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These products were successful in the treatment of infectious diseases, and they saved the lives of many human beings from different types of bacterial infections. However, common antibiotics have become ineffective due to the constant evolution of most bacterial strains against them [2]. These bacterial strains can spread all around the world and lead to fatal infectious diseases because of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), which is currently one of the most crucial global health concerns [3]. Not only the antibiotics misuse and overuse have an important role in increasing AMR, but also the relatively slow pace of the development of novel antibiotics has aggravated this problem [4]. The latter reason, the so-called “discovery void,” occurred because no major class of antibiotics has been introduced since the introduction of lipopeptide antibiotics (e.g., daptomycin) in the mid-1980s. While in over 50 years no new class of antibiotics has been approved, the antibacterial treatments for Gram-negative bacteria become more difficult [2, 3, 4, 5]. In 2016, multidrug resistance (MDR) was announced as one of the major health challenges of that time by the World Economic Forum (WEF). The foundation believed without urgent action, the estimated global death because of MDR could reach 10 million by 2050 [6]. Hence, the design and synthesis of new antibiotics with new antimicrobial mechanisms is evident [7]. According to the literature, bacterial cell membranes have a critical role in modulating antibiotic resistance, during recent years, studies on bacterial cell membranes perturbed by new compounds to overcome antibiotic resistance have been developed [8].
In comparison to Gram-positive bacteria, all Gram-negative bacteria have an extra membrane that surrounds them and is called the outer membrane (OM) (Figure 1) [8]. Unlike the cytoplasmic membrane (CM), the OM is very asymmetric, containing phospholipids on the inner leaflet, and lipopolysaccharides (LPSs) on the outer leaflet [9]. LPSs are the major constituents on the OM of Gram-negative bacteria which have zwitterionic oligosaccharides as core [10], zwitterionic phospholipid head groups on saturated fatty acid chains [11], and lipid A with anionic phosphate groups [12].
Comparing gram-positive and gram-negative bacterial cell membranes.
The OM is essential for cell viability and prevents the entry of harmful toxic substances by blocking permeability. LPSs play a central role in the selective permeability and integrity of OM. While many hydrophobic molecules are able to limit diffusion [13], LPSs play an important factor in providing selectivity to them. Because of the anionic phosphate groups, LPS molecules are able to form intermolecular electrostatic bonds with neighbors. The cross-bridging of neighboring LPS molecules significantly contributes to the resistance against hydrophobic antimicrobial agents. The anionic nature of lipid A seems to be the Achilles heel for OM integrity. The OM of
So far, intracellular processes are the target of many antibiotics to create holes in the bacterial cell envelope. In particular, there is a formidable barrier on the outer membrane (OM) of Gram-negative bacteria that must be overcome by antibiotics. There are two different pathways that help antibiotics to take through the OM, which are general diffusion porins for hydrophilic antibiotics and a lipid-mediated pathway for hydrophobic antibiotics. Some outer membrane structures such as protein and lipid, and their modifications have a striking influence on the bacterial antibiotics sensitivity and resistance [18]. The ability of OM disruption to change the rules of Gram-negative entry, overcome pre-existing and spontaneous resistance. Disruption of the OM expands the threshold of hydrophobicity compatible with Gram-negative activity to include hydrophobic molecules. Together, OM disruption overcomes many of the traditional hurdles encountered during antibiotic treatment and is a high-priority approach for further development [19].
It is absolutely clear to us today that the antibiotic resistance of
The main causes of antibiotic resistance may involve aimless antibiotic use, deficiencies in health centers and infection-control programs in hospitals, insufficient staff training, poor hygiene and other preventive measures in veterinary medicine, and lack of right management steps in animal farms, that may cause a high frequency of ESBL producing
According to the worldwide antibiotic sales database, comparing antibiotic use for the years 2000 to 2015, an evident rise from about 11 doses per 1000 inhabitants per day to almost 16 is noticed [25]. Analyzing research findings with the statistics demonstrates that the mean value of antibiotic consumption was largely impacted by mid-income and low-income countries [26]. The highest number of MDR bacterial infections were observed in these countries [20]. In the past 10 years, a growing number of resistance genes have been identified in
According to research studies, proper monitoring of disposal processes in hospitals, systematic surveillance of hospital-associated infections, monitoring the consumption of antibiotics in animals, evaluation and monitoring of antibiotic-sensitivity patterns, and preparation of safe antibiotic strategies may ease more corrective steps for the control and inhibition of
The three most common manners by which Gram-negative bacteria develop antibiotic resistance are: (i) cleaving the antibiotic drugs such as β-lactam in the periplasmic space by secretion of enzymes like β-lactamase [27]; (ii) decreasing the size and number of the porins that facilitate drug transport [12]; and, (iii) changing the selective permeation and electrostatic field within the constriction zones of porins where the antibiotic docks first and then translocate inside the cells [28]. In attention to these facts, it seems the nature charge of the OM plays definitive roles in the interactions of electrostatic binding, charged molecules transportation, and drugs killing/inhibitory actions of wild-type and antibiotic-resistant species [29].
