 nodules plant−1 for Angonia 2017, Ruace 2017 and Ruace 2018 respectively. Except for Ruace 2018 with 50.2 and 36.8 nodules plant−1 for seed and soil inoculant application, mean number of nodules formed between the two inoculation methods were not different for the other environments. The total number of nodules formed per plant were significantly higher (
Similar trends of nodules plant−1 were also observed for the nodule dry weight (mg plant−1). Inoculated soybean had heavier nodules than the uninoculated ones averaging at 206.9, 218.8 and 249.7 mg plant−1 versus 33.5, 36.6 and 69.9 mg plant−1 for Angonia 2017, Ruace 2017 and Ruace 2018 respectively (Table 3). It was also noted that the dry weight per nodule at Ruace in 2018 was higher than at Angonia and Ruace 2017 for all the treatments. The average weight per nodule was Angonia 2017 (4.3 mg nodule−1), Ruace 2017 (4.6 mg nodule−1) and Ruace 2018 (6.0 mg nodule−1). The heaviest weight per nodule was from soybean that were inoculated with Soycap powder applied on the soil at 7.7 mg nodule−1 in Ruace 2018. As observed for the nodule counts, significantly heavier nodules (
Environment | Correlation coefficient | Significance level |
---|---|---|
Angonia 2017 | 0.926 | <0.0001 |
Nampula 2017 | 0.935 | <0.0001 |
Ruace 2017 | 0.957 | <0.0001 |
Angonia 2018 | 0.922 | <0.0001 |
Ruace 2018 | 0.938 | <0.0001 |
The correlation between nodule count and nodule dry weight of soybean.
Nitrogen is important in soybean production. Soybean has the ability of obtaining nitrogen from the atmosphere through BNF. The proportion of nitrogen derived from the atmosphere denoted as %Ndfa by soybean used as an indicator of nitrogen fixed through BNF. The %Ndfa was as low as 3.8% for control treatment in Angonia 2017 to as high as 69.8% for soybean that were inoculated with Cell-Tech liquid inoculant at Ruace 2018 (Figure 1). Our study showed that inoculating soybean seed with Soycap-powder could derive as high as 50.8% of the nitrogen from the atmosphere across the environments compared to 14.1% for the uninoculated soybean. The proportion of N derived from the atmosphere significantly varied with treatment for each environment. Therefore, the highest %Ndfa was 44.0% for soil Cell-Tech peat in Nampula 2017, 46.9% for seed Soycap-powder in Angonia 2017, 66.4% for seed Soyflo-liquid and 69.8% for soil Cell-Tech liquid inoculant at Ruace 2018. In each environment, %Ndfa due to inoculation was significant (
Proportion of nitrogen derived from the atmosphere (%Ndfa).
Nitrogen uptake associated to BNF by the Safari variety per hectare was also calculated across the seasons for each site. Inoculating soybean increased the amount of plant N uptake at all the three sites. Plant N uptake was highest at Angonia with 235 kg N ha−1, followed by Ruace with 150 kg N ha−1 and at Nampula with 137 kg N ha−1 for the inoculated soybean against the uninoculated counterparts at 113 kg N ha−1, 46 kg N ha−1 and 98 kg N ha−1 correspondingly for all the sites (Table 5). Different treatments had significantly high amount of plant N uptake at each site. The highest plant N uptake was 158 kg N ha−1 at Nampula, 307 kg N ha−1 at Angonia for soil Soycap-powder and 194 kg N ha−1 for soil Cell-Tech liquid at Ruace when averaged across the seasons. Like the nodulation data, the amount of plant N uptake per ha for liquid based inoculant was numerically lower than the solid form at every application method (seed or soil) at Nampula. Since the form of inoculant also affected the amount of plant N uptake per ha at each site, solid-based inoculants resulted in more N absorbed by the plant than liquid-based at 146 vs. 126, 253 vs. 216 and 158 vs. 143 kg N ha−1 for Nampula, Angonia and Ruace respectively (Table 5).
Treatment (inoculant application) | Nampula | Angonia | Ruace |
---|---|---|---|
Control | 98b | 113c | 46d |
Seed Cell-Tech liquid | 110ab | 181abc | 112c |
Seed Cell-Tech peat | 137ab | 313a | 129bc |
Seed Soyflo-liquid | 110ab | 261ab | 144ab |
Seed Soycap-powder | 136ab | 213abc | 144ab |
Soil Cell-Tech liquid | 149ab | 221abc | 194a |
Soil Cell-Tech peat | 154ab | 178bc | 171ab |
Soil Soyflo-liquid | 134ab | 202abc | 120bc |
Soil Soycap-powder | 158a | 307ab | 188ab |
%CV | 24.1 | 32.1 | 18.8 |
0.0257 | 0.0519 | <0.0001 |
Amount of plant nitrogen derived from BNF (kg ha−1) by soybean in 2018 growing season following inoculant application.
