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Again, buildings represent 28% of global energy-related CO2 emissions worldwide [2]. This sector’s energy consumption is related to human programmes involving the use of equipment, lighting and other electrical appliances [3]. The household/residential sector, which forms part of the total building stocks, has been identified as one of the target groups for energy efficiency programmes [4, 5] also underscored that households can adopt and implement energy efficiency measures to reduce energy consumption significantly.
The residential sector in Ghana accounts for 47% of the total final energy consumption [6], compared to other countries such as the United States (25%), United Kingdom (30%), Japan (26%), Saudi Arabia (50%), China (15.8%) and Malaysia (15%) [5, 7, 8, 9]. Electrical appliances such as refrigerators, freezers and room air conditioners (RACs), which are energy-intensive, are among the most common Ghanaian household appliances. Whilst refrigerators and freezers consume between 25–30% of the total residential energy use, air conditioners account for 6.5% of residential energy use in Ghana [10]. Whilst [11] indicated that most of the markets in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) countries are inundated with “used electrical appliances” [12], assert that this phenomenon was a result of the proliferation of used or “second-hand” goods from Europe and elsewhere. For instance, it has been estimated that there were over two (2) million used and inefficient refrigerating appliances in Ghana in 2012 that were laden with hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) [13]. This large number was primarily due to the introduction of standards and labelling in developed countries and the era of energy efficiency programmes in Europe in the early 1970s saw many of these countries disposing of their old and energy inefficient appliances into SSA [14]. The share of the used electrical appliance market in Ghana at the time was about 80%, thereby promoting climate injustice [14]. These used and inefficient refrigerating appliances consume, on average, 1200 kWh per unit per year compared to 250 kWh and 400 kWh per year in Europe and the US respectively [15].
Minimum energy performance standards (MEPS) and the introduction of more efficient appliances through energy efficiency standards and labelling (EES&L) programmes have been identified as potential means of reducing the energy consumption of these inefficient appliances. It has been noted that improving energy efficiency is the best way to simultaneously meet sustainable development goals (SDGs) 7 and 13 in the energy sector [16]. This approach, when used judiciously, frees resources for other projects, helps economies to grow and reduces environmental impacts such as greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. MEPS programmes have also proven to be effective in stimulating the development of cost-effective, energy-efficient technologies and are said to be the cornerstone of most national energy and climate change mitigation programmes [17].
Ghana’s move to improve its energy efficiency is part of a larger energy sector reform programme designed to support the country’s long-term economic developmental agenda. In 2002, Ghana, therefore, identified the benefits of MEPS such as EES&L programmes for equipment and other electrical appliances such as deep freezers, RACs, refrigerators, industrial motors and lighting systems [18]. These standards and labelling programmes serve as benchmarks and catalysts in meeting the MEPS objectives.
According to [19], energy efficiency legislations and policies have continued to increase globally through energy efficiency research and developmental programmes [20]. However, several barriers attributable to the low adoption and implementation of MEPS in SSA have to be overcome. These barriers, according to [21, 22], include financial constraints, techno-economic, political-institutional barriers, market barriers, lack of incentives and lack of information (knowledge). As a result of market failures in SSA, [23] suggested in his paper, “The market for lemons: Quality and uncertainty in the market mechanism”, that in markets where consumers do not have reliable and adequate information in respect of the quality of the products, it leads to the proliferation of cheaper and low-quality products. The effect of this failure is that more efficient products or appliances are pushed out of the market space.
Notwithstanding these continental constraints, Ghana was able to overcome these barriers through stakeholders’ consultative engagements using the
Energy efficiency standards and labelling (non-ducted air conditioners and self-ballasted fluorescent lamps) regulations 2005 (L. I 1815);
Energy efficiency (prohibition of manufacture, sale or importation of incandescent filament lamp, used refrigerator, used refrigerator-freezer, used freezer and used air-conditioner) regulations 2008 (L. I 1932);
Energy efficiency standards and labelling (household refrigerating appliances) regulations 2009 (L. I 1958); and
Energy commission (efficiency standards and labelling (light emitting diode and self-ballasted fluorescent lamps) regulations 2017 (L. I 2353).