The two major classes of alternate antimicrobial candidates are cationic, gene-encoded antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) [30], and, π-conjugated oligo/polyelectrolytes [29]. Initial studies suggested that bacteria still find it difficult to show resistance against the second class of antimicrobial molecules [31].
The bounded ability to cross the bacterial cell membrane is the major limitation in the subsequent development of peptides as antimicrobial agents. To overcome this problem and achieve a more efficient cellular uptake, peptides and a delivery vector were combined in a single molecule. For this purpose, proline-rich antimicrobial peptides (PrAMPs), as a part of the innate immune response [32] via the inner membrane transporters SbmA and MdtM are transported into a large panel of Gram-negative bacterial cells. Results showed that PrAMPs could be suitable carriers to transfer the other non-penetrating AMPs into the bacterial cells [33, 34]. According to this, PrAMPS are considered as a novel class of antibiotics [32, 33, 34, 35].
Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are one of the most promising candidates for a novel class of antibiotics [36]. Antimicrobial peptides (also called host-defense peptides) occur in nature as an ancient class of polypeptides [37]. AMPs are part of the innate immune system and exhibit antibacterial activity against Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. According to this, AMPs serve as templates for the design of new antibacterial agents against multidrug resistance. Gramicidin and defense are natural AMPs that were discovered at the beginning of the twentieth century [38]. Today, lots of cationic AMPs are known to permeabilize real bacterial membranes [39]. After the emergence of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria, AMPs were considered as potential antibiotic drugs. The advantages of AMPs over conventional antibiotics and exigent need for the development of novel antibiotics lead to the upsurge of AMP research and their clinical trials activity in recent years [36]. In addition, synthetic AMPs or a variety of peptidomimetic antimicrobials have been very investigated to overcome the inherent drawbacks (e.g., stability) of peptides in physiological conditions [7].
Antimicrobial peptides have terrific chemical diversity and are based on some common structural characteristics set apart from traditional antibiotics. AMPs generally contain less than 100 amino acids, most of them including positively charged residues, such as lysine, arginine, and histidine, and more than 50% of them have a large portion of hydrophobic. In addition to the structural differences, AMPs directly target the bacterial cell membrane in most cases. Antimicrobial peptides based on their structure are classified into four different groups—α-helical, β-sheet, extended, and cyclic. For example, while some AMPs consist of a single helix or sheet entirely, others have a more complicated structure. The extended peptides are characterized by non-recognizable structural motifs and consist of specific amino acids, such as arginine, tryptophan, glycine, and histidine [40].
Natural antimicrobial peptides isolated are effective against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, enveloped and non-enveloped viruses, yeasts, fungi, molds, and parasites [41]. A single AMP may not be effective against all pathogens, however, may exhibit the same antimicrobial activity between different germs with anionic membranes. In addition, due to their mechanism of action, some isolated AMPs from natural sources can display species-specific antimicrobial activity [42]. This may be an outcome of a highly specialized environmental niche and evolutionary advantage that specific antimicrobial peptides present for survival [41]. As many antimicrobial peptides act on lipid components of the bacterial cell membrane, they often demonstrate broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity [43].
Antimicrobial peptides can alter bacterial membrane properties by different mechanisms. Alteration of the bulk physical properties of the membrane is one way (Figure 2) [8]. AMPs can modify bulk properties while not having a specific target on the membrane. Changes in the spatial distribution of cell membrane molecules within or modification of a bulk physical property as intrinsic curvature or fluidity are examples of these alterations. Contrary to this, altering the bulk biophysical properties by AMPs can occur by targeting a class of particular lipids. Specific phospholipids are the potential targets which AMPs being effective against both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. These mechanisms are not completely independent of each other. For example, membrane clustering will lead to packing defects at the boundary between domains and physical curvature can drive clustering. In addition, directly targeting lipids can lead to any of the three phenomena that are mentioned.