The subscripts signify statistical differences at p<0.05. Same letters indicate no differences while different letters show significance in the treatments within the season.
Water-use efficiency at growth level (WUEg), an indicator of biomass accumulation over water transpired was calculated based on the assimilation of carbon at R3 growth stage. Before the calculations, the C:N ratio of plant biomass was also determined. Our data indicate that no significant differences existed for the C:N ratio values across the treatments with an average of 13.6 (data not presented). Similarly, 13C isotope discrimination (a fraction of carbon isotope of soybean leaves during CO2 uptake and fixation) was not significant with an average of 20.1‰ across treatments within environments except for Ruace 2018 where seed Cell-Tech peat inoculant had the lowest significant (
Relationship between 13C isotope discrimination and WUE in Ruace 2018 growing season.
Inoculation treatment yield was determined within each environment. Significant differences (
Yield of inoculated soybean at three experimental sites of Nampula, Angonia and Ruace in 2017 and 2018 growing seasons.
Contrast analysis of yield on whether to apply inoculant or not and using which placement (seed or soil) were conducted at
Contrasts | Nampula | Angonia | Ruace | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2017 | ||||||
Control | 978 | 1646 | 1685 | |||
Control vs. inoculant | 1779 | <0.0001 | 2770 | <0.0001 | 2270 | 0.0251 |
Control vs. seed | 1903 | <0.0001 | 2817 | <0.0001 | 2285 | 0.0268 |
Control vs. soil | 1655 | 0.0004 | 2724 | <0.0001 | 2254 | 0.0350 |
Control | 1139 | 1439 | ||||
Control vs. inoculant | 1753 | 0.0047 | 2413 | 0.0005 | ||
Control vs. seed | 1821 | 0.0029 | 2469 | 0.0005 | ||
Control vs. soil | 1684 | 0.0137 | 2357 | 0.0014 |
Yield gains of inoculation and inoculant application place (seed or soil).
Contrasts | Nampula | Angonia | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Cell-Tech | 1584 | 2662 | ||
Cell-Tech vs. Soygro | 1904 | <0.0001 | 2878 | 0.0501 |
Liquid | 1580 | 2437 | ||
Liquid vs. peat | 1907 | <0.0001 | 3103 | <0.0001 |
Seed | 1868 | 2817 | ||
Seed vs. soil | 1620 | 0.0002 | 2725 | 0.3894 |
Yield of soybean due to source, grade, and placement of inoculant in 2017 season.
Inoculation increased the number of nodules and dry weight. Inoculants have been shown to increase the number of nodules per plant in soybean production regardless of the source and stage of plant growth at application ranging from planting time to V6 [38]. Use of the inoculants with compatible rhizobia strain for non-promiscuous varieties [39, 40] and availability of right strain resident rhizobia for promiscuous genotypes [41] leads to formation of more nodules in soybean. In our study, on average, the number of nodules increased by 5.1 times in Angonia 2017, 5.5 times in Ruace 2017 and 3.9 times in Ruace 2018 due to inoculation with liquid and solid inoculants either in seed or direct soil application. Solid based inoculants had high number of nodules and dry weight than the liquid inoculants. Our results corroborate with the findings from a study conducted in the Eastern Region of the south of Vietnam where nodulation of the liquid inoculants was less than the peat-based inoculants for similar rhizobia strains [15, 42]. Solid based inoculants better protect the rhizobia strains from harsh environmental conditions hence leading to increased viability than the liquid inoculants. In addition, solid carrier inoculants attach better onto the seed during inoculation. Also, our data indicated that although crown nodules were fewer in number than the lateral nodules, individual nodules of the former were heavier than the later. It has been reported that crown nodules can account for up to 82% and above of the total nodule count or dry weight in soybean [43]. Crown nodules from our study accounted for 41.7–64.0% of the total nodule dry weight. More crown nodules are formed early in the season following inoculation than the lateral nodules that are formed later after development of lateral roots.