These standards and labelling initiatives provide a mandatory labelling regime in Ghana, where energy guide labels have to be affixed conspicuously on these appliances to indicate the minimum energy performance levels of these appliances. The indicators on these energy guide labels include annual energy consumption, type of refrigerant, climate class, star rating, manufacturer, model number, fresh and frozen volumes. This mandatory labelling regime is intended to promote energy efficiency, transform the appliances market, reduce energy demand in households and reduce Ghana’s energy-related CO2 and ozone-depleting substances (ODS) emissions. This paper reviews the impact of the first three regulations and other energy efficiency projects between 2007 and 2020.
To commence the enforcement of these regulations, the national refrigerator turn-in and rebate scheme was launched by the Government of Ghana, on the advice of the Ghana Energy Commission in July, 2012. The objective was to recover about fifty thousand (50,000) inefficient refrigerating appliances from homes and encourage individuals to use more energy-efficient ones. So, in 2013, the Ghana Energy Commission commenced the full implementation of these regulations at the ports of entry. It is therefore imperative to review and establish the impact of these regulations between 2007 and 2020.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows: the next section following the introduction looks at the methodology being employed. The concept of energy efficiency is examined in Section 3. Section 4 provides the Global and National overviews of MEPS implementations. Testing and inspection protocols for refrigerating, lighting and air-conditioning equipment in Ghana are considered in Section 5. Section 6 offers the discussion of the results of some of the real impacts due to MEPS whilst Section 7 concludes the paper.
This section explains the methodology adopted for this work.
The content of this desktop review is based on energy efficiency appliance import data, policy documents and market transformation data from the Ghana Energy Commission, Energy Foundation, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research—Institute of Industrial Research (CSIR-IIR), Ghana Revenue Authority (GRA-Custom Division) and Ghana Statistical Service (GSS). Other sources of information include the International Energy Agency (IEA) as well as other related web searches. Besides, global and SSA energy efficiency documents were also reviewed by examining secondary data from standards, regulations, protocols, market report series and other available statistical data.
The basic assumption for computing electricity savings is that without MEPS regulation and its accompanying awareness programmes. Eqs. (1)–(4) were used to estimate the annual energy saving per appliance, total energy savings for all the appliances and CO2 emissions reductions between 2007 and 2020 as a result of MEPS implementation. Therefore, the annual electricity saving,
where
The total annual electricity saving,
The total cost savings from MEPS implementation are computed in terms of the electricity savings from operating a more efficient appliance. Thus, the annual electricity savings computed using Eq. (2) is used to estimate the total cost savings by multiplying the computed electricity savings with the electricity tariff as shown in Eq. (3):
where
The annual carbon emission reduction,
where
Several definitions for energy efficiency have emerged over the years. Energy efficiency may be considered as investing in more energy-efficient technologies or appliances which results in more energy savings. [24] defines energy efficiency as “using energy cautiously and economically to sustain everyday life, live comfortably and support wellbeing”. According to [25], energy efficiency is achieving the same service and performance while using technology with less energy use and therefore enhancing the security of the energy supply. For [26], energy efficiency is an effective tool for reducing electricity or energy consumption which limits greenhouse gas (GHG) emission and thereby reducing global warming.
This section reviews the Global and the Ghanaian perspectives of MEPS and EES&L programmes.
Both minimum energy performance standards (MEPS) and energy efficiency standards and labelling (EES&L) for appliances are the two known key mitigation strategies for electricity conservation worldwide [27]. MEPS is a technique of eliminating inefficient performing appliances through the prescription of minimum efficiency (or maximum energy consumption) that manufacturers must achieve [28]. The benefits of MEPS, according to [29, 30] include the following:
It allows manufacturers and suppliers to increase appliance efficiency since less-efficient appliances will no longer be tolerated for sale in the regulated market;
It encourages manufacturers to explore innovative and efficient technologies to gain a competitive edge;
It provides market consistency and certainty, thus creating economies of scale;
Consumers enjoy electricity cost savings over the lifetime of the appliance as these appliances on the market now consume less energy to operate; and
Appliance purchase prices are largely falling in real terms in many countries with MEPS regulations due to competition, economies of scale and marketplace innovations.