Different outcomes of AMPs on properties of the bacterial cell membrane. AMPs can affect the physical properties of the cellular membrane, such as (A) induction of membrane physical curvature [
Antimicrobial agents also can target membrane phospholipids. Cardiolipin; CL, phosphatidylglycerol; PG, and phosphatidylethanolamine; PE, are the three main phospholipids in most bacteria. PG is the most abundant of them. It is an anionic lipid, and therefore, attracts cationic antimicrobial peptides. Modifying the PG head group by adding lysine and or alanine and reducing the negative charge on the membrane is one of the ways that bacteria use to protect themselves from these peptides and thus will be more resistant to the cationic antimicrobial peptides. In Gram-negative bacteria, PE is generally abundant. Several cyclic peptides are able to specifically bind to PE, and therefore, can be used to target these bacteria. In addition, PE and anionic lipid mixtures can create segregated clusters when the anionic lipid is bound to an AMP. The activity of antimicrobial agents that bind to cardiolipin is also based on a clustering mechanism [9]. Some AMPs can bind to either CL or PE and target specific bacteria. So, the cell membrane is a multipurpose target for AMPs that serves as targets or wards them off in resistance and provides a crucial site for toxic activities [8].
However, the head group structure of phospholipids is the same in bacteria and eukaryotes, the acyl chains in bacteria are shorter and more saturated [45]. In addition, while anionic lipids and PE are sequestered to the cytoplasmic surface of eukaryotic membranes, they are exposed to the external surface of bacterial membranes. These differences provide the feasibility of designing antibacterial agents that target specific bacterial lipids [8].
The antimicrobial activities of AMPs against various types of pathogens, including Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, viruses, and fungi occur through a wide range of mechanisms, for example, membrane disruption, intracellular penetration, and immunomodulation [46]. Although AMPs may have different mechanisms of action, it is thought that their ability to act against such diverse cellular organisms is related to membrane activity [7]. The positive charge of cationic amino acid AMPs enables electrostatic interaction to the negatively charged microbial membranes [47, 48] and that the hydrophobic region is involved in the penetration of the cells [49]. The nature of the cell surface, in particular, the composition of the OM of Gram-negative bacteria has a major impact on the antimicrobial activity and efficacy of antimicrobial agents including cationic AMPs [50]. Antimicrobial peptides penetrate the bacterial membranes through several different mechanisms [51] Briefly, AMPs binding to cell membrane break down the membrane potential, lead to alteration membrane permeability and metabolite leakage, and finally cause bacterial cell death [41].
Structural antimicrobial peptide studies have strongly suggested that the physicochemical properties of AMPs are responsible for their microbiological activities, rather than any specific amino acid residues. Since the amphiphilic topology is fundamental for insertion into the cytoplasmic membrane and disruption of cells, AMPs and their mimics have been considered as attractive targets for drug development. In particular, they are able to kill bacteria quickly and development of the bacterial antibiotic resistance is relatively difficult [7].
There is a clear phenomenological link between anionic lipid clustering and the bacterial species specificity of a number of antimicrobial agents. Direct activity on the bacterial cell membrane is the most prevalent mechanism of antimicrobial peptides [52]. Antimicrobial peptides can interact with the bacterial membranes due to their amphipathic nature. Most AMPs have a net positive charge, and therefore, are named cationic antimicrobial peptides. The binding of cationic antimicrobial peptides to the bacterial membranes is stabilized through electrostatic interactions between the cationic parts of AMPs and anionic compounds on bacterial membranes. Consequently, the bacterial membrane integrity is disrupted, causing antimicrobial peptides penetration into the membranes, and in most cases, finally forming the pores [53].
The clustering of anionic lipids to a region of the bacterial membrane would concentrate negative charge in a domain to which cationic peptides would congregate, possibly leading to the formation of a pore. After increasing the concentration of cationic antimicrobial agents on the anionic surface of the membrane, the rest of the membrane will surround the domain of anionic lipids and lead to less membrane stability under line tension. It seems that there are always domains with phase boundary defects in bacterial membranes [54] and those that would form in the presence of lipid clustering AMPs would appear suddenly [55]. Under these conditions, bacteria would not have enough time to repair this rearrangement and would be damaged as a result of the redistribution of membrane’s lipids. Consequently, disruption of functional natural domains or decreasing the availability of anionic lipids that may be necessary for the specific protein function in the cytoplasmic membrane would happen [8].
Naturally occurring cationic antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) and their mimics form a diverse class of antibacterial agents currently validated in preclinical and clinical settings for the treatment of infections caused by antimicrobial-resistant bacteria [56]. Clinical trials have been cautious of toxicity at these doses, as other peptide-based antibiotics (such as colistin) are toxic in high concentrations.