Sources of nitrogen for soybean in our study were either BNF or absorption from soil. The BNF process was enhanced by introduction of compatible rhizobia strain through inoculation. More nitrogen was fixed from the atmosphere for inoculated soybean in Angonia and Ruace relative to Nampula. Nampula lies in a semi-arid region of Mozambique with frequent incidences of drought leading to low soil moisture. High temperatures, drought and low soil moisture has been shown to reduce the effectiveness of rhizobia in BNF process leading to low nodulation hence reduced %Ndfa [44]. In Angonia and Ruace the large share of plant N was from the atmosphere representing as high as 69.8%. Other studies have reported high percentages of plant N in soybean to be associated with atmospheric nitrogen though BNF [45, 46]. As earlier indicated, plant N uptake associated with BNF varies with the biotic factors such as soybean and rhizobia characteristics as well as abiotic factors largely controlled by the environment and management. Due to the differences in the interaction levels of these factors, variations were observed in the amount of N uptake by soybean [47]. For instance, soybean in Angonia a more humid environment, absorbed more N from the atmosphere than Nampula site that is in a drier ecology. A similar trend of N fixed in wet versus drier environment was reported on farmer’s fields in humid Dowa (88.9 kg N ha−1) and drier Salima location (47.1 kg N ha−1) in Malawi [48]. Soil moisture that depends on the rainfall amount has been reported to greatly affect amount of N fixed. The amount of N uptake was determined at R3 growth stage in soybean. This growth stage falls within the peak N demand period of flowering to podding in soybean production. Like the amount of N derived from the atmosphere, plant tissue N was enhanced by inoculation [14]. Soybean had accumulated as high as 307 kg N ha−1 in Angonia. These findings are like those reported for inoculated TGx 1660-19F soybean with 306 kg N ha−1 at Mokwa in the southern Guinea savanna of Nigeria [49]. Although we did not monitor plant N over the growing season, the amount of N in plant tissue varies with the growth stage due to the translocations that occur between plant parts.
Both 13C isotope discrimination and WUEg were not significant among the treatments within each environment except at Ruace in 2018. This suggests that these two parameters measured at the R3 stage were not dependent on the application of the inoculant. Like our findings at R3 growth stage in soybean, Zhao et al. [50] also reported that no significant difference existed in C isotope discrimination and corresponding WUEg at wheat harvest time. Also, Yang et al. [51] reported no clear significance differences in the amount of carbon isotope composition among C3 plants in the Yellow River region in China. For the case of Ruace in 2018 a negative relationship was observed between 13C isotope discrimination and WUEg. Values of 13C isotope discrimination generally decrease with reductions in water availability. Reduced water availability leads to a decline in transpiration rate hence increased water-use efficiency [22, 35, 52]. Also earlier reported was a negative relationship between 13C isotope discrimination in wheat at tillering stage and WUE of above ground biomass measured over the seedling to tillering period [50]. The change in 13C isotope discrimination in relation to the environment may differ with plant growth stages due to variation in physiological processes within the plant that define its functionality requirements [53]. Since we measured 13C isotope discrimination and WUEg at one stage for all the treatments, the likelihood of soybean functionality being comparable was high and more dependent on the environment. Therefore, 13C isotope discrimination can be used to determine differences in WUEg of different soybean growth stages rather than a variation associated to inoculation at a single stage [54].
Inoculation increased yield in all the three sites between an average of 602−1124 kg ha−1. Our results agree with a study conducted in 2013 and 2014 in the same locations using storm a non-promiscuous variety that recorded an increase of 523−989 kg ha−1 [6]. These results of yield increase due to inoculation also confirms previous report [5, 8] where inoculation alone led to higher soybean yield that uninoculated. Although numerical average increase in yield due to inoculation was higher in Angonia and Ruace than Nampula across the seasons, percent rise in production was higher at Nampula 620−766 kg ha−1 (65%) than Angonia 918−1124 (60%) and Ruace 602−974 (52%). Chibeba et al. [6] reported and increased of 47% in yield of inoculated over the uninoculated soybean variety storm. Association between the introduced rhizobia strain and soybean was enhanced in the humid environments of Angonia and Ruace than the drier Nampula. Adequate moisture is required to take full advantage of the BNF process in inoculated soybean. The numerical rise in yield is also a pointer to the earlier reported enhanced nodulation in the inoculated soybean regardless of the placement on seed or soil. Across the sites, average soybean yield of 1440 kg ha−1 for the uninoculated fields is above the Mozambique national average of 1216 kg ha−1 [55, 56]. Therefore, use of inoculation in this study indicated that soybean yield can be increased by 1052 kg ha−1 over the national average figure. Our study observed that inoculant application on seed (2308 kg ha−1) gave higher yield than soil application (2228 kg ha−1) agrees with the report by [57] where seed inoculation 2842 kg ha−1 was greater than 2678 kg ha−1 for soil inoculation on planting line. Seed inoculation plus good adhesive agent and proper mixing of the seeds in the bag enables better distribution of the rhizobia cells per seed-grain. As a result, the rhizobia cells remain close to the seed and can attach to the root as soon as it germinates leading to better nodulation and BNF process that promote increased yield production. Seed inoculation led to a difference in yield was also noted between the liquid and solid inoculants. Solid inoculants (peat or powder) gave higher yield of 2389 kg ha−1 than the liquid inoculant 2147 kg ha−1 across the environments. Similar results where solid inoculants gave higher yields than liquid inoculants were reported from a study comparing the two forms of inoculants in Vietnam on promiscuous soybean varieties where identical rhizobia strains of in peat inoculant outyielded the liquid counterparts between 40 and 60 kg ha−1 [42]. These results demonstrates that farmers in Mozambique have a basket of inoculation options to choose from in enhancing soybean yield on their fields. However, selection of suitable inoculant should be made with consideration of environmental site conditions especially soil moisture availability over the growing season and the easiness of application.