The main objectives of the EES&L regime are to [31];
Prevent the influx of substandard appliances on the market;
Provide the consumer an appliance the needed information to make an informed choice;
Provide information regarding the running cost of the appliance; and
Fulfil environmental treaty commitments such as the Paris Agreement, Kyoto Accord, Kigali Amendment, Montreal Protocol, Rotterdam Convention and Basel Convention.
EES&L programmes, introduced in the 1970s, are now being implemented in over eighty (80) countries including Ghana. The programmes cover more than fifty (50) types of appliances and equipment [32]. Testing protocols are used to determine appliance performance relating to energy efficiency. These protocols are periodically revised to ensure they keep up with trends and advances in technology.
Over the past decades, Ghana has made significant progress in its energy energy efficiency programmes [33]. These programmes put Ghana on the world map as a pioneer in SSA as a result of extensive collaborations of stakeholders and institutions such as the Ghana Energy Commission, Ministry of Energy, Ghana Standards Authority, Ghana Energy Foundation and CLASP [14]. Ghana experienced widespread power shortages due to series of droughts spanning from the 1980s to the 1990s. Energy efficiency programmes were identified to solve these power shortages as it delivers benefits faster than building new generating power plants [14]. The Government of Ghana, therefore, decided to support energy efficiency standards, policies and programmes. Consequently, the Ghana Electrical Appliance Labelling and Standards Programme (GEALSP) was launched to help transform the country’s appliance market. An initial assessment to determine the energy savings potential was then carried out from energy efficiency projects [10].
A comprehensive national household survey on demand-side management (DSM) was then conducted by the Ghana Energy Commission between 2003 and 2006. The results from the survey revealed that residential energy consumption, for example, was 50% of the total national energy use and refrigerating appliances accounted for nearly 59% of the residential use [15]. These used refrigerating appliances consume on average 1200 kWh per annum compared to 250 kWh and 400 kWh per annum in Europe and the US respectively [15] as illustrated in Figure 1 for comparative energy use basis.
Refrigerator Electricity use for Ghana, Europe and US in 2007 [
Energy efficiency programmes for household appliances was crucial and therefore needed to be adopted and implemented without further delay to bring Ghana’s consumption down (proposed standard—the green line in Figure 1). According to [33], energy efficiency is considered a “
No | Types of barriers | Measures |
---|---|---|
1. | Financial | Implementation of tax incentives and national programmes. For instance, between 2003 and 2016, import duties and taxes were removed from the importation and sale of compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs). |
2. | Market | Import duties and value-added tax (VAT) on compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) were removed by government in April 2003, thus making them available and affordable to consumers. |
3. | Lack of information (knowledge) | Organization of national energy efficiency campaigns throughout the country using both print and electronic media. Also, leaflets, brochures and flyers were printed and distributed, including town hall meetings where relevant stakeholders were engaged. |
4. | Institutional | Holding stakeholders’ consultations and institutional reforms. For instance, Public Utility Regulatory Commission (PURC) is mandated to set electricity tariffs independent of governmental influence and to reward efficient users and punish inefficient users of electricity. Also, the Ghana Energy Commission came in with the labelling programme in 2005 to help in transforming the appliance market. |
5. | Technical | Technical cooperation with developmental partners was encouraged to offer training to Ghanaians. For instance, between 2012 and 2013, over 600 technicians were trained to carry out installation, repairs and maintenance of the new and efficient refrigerating appliances under the Ghana Energy Foundation and UNDP project to transform the appliance market. |
6. | Political | Independent regulatory bodies were created to deal with the energy crisis. For instance, the Ghana Energy Commission and Public Utility Regulatory Commission were mandated to carry out technical and economic regulations of the power sector respectively. The Ghana Grid Company was also responsible for the national network, separated from the distribution operator. All these programmes were moved from the Ministry of Energy to prevent any political interference. |
Types of energy efficiency barriers and measures to overcome them.