AMPs can be classified into three distinct approaches based on their clinical development: (i) direct antimicrobial effect on the cell membrane, (ii) indirect antimicrobial activity through immune regulation, and (iii) blocking the intracellular functions. Among forty-four peptides that have been undergoing clinical and preclinical trials, 35 target the bacterial cell membrane directly, eight affect the immune system to regulate the response of the body to infection, and three act on intracellular targets. Sixteen of these that show broad-spectrum activity, have been considered for treatment of Gram-negative infections [50].
Until 2020, FDA approves seven AMPs for clinical usages. Vancomycin and dalbavancin (vancomycin derivative) block bacterial wall synthesis, while oritavancin and telavancin (other derivatives) have both membranolytic and cell wall synthesis inhibition actions. Gramicidin D is a linear peptide that forms in the membrane. Daptomycin, colistin (polymyxin E), and cyclic lipopeptide lysis the membrane [7]. Among the AMPs that FDA approves, Buforin II that binds to nucleic acid, Colicin E1 and Bac8c that disrupt the bacterial membrane, specifically are used for
The permeability barrier of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria limits the efficacy of vancomycin. So, a synergistic mechanism of action for P-113 derivatives (e.g., Bip-P-113, Dip-P-113, and Nal-P-113) and vancomycin was proposed. Study results showed, however, P-113 derivatives could perturb the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria and increase vancomycin entry into the resistant species. In addition, P-113 derivatives bind to the extra hydrophobic motif of lipid A and neutralize LPS protective actions [61].
Employing long-chain amino acid sequences increases the output cost of peptides and thereby the cost of research; hence, synthetic short-chain cationic peptides with potential antimicrobial activity have been attempted [62]. In particular, Indolicidin, a tridecapeptide isolated from the cytoplasmic granules of bovine neutrophils, was reported to exhibit membrane permeabilization effects and antimicrobial activity against Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, fungi, HIV-1 virus, and protozoa [63, 64].
Enteroaggregative
Peptide 35,409 contains 20 amino acid residues and has been exhibited antibacterial activity against
Some substitutes of histidine-rich antimicrobial peptide P-113 were developed recently [72]. Among them, Bip-P-113 showed serum proteolytic stability, enhanced salt resistance, peptide-induced permeabilization, zeta potential measurements, LPS condensed, and
Polymyxin B and its derivatives are able to interact with anionic LPS in the outer membrane (OM) of Gram-negative bacteria. The derivatives of polymyxin B act as “permeabilizers” or “potentiators” and sensitize bacteria to antibiotics, Moreover, reinforce the action of other antibiotics [58]. Studies showed synergistic effects between colistin and bacteriocins that led to inhibit Gram-negative bacteria and reduction of antibiotic toxicity [73]. Ionic silver (Ag+) in silver nitrate salt (AgNO3) was found to increase the permeability of the bacterial outer membrane and sensitize Gram-negative bacteria to vancomycin [60]. Synergistic effects also have been proved between highly membrane-active AMPs and intracellular targeting antibiotics [61].
Stationary phase bacteria are much more resistant than exponentially growing cells to killing by conventional antibiotics, such as ampicillin, tetracycline, ciprofloxacin, and streptomycin [74]. The susceptibility of
The development of novel antimicrobial compounds is critical for averting multidrug-resistant bacterial strains. Clinical trials showed that a large number of antimicrobial peptides have clinical potential. While AMPs have antimicrobial activity, in many cases, their clinical use has not been yet fully confirmed. Because of improper trial study design or lack of enough efficacy, many of the AMPs in clinical trials failed to progress to market. Thus, more research into the interaction between antimicrobial peptides and the human host would help to assess the true potential of these compounds.
Indeed, many of the antimicrobial compounds in clinical trials have some sort of chemical modification to improve their drug ability. The sophisticated digital libraries and modeling software would be useful for further optimization of the development of these compounds. In the future, we must try seriously to reduce the resistance to novel antimicrobial compounds. While AMPs have shown a lower tendency for resistance, this is an inevitable phenomenon due to evolutionary consequences. In fact, following the development of diverse antimicrobial agents and their mechanisms of antimicrobial action will impact antimicrobial resistance. In conclusion, it seems that through detailed monitoring and analysis of new antimicrobial drugs, limiting the use of antimicrobials in nonessential cases, and coadministration with antibiotics, the risk of appearance resistant bacterial strains will decrease in the future.