Inoculation improved soybean nodulation by increasing the number of nodule count and its dry weight. Increase in nodulation could be associated to improved soybean productivity through high plant N uptake and yield. Nitrogen uptake and yield increased with application of inoculants. Farmers in Mozambique are likely to produce more soybean through using of solid cased inoculants applied on the seed than the liquid inoculants plus soil application. Although WUEg related to 13C isotope discrimination at R3 stage did not vary with inoculation, it is recommended that further study be conducted to determine cumulative WUE of the whole plant for the complete growing season while segregating for different growth stages. This could offer information on how to time soybean planting to take advantage of shifting growing seasons characteristics due to climate change. As such, soybean varieties could be selected for adaptability and resilience in specific agroecologies based on carbon assimilation, WUE and plant N uptake that affect yield. Data on inoculation and 13C isotope discrimination could be utilized by breeders in selection of high yielding soybean varieties adapted to drought conditions like those found in Mozambique. The varieties developed would have high transpiration efficiency and WUE.
The authors greatly acknowledge financial support from the Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centers (CGIAR) through the Research Program on Grain Legumes and Dryland Cereals (CRP-GLDC) and United States Agency for International Development (USAID) through Feed the Future Mozambique Improved Seeds for Better Agriculture (SEMEAR) project in Mozambique. Thanks to the IITA technical staff at Angonia, Nampula and Ruace stations in Mozambique for managing the trials and collecting of field-related data.
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial benefits that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
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Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10696",title:"Applications of Calorimetry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c87f7e2199db33b5dd7181f56973a97",slug:"applications-of-calorimetry",bookSignature:"José Luis Rivera Armenta and Cynthia Graciela Flores Hernández",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10696.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"107855",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rivera Armenta",slug:"jose-luis-rivera-armenta",fullName:"Jose Luis Rivera Armenta"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"680",title:"Mathematical Modeling",slug:"engineering-acoustical-engineering-mathematical-modeling",parent:{id:"110",title:"Acoustical Engineering",slug:"engineering-acoustical-engineering"},numberOfBooks:1,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:27,numberOfWosCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitations:8,numberOfDimensionsCitations:19,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"680",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"5708",title:"Computational and Experimental Studies of Acoustic Waves",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"518d2ac3c49f5c4c48d4f3f3b0729232",slug:"computational-and-experimental-studies-of-acoustic-waves",bookSignature:"Mahmut Reyhanoglu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5708.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15068",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmut",middleName:null,surname:"Reyhanoglu",slug:"mahmut-reyhanoglu",fullName:"Mahmut Reyhanoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"56872",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70590",title:"Acoustic Wave Monitoring of Fluid Dynamics in the Rock Massif with Anomaly Density, Stressed and Plastic Hierarchic Inclusions",slug:"acoustic-wave-monitoring-of-fluid-dynamics-in-the-rock-massif-with-anomaly-density-stressed-and-plas",totalDownloads:1110,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"The geological environment is an open system, on which external and internal factors act. They lead it to an unstable state, which, as a rule, manifests itself locally in the form of zones, called dynamically active elements, which are indicators of potential catastrophic sources. These objects differ from the host geological environment by structural forms, which are often forming of a hierarchical type. The process of their activation can be observed using monitoring with wave fields, for mathematical support of which new modeling algorithms have been developed using the method of integral and integral-differential equations. A new approach to the interpretation of wave fields has been developed, to determine contours or surfaces of locally stressed hierarchical objects. An iterative process of solving the theoretical inverse problem for the case of determining configurations of 2D hierarchical inclusions of the k-th rank is developed. When interpreting monitoring results, it is necessary to use data from such monitoring systems that are tuned to