Four (4) Legislative Instruments (L.Is) were subsequently enacted by the Ghanaian Parliament in collaboration with the Ghana Energy Commission and Ghana Standards Authority. The first, energy efficiency regulations for non-ducted room air conditioners (RACs) and compact fluorescent lights (L.I. 1815) was developed in 2005 [34], which mandates that all RACs imported into Ghana must meet the minimum energy efficiency ratio (EER) of 2.8 W of cooling per watt of power input, equivalent to a 1-star rating. The second energy efficiency regulations (L.I. 1932) was also enacted in 2008 to help prevent the importation or sale of used inefficient refrigerating and air conditioning appliances in Ghana. To ensure that only energy efficient refrigerating appliances are imported and sold in Ghana, the energy efficiency standards and labelling regulation for household refrigerating appliances (L.I. 1958) was enacted in 2009. Finally, in 2017, the energy efficiency standards and labelling for light-emitting diode and self-ballasted fluorescent regulations (L.I. 2353) was enacted. The purpose of the fourth regulation is to enforce the standards for minimum energy efficiency for self-ballasted fluorescent lamps and light-emitting diode lamps imported or manufactured in Ghana.
Details of these four regulations and standard protocols for determining the energy efficiency star ratings for (non-ducted air-conditioners, household refrigerating appliances and lamps and CFLs), categories of household refrigerators and initial luminous efficacy of the lamps are available and can be assessed under Legislative Instruments (list of L.I’s for energy efficiency) at [35].
In conclusion, Ghana has developed and implemented four (4) main end-use policies, regulations and standards to promote demand-side management (DSM). Seventeen (17) other regulations are currently being developed for other electrical appliances such television (TV) sets, electric motors, washing machines, blenders, etc. Table 2 lists the four (4) regulations, its scope and targets, the year they were enacted by the Ghanaian Parliament and their implementation dates.
L.I. | Regulation | Scope & targets | Year passed | Year implemented |
---|---|---|---|---|
1815 | Energy efficiency standards and labelling (non-ducted air conditioners and self-ballasted fluorescent lamps) regulations. | Gives legal backing to the use of energy-efficient non-ducted air conditioners and fluorescent lamps. | 2005 | 2014 |
1932 | Energy efficiency (prohibition of manufacture, sale or importation of incandescent filament lamp, used refrigerator, used refrigerator-freezer, used freezer and used air-conditioner) regulations. | Places total ban on the importation and sale of incandescent filament lamp, used refrigerator, used refrigerator-freezer, used freezer and used air conditioners effective January 2012. | 2008 | 2013 |
1958 | Energy efficiency standards and labelling (household refrigerating appliances) regulations. | Provides for the enforcement of minimum energy efficiency and labelling for household refrigerating appliances. | 2009 | 2013 |
2353 | Energy commission (efficiency standards and labelling (light emitting diode and self-ballasted fluorescent lamps) regulations. | Provides for the enforcement of minimum energy efficiency and labelling for light emitting diode and self-ballasted fluorescent lamps. | 2017 | 2020 |
Main end-use policies and regulations.
To achieve the full potential of the MEPS programmes, Ghana adopted rigorous testing, approval and inspection procedures for importing these regulated appliances into the country. Currently, Ghana does not manufacture these appliances, so testing is done by third-party accredited laboratories such as Vkan Certification & Testing Co., Ltd. (CVC), Intertek, TUV-Rhineland, DEKRA Product Testing & Certification, General Society of Surveillance (SGS) and Bureau Veritis (BVAC). These testing facilities are recommended and designated by the Ghana Standards Authority and Ghana Energy Commission. A performance test report, which details the performance of the appliance in terms of energy consumption, approved refrigerant, climate class, star rating, etc. from these facilities, is then submitted to the Ghana Energy Commission by the importer concerning a particular model, for evaluation. Certificate of approval (COA), containing parameters of the said model, is issued to the importer for model(s) that meet the MEPS requirements as laid down in the energy efficiency guidelines [31].
The testing, approval and inspection procedures of a model are summarized in Figures 2 and 3.