Outer membrane targeting is a revolutionary strategy for antibiotic discovery. Gram-negative pathogens will become sensitive to the range of clinically approved Gram-positive active antibiotics when their OM is perturbed. In this way, chemical space compatible with novel antimicrobial peptides would be expanded. However, there are many obstacles before performing this approach in the clinic successfully. The success or failure of this approach depends on the correct selection or development of the outer membrane perturbant and antibiotic adjutant combination. In comparison to monotherapy approaches as other combination therapies, dosage optimizing for adequate overlap in bioavailability approves difficulty and needs more complicated clinical trials [77]. Spontaneous resistance development, horizontally acquired resistance genes, and biofilm formations are all significant barriers to successful antibiotic treatment. The capacity for OM disruption to overcome many of these challenges, uniquely positioning this approach among discovery efforts in the Gram-negative resistance crisis [19].
IntechOpen publishes different types of publications
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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On a regional scale, this contribution can be even more significant for many coastal regions. In this chapter, we show that dynamics of small river plumes is significantly different from that of plumes generated by large rivers. Spatial structure of small plumes is generally characterized by sharper horizontal and vertical gradients. As a result, small plumes exhibit more energetic temporal variability in response to external forcing. In this chapter, we address several dynamical features typical for small plumes. We describe and discuss the response of small plumes to wind forcing and river discharge variability, the interaction between neighboring small plumes, and the generation of high-frequency internal waves in coastal ocean by small rivers. We also substantiate the Lagrangian approach to numerical modeling of small river plumes.",book:{id:"8007",slug:"estuaries-and-coastal-zones-dynamics-and-response-to-environmental-changes",title:"Estuaries and Coastal Zones",fullTitle:"Estuaries and Coastal Zones - Dynamics and Response to Environmental Changes"},signatures:"Alexander Osadchiev and Peter Zavialov",authors:[{id:"296909",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Zavialov",slug:"peter-zavialov",fullName:"Peter Zavialov"},{id:"296910",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Osadchiev",slug:"alexander-osadchiev",fullName:"Alexander Osadchiev"}]},{id:"41072",doi:"10.5772/51864",title:"The November, 1st, 1755 Tsunami in Morocco: Can Numerical Modeling Clarify the Uncertainties of Historical Reports?",slug:"the-november-1st-1755-tsunami-in-morocco-can-numerical-modeling-clarify-the-uncertainties-of-histori",totalDownloads:2407,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"2221",slug:"tsunami-analysis-of-a-hazard-from-physical-interpretation-to-human-impact",title:"Tsunami - Analysis of a Hazard",fullTitle:"Tsunami - Analysis of a Hazard - From Physical Interpretation to Human Impact"},signatures:"R. Omira, M.A. Baptista, S. Mellas, F. Leone, N. Meschinet de Richemond, B. Zourarah and J-P. Cherel",authors:[{id:"16693",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Baptista",slug:"maria-ana-baptista",fullName:"Maria Ana Baptista"},{id:"16695",title:"Dr.",name:"Rachid",middleName:null,surname:"Omira",slug:"rachid-omira",fullName:"Rachid Omira"},{id:"92702",title:"Prof.",name:"Frederic",middleName:null,surname:"Leone",slug:"frederic-leone",fullName:"Frederic Leone"},{id:"148352",title:"MSc.",name:"Samira",middleName:null,surname:"Mellas",slug:"samira-mellas",fullName:"Samira Mellas"},{id:"148353",title:"Prof.",name:"Bendahou",middleName:null,surname:"Zourarah",slug:"bendahou-zourarah",fullName:"Bendahou Zourarah"},{id:"148356",title:"Prof.",name:"Jean-Philippe",middleName:null,surname:"Cherel",slug:"jean-philippe-cherel",fullName:"Jean-Philippe Cherel"},{id:"157593",title:"Prof.",name:"Nancy",middleName:null,surname:"Meschinet De Richemond",slug:"nancy-meschinet-de-richemond",fullName:"Nancy Meschinet De Richemond"}]},{id:"58729",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73217",title:"Spatio-Temporal Analysis of Sea Surface Temperature in the East China Sea Using TERRA/MODIS Products Data",slug:"spatio-temporal-analysis-of-sea-surface-temperature-in-the-east-china-sea-using-terra-modis-products",totalDownloads:1054,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Sea surface temperature (SST) is an important parameter in determining the atmospheric and oceanic circulations, and satellite thermal infrared remote sensing can obtain the SST with very high spatio-temporal resolutions. The study first validated the accuracy of TERRA MODIS SST daytime and nighttime products with the timing SST measurements from the ships in the East China Sea (ECS) in February, May, August and November, 2001, and then the daily variation of