study the hierarchical structure of the environment.",book:{id:"5708",slug:"computational-and-experimental-studies-of-acoustic-waves",title:"Computational and Experimental Studies of Acoustic Waves",fullTitle:"Computational and Experimental Studies of Acoustic Waves"},signatures:"Olga Hachay and Andrey Khachay",authors:[{id:"150801",title:"Prof.",name:"Olga",middleName:"Alexandrovna",surname:"Hachay",slug:"olga-hachay",fullName:"Olga Hachay"},{id:"219182",title:"MSc.",name:"Andrey",middleName:null,surname:"Khachay",slug:"andrey-khachay",fullName:"Andrey Khachay"}]},{id:"57258",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71203",title:"Sound Waves in Complex (Dusty) Plasmas",slug:"sound-waves-in-complex-dusty-plasmas",totalDownloads:1398,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Wave properties of strongly coupled complex dusty (SCCD) plasmas evaluated using the equilibrium molecular dynamics (EMD) simulation technique. In this work, the plasma normalized longitudinal current correlation function CL(k,t) and transverse current CT(k,t) are calculated for a large range of plasma parameters of Coulomb coupling parameter (Γ) and screening strength (κ) with varying wave’s number (k). In EMD simulations, we have analysed different modes of wave propagation in SCCD plasmas with increasing and decreasing sequences of different combinations of plasmas parameters (κ, Γ) at varying simulation time step (Δt). Our simulation results show that the fluctuation of waves increases with an increase of Γ and decreases with increasing κ. Additional test shows that the presented results for waves are slightly dependent on number of particles (N). The amplitude and time period of CL(k,t) and CT(k,t) also depend on different influenced parameters of κ, Γ, k and N. The new results obtained through the presented EMD method for complex dusty plasma discussed and compared with earlier simulation results based on different numerical methods. It is demonstrated that the presented model is the best tool for estimating the behaviour of waves in strongly coupled complex system (dusty plasmas) over a suitable range of parameters.",book:{id:"5708",slug:"computational-and-experimental-studies-of-acoustic-waves",title:"Computational and Experimental Studies of Acoustic Waves",fullTitle:"Computational and Experimental Studies of Acoustic Waves"},signatures:"Aamir Shahzad, Muhammad Asif Shakoori, Maogang He and Sajid\nBashir",authors:[{id:"288354",title:"Dr.",name:"Aamir",middleName:null,surname:"Shahzad",slug:"aamir-shahzad",fullName:"Aamir Shahzad"}]},{id:"58101",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72215",title:"Wave Propagation in Porous Materials",slug:"wave-propagation-in-porous-materials",totalDownloads:1554,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"This chapter provides different models for the acoustic wave propagation in porous materials having a rigid and an elastic frames. The direct problem of reflection and transmission of acoustic waves by a slab of porous material is studied. The inverse problem is solved using experimental reflected and transmitted signals. Both high- and low-frequency domains are studied. Different acoustic methods are proposed for measuring physical parameters describing the acoustic propagation as porosity, tortuosity, viscous and thermal characteristic length, and flow resistivity. Some advantages and perspectives of this method are discussed.",book:{id:"5708",slug:"computational-and-experimental-studies-of-acoustic-waves",title:"Computational and Experimental Studies of Acoustic Waves",fullTitle:"Computational and Experimental Studies of Acoustic Waves"},signatures:"Zine El Abiddine Fellah, Mohamed Fellah, Claude Depollier, Erick\nOgam and Farid G. Mitri",authors:[{id:"143693",title:"Dr.",name:"Zine El Abiddine",middleName:null,surname:"Fellah",slug:"zine-el-abiddine-fellah",fullName:"Zine El Abiddine Fellah"},{id:"144519",title:"Prof.",name:"Claude",middleName:null,surname:"Depollier",slug:"claude-depollier",fullName:"Claude Depollier"},{id:"178778",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Fellah",slug:"mohamed-fellah",fullName:"Mohamed Fellah"},{id:"209074",title:"Dr.",name:"Erick",middleName:null,surname:"Ogam",slug:"erick-ogam",fullName:"Erick Ogam"},{id:"227468",title:"Dr.",name:"Farid G",middleName:null,surname:"Mitri",slug:"farid-g-mitri",fullName:"Farid G Mitri"}]},{id:"57674",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71647",title:"Optimized Finite Difference Methods for Seismic Acoustic Wave Modeling",slug:"optimized-finite-difference-methods-for-seismic-acoustic-wave-modeling",totalDownloads:1526,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The finite difference (FD) methods are widely used for approximating the partial derivatives in the acoustic/elastic wave equation. Grid dispersion is one of the key numerical problems and will directly influence the accuracy of the result because of the discretization of the partial derivatives in the wave equation. Therefore, it is of great importance to suppress the grid dispersion by optimizing the