Testing and approval processes for model(s) to be imported into Ghana.
Physical inspection procedures of a model at the ports of entry.
Having reviewed all the available documents, regulations, standards, procedures and processes, the next section provides some of the real impacts resulting from MEPS implementation in Ghana since 2007.
This section discusses the impact of the major energy efficiency programmes resulting from MEPS implementation in Ghana based on Eqs. (1)–(4) between 2007 and 2020.
In 2007, Ghana implemented an efficient lighting project (CFL exchange programme) regarding its policy directions in the area of energy efficiency. On the advice of the Ghana Energy Commission, the Government procured and distributed over six (6) million compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) to replace the estimated six million incandescent lamps at no cost to the beneficiaries [36]. As a result of this project, incandescent lamp usage in households has reduced from 58–3% while CFLs penetration increased from 20% in 2007 to 79% in 2009 [36]. The country’s peak electricity demand was accordingly reduced by 124 MW and peak electricity consumption by 72.8 GWh per year due to this policy implementation. This resulted in an energy cost saving of about US$ 39.5 million per year and carbon dioxide (CO2) savings estimated at 105,000 tonnes per year [36]. Consequently, there was a delay in the generation expansion of thermal energy investment of US$ 105 million. At US$ 120/bbl, energy cost saving would amount to US$ 39.5 million per year [37]. The project received a Global Energy Efficiency Award in 2010 organized by the Energy Efficiency Global Forum in Brussels, Belgium (12–14 April 2011) [36].
Reports available at the Ghana Energy Commission indicated that the Government of Ghana, in September 2012, through the Ghana Energy Commission, launched the national refrigerator turn-in and rebate scheme with the support of the United Nation Development Programme (UNDP), Global Environment Facility (GEF) and Multilateral Fund of the Montreal Protocol (MFMP). The scheme, which encouraged consumers to exchange their old refrigerators for new and efficient ones, available at a discounted price, was to recover about 50,000 inefficient refrigerating appliances from homes and promote the use of more energy-efficient ones and transform the refrigerating appliances market in the country. By mid-June, 2016, a total of 10,472 units of old energy-inefficient appliances have been replaced across the country with new energy-efficient ones [38]. Customers who participated in the project had their consumption reduced from 1200 kWh per year to 385 kWh per year, resulting in a saving of about 400 GWh of electricity, 1.1 million tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO2) and about 1500 kg of Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) recovered [38]. This translated into a household income saving of about US$ 140 per year [38].
The enforcement of L.I. 1932 at Ghana’s ports of entry by the Ghana Energy Commission prohibited the importation of an estimated number of 4,854,864 units of used refrigerating appliances between 2013 and 2020. A total of 5825.84 GWh of electricity would have been consumed with over 2.33 million tonnes of CO2 released into the atmosphere if the ban was not enforced. However, data available at the Ghana Energy Commission shows that a total of 46,666 used refrigerators and 11,003 used RACs were imported through illegal means by some recalcitrant importers. They were subsequently confiscated by the Ghana Energy Commission inspectors positioned at the ports and evacuated for e-disposal [39]. Figure 4 shows the yearly trend in the importation of used refrigerators, particularly the downward trend between 2013 and 2020 during MEPS implementation.
Yearly imported used refrigerating appliances to Ghana from 2005 to 2020.
The average annual energy consumptions of a used refrigerator and used RAC are 1200 kWh per year and 4000 kWh per year respectively [39]. The rigorous enforcement of L.I. 1932 since 2013, yielded a total of 100 GWh of electricity and 40,000 tonnes of CO2 savings for those confiscated used appliances based on Eqs. (2) and (3).