daytime and nighttime SST difference was analyzed. Using 16-year MODIS SST monthly products data from February 2000 to January 2016, when all SST monthly products in February, May, August and November were averaged respectively, the seasonal spatial distribution pattern of SST in the ECS was discovered. After monthly sea surface temperature anomaly was finally processed by the empirical orthogonal function (EOF), the interannual variability of SST in the ECS was discussed. The results show that the MODIS SST daily products have a good accuracy with a mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) below 5%. The SST difference between day and night is the largest in winter, followed by spring, then for autumn and the smallest in summer, while the diurnal SST difference is very low for the same season in the different seas. The SST in the ECS displays the obvious seasonal spatial distribution pattern, in which the SST of winter is gradually increasing from north to south, while local temperature difference is the largest for 26.5°C in a year. In comparison, the SST in summer tends uniform and the difference is not more than 5°C in the whole sea. From the EOF analysis of SST anomaly, the interannual variability of SST in the ECS is affected by the East Asian monsoon, the latitudinal difference of solar radiation, the offshore circulation and the submarine terrain.",book:{id:"6195",slug:"sea-level-rise-and-coastal-infrastructure",title:"Sea Level Rise and Coastal Infrastructure",fullTitle:"Sea Level Rise and Coastal Infrastructure"},signatures:"Shaoqi Gong and Kapo Wong",authors:[{id:"219135",title:"Dr.",name:"Shaoqi",middleName:null,surname:"Gong",slug:"shaoqi-gong",fullName:"Shaoqi Gong"},{id:"219138",title:"Mr.",name:"Wong",middleName:null,surname:"Kapo",slug:"wong-kapo",fullName:"Wong Kapo"}]},{id:"66266",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85521",title:"Numerical Modeling Tools Applied to Estuarine and Coastal Hydrodynamics: A User Perspective",slug:"numerical-modeling-tools-applied-to-estuarine-and-coastal-hydrodynamics-a-user-perspective",totalDownloads:893,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Estuarine and coastal areas have been intensively studied given their complexity, ecological, and societal value and the importance of their ecosystem services. Estuarine and coastal management must be based on a sound characterization of these areas, which is achievable complementing the comprehensive field measurements with numerical models solutions. Based on a detailed comparison between two close-by, but extremely different, Portuguese estuaries (the Douro and Minho estuaries), this chapter intends to discuss how accurately numerical modeling tools can provide relevant information for a variety of coastal zones. They can be very useful for various applications in the planning and management fields, such as coastal and infrastructures protection, harbor activities, fisheries, tourism, and coastal population safety, thus supporting an effective and integrated estuarine and coastal management, which must consider both the safety of the populations and the sustainability of the marine ecosystems and services. In particular, the capacity of the numerical models to give a detailed characterization of morpho-hydrodynamic processes, as well as assess and predict the effects of anthropogenic interventions, extreme events and climate change effects, are presented.",book:{id:"7606",slug:"coastal-and-marine-environments-physical-processes-and-numerical-modelling",title:"Coastal and Marine Environments",fullTitle:"Coastal and Marine Environments - Physical Processes and Numerical Modelling"},signatures:"Isabel Iglesias, Paulo Avilez-Valente, José Luís Pinho, Ana Bio, José Manuel Vieira, Luísa Bastos and Fernando Veloso-Gomes",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"70994",title:"Circulations in the Pearl River Estuary: Observation and Modeling",slug:"circulations-in-the-pearl-river-estuary-observation-and-modeling",totalDownloads:791,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"This chapter reports a cruise survey on the Pearl River Estuary (PRE) and adjacent costal water in the period between May 3, 2014 and May 11, 2014. The circulation and salinity structure were sampled for different tidal phases. With the cruise data, a “sandwich” structure of the lateral salinity distribution and a two-layer structure of longitudinal circulation were identified, together with high variations influenced by wind and tide. Furthermore, longitudinally orientated convergence or divergence of the lateral velocity close to the channel location for certain tidal conditions was observed. The finite volume community ocean model (FVCOM) is configured and run with high spatial resolution of 100 m in the PRE. An atmospheric model, the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) Model, is also run to provide high spatial and temporal resolution of atmospheric forcing for the FVCOM. The FVCOM modeling skill assessment is conducted using the cruise salinity and velocity