FD coefficient. Various optimized methods are introduced in this chapter to determine the FD coefficient. Usually, the identical staggered grid finite difference operator is used for all of the first-order spatial derivatives in the first-order wave equation. In this chapter, we introduce a new staggered grid FD scheme which can improve the efficiency while still preserving high accuracy for the first-order acoustic/elastic wave equation modeling. It uses different staggered grid FD operators for different spatial derivatives in the first-order wave equation. The staggered grid FD coefficients of the new FD scheme can be obtained with a linear method. At last, numerical experiments were done to demonstrate the effectiveness of the introduced method.",book:{id:"5708",slug:"computational-and-experimental-studies-of-acoustic-waves",title:"Computational and Experimental Studies of Acoustic Waves",fullTitle:"Computational and Experimental Studies of Acoustic Waves"},signatures:"Yanfei Wang and Wenquan Liang",authors:[{id:"218676",title:"Prof.",name:"Yanfei",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"yanfei-wang",fullName:"Yanfei Wang"}]},{id:"57603",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71411",title:"In-Fiber Acousto-Optic Interaction Based on Flexural Acoustic Waves and Its Application to Fiber Modulators",slug:"in-fiber-acousto-optic-interaction-based-on-flexural-acoustic-waves-and-its-application-to-fiber-mod",totalDownloads:1320,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The design and implementation of in-fiber acousto-optic (AO) devices based on acoustic flexural waves are presented. The AO interaction is demonstrated to be an efficient mechanism for the development of AO tunable filters and modulators. The implementation of tapered optical fibers is proposed to shape the spectral response of in-fiber AO devices. Experimental results demonstrate that the geometry of the tapered fiber can be regarded as an extra degree of freedom for the design of AO tunable attenuation filters (AOTAFs). In addition, with the objective of expanding the application of AOTAFs to operate as an amplitude modulator, acoustic reflection was intentionally induced. Hence, a standing acoustic wave is generated which produces an amplitude modulation at twice the acoustic frequency. As a particular case, an in-fiber AO modulator composed of a double-ended tapered fiber was reported. The fiber taper was prepared using a standard fusion and pulling technique, and it was tapered down to a fiber diameter of 70 μm. The device exhibits an amplitude modulation at 2.313 MHz, which is two times the acoustic frequency used (1.1565 MHz); a maximum modulation depth of 60%, 1.3 dB of insertion loss, and 40 nm of modulation bandwidth were obtained. These results are within the best results reported in the framework of in-fiber AO modulators.",book:{id:"5708",slug:"computational-and-experimental-studies-of-acoustic-waves",title:"Computational and Experimental Studies of Acoustic Waves",fullTitle:"Computational and Experimental Studies of Acoustic Waves"},signatures:"Miguel Ángel Bello Jiménez, Gustavo Ramírez-Meléndez, Erika\nHernández-Escobar, Andrés Camarillo-Avilés, Rosa López-Estopier,\nOlivier Pottiez, Cristian Cuadrado-Laborde, Antonio Díez, José L.\nCruz and Miguel V. Andrés",authors:[{id:"46578",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel V.",middleName:null,surname:"Andrés",slug:"miguel-v.-andres",fullName:"Miguel V. Andrés"},{id:"46579",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Diez",slug:"antonio-diez",fullName:"Antonio Diez"},{id:"46580",title:"Dr.",name:"José L.",middleName:null,surname:"Cruz",slug:"jose-l.-cruz",fullName:"José L. Cruz"},{id:"160262",title:"Dr.",name:"Olivier Jean Michel",middleName:null,surname:"Pottiez",slug:"olivier-jean-michel-pottiez",fullName:"Olivier Jean Michel Pottiez"},{id:"160283",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Bello-Jiménez",slug:"miguel-bello-jimenez",fullName:"Miguel Bello-Jiménez"},{id:"182010",title:"Dr.",name:"R.",middleName:null,surname:"López-Estopier",slug:"r.-lopez-estopier",fullName:"R. López-Estopier"},{id:"220895",title:"MSc.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Ramírez-Meléndez",slug:"gustavo-ramirez-melendez",fullName:"Gustavo Ramírez-Meléndez"},{id:"220896",title:"MSc.",name:"Erika",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández-Escobar",slug:"erika-hernandez-escobar",fullName:"Erika Hernández-Escobar"},{id:"220897",title:"BSc.",name:"Andrés",middleName:null,surname:"Camarillo-Avilés",slug:"andres-camarillo-aviles",fullName:"Andrés Camarillo-Avilés"},{id:"220902",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Cuadrado-Laborde",slug:"christian-cuadrado-laborde",fullName:"Christian Cuadrado-Laborde"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58101",title:"Wave Propagation in Porous Materials",slug:"wave-propagation-in-porous-materials",totalDownloads:1554,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"This chapter provides different models for the acoustic wave propagation in porous materials having a rigid and an elastic frames. The direct problem of reflection and transmission of acoustic waves by a slab of porous material is studied. The inverse problem is solved using experimental reflected and transmitted signals. Both high- and low-frequency domains are studied. Different acoustic methods are proposed for measuring physical parameters describing the acoustic propagation as porosity, tortuosity, viscous and thermal characteristic length, and flow resistivity. Some advantages and perspectives of this method are discussed.",book:{id:"5708",slug:"computational-and-experimental-studies-of-acoustic-waves",title:"Computational and Experimental Studies of Acoustic Waves",fullTitle:"Computational and Experimental Studies of Acoustic Waves"},signatures:"Zine El Abiddine Fellah, Mohamed Fellah, Claude Depollier, Erick\nOgam and Farid G. Mitri",authors:[{id:"143693",title:"Dr.",name:"Zine El Abiddine",middleName:null,surname:"Fellah",slug:"zine-el-abiddine-fellah",fullName:"Zine El Abiddine Fellah"},{id:"144519",title:"Prof.",name:"Claude",middleName:null,surname:"Depollier",slug:"claude-depollier",fullName:"Claude Depollier"},{id:"178778",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Fellah",slug:"mohamed-fellah",fullName:"Mohamed Fellah"},{id:"209074",title:"Dr.",name:"Erick",middleName:null,surname:"Ogam",slug:"erick-ogam",fullName:"Erick Ogam"},{id:"227468",title:"Dr.",name:"Farid G",middleName:null,surname:"Mitri",slug:"farid-g-mitri",fullName:"Farid G Mitri"}]},{id:"57258",title:"Sound Waves in Complex (Dusty) Plasmas",slug:"sound-waves-in-complex-dusty-plasmas",totalDownloads:1398,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Wave properties of strongly coupled complex dusty (SCCD) plasmas evaluated using the equilibrium molecular dynamics (EMD) simulation technique. In this work, the plasma normalized longitudinal current correlation function CL(k,t) and transverse current CT(k,t) are calculated for a large range of plasma parameters of Coulomb coupling parameter (Γ) and screening strength (κ) with varying wave’s number (k). In EMD simulations, we have analysed different modes of wave propagation in SCCD plasmas with increasing and decreasing sequences of different combinations of plasmas parameters (κ, Γ) at varying simulation time step (Δt). Our simulation results show that the fluctuation of waves increases with an increase of Γ and decreases with increasing κ. Additional test shows that the presented results for waves are slightly dependent on number of particles (N). The amplitude and time period of CL(k,t) and CT(k,t) also depend on different influenced parameters of κ, Γ, k and N. The new results obtained through the presented EMD method for complex dusty plasma discussed and compared with earlier simulation results based on different numerical methods. It is demonstrated that the presented model is the best tool for estimating the behaviour of waves in strongly coupled complex system (dusty plasmas) over a suitable range of parameters.",book:{id:"5708",slug:"computational-and-experimental-studies-of-acoustic-waves",title:"Computational and Experimental Studies of Acoustic Waves",fullTitle:"Computational and Experimental Studies of Acoustic Waves"},signatures:"Aamir Shahzad, Muhammad Asif Shakoori, Maogang He and Sajid\nBashir",authors:[{id:"288354",title:"Dr.",name:"Aamir",middleName:null,surname:"Shahzad",slug:"aamir-shahzad",fullName:"Aamir Shahzad"}]},{id:"56289",title:"Acoustic Analysis of Enclosed Sound Space as well as Its Coupling with Flexible Boundary Structure",slug:"acoustic-analysis-of-enclosed-sound-space-as-well-as-its-coupling-with-flexible-boundary-structure",totalDownloads:1293,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Combustion instability is often encountered in various power systems, a good understanding on the sound field in acoustic cavity as well as its coupling with boundary flexible structure will be of great help for the reliability design of such combustion system. An improved Fourier series method is presented for the acoustic/vibro-acoustic modelling of acoustic cavity as well as the panel-cavity coupling system. The structural-acoustic coupling system is described in a unified pattern using the energy principle. With the aim to construct the admissible functions sufficiently smooth for the enclosed sound space as well as the flexible boundary structure, the boundary-smoothed auxiliary functions are introduced to the standard multi-dimensional Fourier series. All the unknown coefficients and higher order variables are determined in conjunction with Rayleigh-Ritz procedure and differential operation term by term. Numerical examples are then presented to show the correctness and effectiveness of the current model. The model is verified through the comparison with those from analytic solution and other approaches. Based on the model established, the influence of boundary conditions on the acoustic and/or vibro-acoustic characteristics of the structural-acoustic coupling system is addressed and