data, as well as water levels, showing that the model can well simulate the velocity and salinity structures. The numerical model reveals that there is a strong neap-spring cycle for the PRE de-tided circulation with 0.37 m s−1 during the neap tide about 42% stronger than that (0.26 m s−1) during the spring tide in the surface layer.",book:{id:"8007",slug:"estuaries-and-coastal-zones-dynamics-and-response-to-environmental-changes",title:"Estuaries and Coastal Zones",fullTitle:"Estuaries and Coastal Zones - Dynamics and Response to Environmental Changes"},signatures:"Jiayi Pan, Wenfeng Lai and Adam Thomas Devlin",authors:[{id:"280757",title:"Dr.",name:"Adam",middleName:"Thomas",surname:"Devlin",slug:"adam-devlin",fullName:"Adam Devlin"},{id:"302219",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jiayi",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"jiayi-pan",fullName:"Jiayi Pan"},{id:"309888",title:"Dr.",name:"Wenfeng",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"wenfeng-lai",fullName:"Wenfeng Lai"}]},{id:"41072",title:"The November, 1st, 1755 Tsunami in Morocco: Can Numerical Modeling Clarify the Uncertainties of Historical Reports?",slug:"the-november-1st-1755-tsunami-in-morocco-can-numerical-modeling-clarify-the-uncertainties-of-histori",totalDownloads:2406,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"2221",slug:"tsunami-analysis-of-a-hazard-from-physical-interpretation-to-human-impact",title:"Tsunami - Analysis of a Hazard",fullTitle:"Tsunami - Analysis of a Hazard - From Physical Interpretation to Human Impact"},signatures:"R. Omira, M.A. Baptista, S. Mellas, F. Leone, N. Meschinet de Richemond, B. Zourarah and J-P. Cherel",authors:[{id:"16693",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Baptista",slug:"maria-ana-baptista",fullName:"Maria Ana Baptista"},{id:"16695",title:"Dr.",name:"Rachid",middleName:null,surname:"Omira",slug:"rachid-omira",fullName:"Rachid Omira"},{id:"92702",title:"Prof.",name:"Frederic",middleName:null,surname:"Leone",slug:"frederic-leone",fullName:"Frederic Leone"},{id:"148352",title:"MSc.",name:"Samira",middleName:null,surname:"Mellas",slug:"samira-mellas",fullName:"Samira Mellas"},{id:"148353",title:"Prof.",name:"Bendahou",middleName:null,surname:"Zourarah",slug:"bendahou-zourarah",fullName:"Bendahou Zourarah"},{id:"148356",title:"Prof.",name:"Jean-Philippe",middleName:null,surname:"Cherel",slug:"jean-philippe-cherel",fullName:"Jean-Philippe Cherel"},{id:"157593",title:"Prof.",name:"Nancy",middleName:null,surname:"Meschinet De Richemond",slug:"nancy-meschinet-de-richemond",fullName:"Nancy Meschinet De Richemond"}]},{id:"63921",title:"Eight Types of BG Models and Discretization",slug:"eight-types-of-bg-models-and-discretization",totalDownloads:950,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Eight types of the BG models are introduced in this chapter. The Type 1 is a model using wave parameters at the breaking point. In the Type 2, the effect of longshore sand transport due to the effect of the longshore gradient of breaker height is included with an additional term given by Ozasa and Brampton. In the Type 3, the intensity of sand transport P is assumed to be proportional to the third power of the amplitude of the bottom oscillatory velocity um due to waves, and in the Type 4, P is given by the wave energy dissipation rate due to wave breaking at a local point. In the Type 5, wave power is calculated using the coordinate system different from that for the calculation of beach changes to predict the topographic changes of an island or a cuspate foreland in a shallow water body under the action of waves randomly incident from every direction. In the Type 6, the height of wind waves is predicted using Wilson’s formula using the wind fetch distance and wind velocity, and then sand transport fluxes are calculated. The Type 7 is a model for predicting the formation of the ebb-tidal delta under the combined effect of waves and ebb-tidal currents with an analogy of the velocity distribution of ebb-tidal currents to the wave diffraction coefficient, which can be calculated by the angular spreading method for irregular waves. In the Type 8, the effect of the nearshore currents induced by forced wave breaking is incorporated into the model by calculating the nearshore currents, taking both the wave field and the current velocity at a local point into account.",book:{id:"6012",slug:"morphodynamic-model-for-predicting-beach-changes-based-on-bagnold-s-concept-and-its-applications",title:"Morphodynamic Model for Predicting Beach Changes Based on Bagnold's Concept and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Morphodynamic Model for Predicting Beach Changes Based on Bagnold's Concept and Its Applications"},signatures:"Takaaki Uda, Masumi Serizawa and Shiho Miyahara",authors:[{id:"13491",title:"Dr.",name:"Takaaki",middleName:null,surname:"Uda",slug:"takaaki-uda",fullName:"Takaaki Uda"}]},{id:"57606",title:"Analysis of Dynamic Effects on the Brazilian Vertical Datum",slug:"analysis-of-dynamic-effects-on-the-brazilian-vertical-datum",totalDownloads:961,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This