investigated.",book:{id:"5708",slug:"computational-and-experimental-studies-of-acoustic-waves",title:"Computational and Experimental Studies of Acoustic Waves",fullTitle:"Computational and Experimental Studies of Acoustic Waves"},signatures:"Jingtao Du, Yang Liu and Long Liu",authors:[{id:"203133",title:"Prof.",name:"Jingtao",middleName:null,surname:"Du",slug:"jingtao-du",fullName:"Jingtao Du"},{id:"203657",title:"Dr.",name:"Yang",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",slug:"yang-liu",fullName:"Yang Liu"},{id:"203658",title:"Dr.",name:"Long",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",slug:"long-liu",fullName:"Long Liu"}]},{id:"57214",title:"A Novel Idea of Coherent Acoustic Wave-Induced Atmospheric Refractivity Fluctuation and Its Applications",slug:"a-novel-idea-of-coherent-acoustic-wave-induced-atmospheric-refractivity-fluctuation-and-its-applicat",totalDownloads:1435,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The physical mechanism of generating the lasting tropospheric refractivity fluctuation with a stable array-distributed structure by coherent acoustic waves is investigated. An example of the quantitative calculation of atmospheric refractive index is given and analyzed. Based on the theory of electromagnetic wave propagation and scattering in the troposphere, the feasibility to purposefully affect radio wave propagation is qualitatively demonstrated by the experiment of the coherent acoustic source-induced laser interference fringe change. The potential application aspects of synthetically controlling the radio wave propagation by the artificial refractivity fluctuation structure are preliminarily proposed. This chapter will promote the development of the coherent acoustic wave-induced tropospheric refractivity fluctuation, and it has the important theoretical significance and potential application value to purposely apply the positive or negative effects on radio wave propagation.",book:{id:"5708",slug:"computational-and-experimental-studies-of-acoustic-waves",title:"Computational and Experimental Studies of Acoustic Waves",fullTitle:"Computational and Experimental Studies of Acoustic Waves"},signatures:"Shuhong Gong, Yu Liu, Muyu Hou and Lixin Guo",authors:[{id:"218965",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuhong",middleName:null,surname:"Gong",slug:"shuhong-gong",fullName:"Shuhong Gong"},{id:"220994",title:"BSc.",name:"Yu",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",slug:"yu-liu",fullName:"Yu Liu"},{id:"220995",title:"BSc.",name:"Muyu",middleName:null,surname:"Hou",slug:"muyu-hou",fullName:"Muyu Hou"},{id:"220996",title:"Dr.",name:"Lixin",middleName:null,surname:"Guo",slug:"lixin-guo",fullName:"Lixin Guo"}]},{id:"57603",title:"In-Fiber Acousto-Optic Interaction Based on Flexural Acoustic Waves and Its Application to Fiber Modulators",slug:"in-fiber-acousto-optic-interaction-based-on-flexural-acoustic-waves-and-its-application-to-fiber-mod",totalDownloads:1320,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The design and implementation of in-fiber acousto-optic (AO) devices based on acoustic flexural waves are presented. The AO interaction is demonstrated to be an efficient mechanism for the development of AO tunable filters and modulators. The implementation of tapered optical fibers is proposed to shape the spectral response of in-fiber AO devices. Experimental results demonstrate that the geometry of the tapered fiber can be regarded as an extra degree of freedom for the design of AO tunable attenuation filters (AOTAFs). In addition, with the objective of expanding the application of AOTAFs to operate as an amplitude modulator, acoustic reflection was intentionally induced. Hence, a standing acoustic wave is generated which produces an amplitude modulation at twice the acoustic frequency. As a particular case, an in-fiber AO modulator composed of a double-ended tapered fiber was reported. The fiber taper was prepared using a standard fusion and pulling technique, and it was tapered down to a fiber diameter of 70 μm. The device exhibits an amplitude modulation at 2.313 MHz, which is two times the acoustic frequency used (1.1565 MHz); a maximum modulation depth of 60%, 1.3 dB of insertion loss, and 40 nm of modulation bandwidth were obtained. These results are within the best results reported in the framework of in-fiber AO modulators.",book:{id:"5708",slug:"computational-and-experimental-studies-of-acoustic-waves",title:"Computational and Experimental Studies of Acoustic Waves",fullTitle:"Computational and Experimental Studies of Acoustic Waves"},signatures:"Miguel Ángel Bello Jiménez, Gustavo Ramírez-Meléndez, Erika\nHernández-Escobar, Andrés Camarillo-Avilés, Rosa López-Estopier,\nOlivier Pottiez, Cristian Cuadrado-Laborde, Antonio Díez, José L.\nCruz and Miguel V. Andrés",authors:[{id:"46578",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel V.",middleName:null,surname:"Andrés",slug:"miguel-v.-andres",fullName:"Miguel V. 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Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
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