chapter presents a methodology of analyzing the dynamic effect from mean sea level variations, based on Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) data, velocity models, tide gauge observations, and satellite altimetry data. GNSS observations were processed in order to obtain the variation of up coordinate required to identify the possible crust movements. Velocity model served as a comparative basis to verify the obtained results from the GNSS data processing and served as a basis for analyzing the time periods without GNSS information. Tide gauge data were used to evaluate the sea level temporal evolution in the Imbituba Brazilian Vertical Datum (I-BVD). Satellite altimetry data were used for checking the results from the GNSS and the tide gauge time series. The analyses were based on time series of observations by GNSS from 2007 until 2016, tide gauge from 1948 until 1968 and 2001 until 2016, and satellite altimetry data from 1991 until 2015 from different missions. As basis for the analysis, it used GNSS SIRGAS-CON stations, the SIRGAS velocity model (VEMOS), and NUVEL velocity model. Considering the discrimination of the crust vertical movement (GNSS processing) from the results obtained with the tide gauge observations, it was observed that there is an evidence of mean sea level (MSL) rising approximately +2.24 ± 0.4 mm/year.",book:{id:"6195",slug:"sea-level-rise-and-coastal-infrastructure",title:"Sea Level Rise and Coastal Infrastructure",fullTitle:"Sea Level Rise and Coastal Infrastructure"},signatures:"Luciana M. Da Silva, Sílvio R.C. De Freitas and Regiane Dalazoana",authors:[{id:"208387",title:"Dr.",name:"Luciana",middleName:"Maria",surname:"Da Silva",slug:"luciana-da-silva",fullName:"Luciana Da Silva"},{id:"209224",title:"Dr.",name:"Sílvio",middleName:null,surname:"De Freitas",slug:"silvio-de-freitas",fullName:"Sílvio De Freitas"},{id:"209225",title:"Dr.",name:"Regiane",middleName:null,surname:"Dalazoana",slug:"regiane-dalazoana",fullName:"Regiane Dalazoana"}]},{id:"58909",title:"Coastal Disasters and Remote Sensing Monitoring Methods",slug:"coastal-disasters-and-remote-sensing-monitoring-methods",totalDownloads:1129,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Coastal disaster is abnormal changes caused by climate change, human activities, geological movement or natural environment changes. According to formation cause, marine disasters as storm surges, waves, Tsunami coastal erosion, sea-level rise, red tide, seawater intrusion, marine oil spill and soil salinization. Remote sensing technology has real-time and large-area advantages in promoting the monitoring and forecast ability of coastal disaster. Relative to natural disasters, ones caused by human factors are more likely to be monitored and prevented. In this paper, we use several remote sensing methods to monitor or forecast three kinds of coastal disaster cause by human factors including red tide, sea-level rise and oil spilling, and make proposals for infrastructure based on the research results. The chosen method of monitoring red tide by inversing chlorophyll-a concentration is improved OC3M Model, which is more suitable for the coastal zone and higher spatial resolution than the MODIS chlorophyll-a production. We monitor the sea-level rise in coastal zone through coastline changes without artificial modifications. The improved Lagrangian model can simulate the trajectory of oil slick efficiently. Making the infrastructure planning according the coastal disasters and features of coastline contributes to prevent coastal disaster and coastal ecosystem protection. Multi-source remote sensing data can effectively monitor and prevent coastal disaster, and provide planning advices for coastal infrastructure construction.",book:{id:"6195",slug:"sea-level-rise-and-coastal-infrastructure",title:"Sea Level Rise and Coastal Infrastructure",fullTitle:"Sea Level Rise and Coastal Infrastructure"},signatures:"Yan Yu, Shengbo Chen, Tianqi Lu and Siyu Tian",authors:[{id:"162887",title:"Prof.",name:"Shengbo",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"shengbo-chen",fullName:"Shengbo Chen"},{id:"220026",title:"Dr.",name:"Yan",middleName:null,surname:"Yu",slug:"yan-yu",fullName:"Yan Yu"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"839",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:17,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 11th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. 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Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:301,paginationItems:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",biography:"Professor Nima Rezaei obtained an MD from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. 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This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/31233",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"31233"},fullPath:"/chapters/31233",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()