Enforcing L.I. 1958 resulted in the importation of 2,378,432 new and efficient refrigerating appliances into the country between 2013 and 2020, thus preventing the importation of used and inefficient ones [39]. Data analysis indicated that 92% of all refrigerating appliances imported between 2013 and 2020 were new and efficient in accordance with L.I. 1958. About 74.8% of these appliances were 2- to 5-star rated with 87.2% of all imports laden with R600a refrigerant (hydrocarbon) [39], which has both low global warming potential (GWP) and low ozone-depleting potential (ODP) and therefore more energy-efficient [40]. The remaining 8%, which were used refrigerators were confiscated. The rise in the importation and sale of new refrigerating appliances is primarily due to strict regulations, procedures and controls implemented at the ports of entry, regular market surveillance and stringent compliance monitoring. These measures help to ensure that only appliances that meet MEPS are permitted into the Ghanaian market. Figure 5 shows how the refrigerating appliance market in Ghana has evolved/transformed over the years (2005–2020) from being a completely used and inefficient refrigerator market (88.9% inefficient in 2005) to new and efficient ones (99.1% efficient in 2020) as a result of MEPS implementation.
Evidence of transformed market through MEPS from 2005 to 2020.
The average annual energy consumption of these new and efficient appliances has dropped drastically due to MEPS implementation compared with the used refrigerators. Consumption values reduced from about 1400 kWh per unit per year to 340 kWh per unit per year [39]. Figure 6 shows the trend in the average annual energy consumption patterns of refrigerating appliances over the years especially that during the implementation period.
Average annual energy consumption patterns for new fridges.
Assuming that 90% of the new refrigerating appliances were sold between 2013 and 2020. Figure 7 presents the analysis of the total electricity and CO2 emission savings based on Eqs. (1)–(3). From the analysis, a total of 5845 GWh electricity has been saved with a corresponding 2.56 million tonnes of CO2 emission savings resulting from MEPS due to L.I. 1958 enforcement. This is equivalent to more than 3.4% of the total
Analysis of total electricity and CO2 emission savings for refrigerating appliances.
A total of 904,923 new RACs were imported and inspected at the Port of Tema since 2014 [39]. About 54.6% of the RACs on the Ghanaian market are 1-star rated with an average EER of 2.87, which is above the minimum EER of 2.80 with an average annual rated power consumption of 3347.4 kWh [37]. Also, 56% of the RACs were laden with R410a refrigerant which is more energy-efficient than R22 [40]. The average annual energy consumption of a used RAC is 4000 kWh per year [39]. Therefore, 652.6 kWh of electricity has been saved per unit per year due to MEPS. Assuming that 90% of the new RACs were sold between 2014 and 2020. Figure 8 presents the analysis of the total electricity and CO2 emission savings using Eqs. (1)–(3). From the analysis, about 1900 GWh electricity has been saved with a corresponding 783,000 tonnes of CO2 emission savings resulting from MEPS due to L.I. 1815 enforcement.
Analysis of total electricity and CO2 emission savings for RACs.
Analysis of some of the reports at the Ghana Energy Commission indicated that the compliance levels of the refrigerating appliances and RACs have been increasing over the years. Between 2017 and 2020, the compliance level of the imported refrigerating appliance increased from 92.6% to 97.0% whilst that of RACs also saw an upsurge from 79.2% to 96.8% [37, 39]. Figure 9 shows the trends in the compliance levels of these appliances from 2017 to 2020.
Trends in compliance levels for refrigerating appliances and RACs from 2017 to 2020.
The analysis further revealed that the following factors contributed to the high compliance levels in an attempt to transform the appliance market in Ghana [37, 39]:
Submission of performance test report by importers from third-party accredited laboratories to the Ghana Energy Commission for evaluation and approval or otherwise;
Establishment of import appliance database/register;
Operationalization of the GCNet/ICUMS digital portals for approving only appliances that meet MEPS;
Rigorous physical examination procedures/protocols put in place at the ports of entry;
Regular and consistent market surveillance;
Stringent compliance monitoring;
Removal of non-compliant appliances from showrooms for testing and re-labelling;
Payment of enforcement fees for non-compliance;
Verification and challenge testing procedures; and
Development of a Certified Appliances Mobile Application (APP) which contains all the approved appliances, nearby shops, tips on how to save energy. This APP also helps consumers to make an informed purchase decision. To download the APP, retailers and consumers are required to search for
Ghana’s drive to transform the appliance market from the used and inefficient appliances to new and efficient ones has been highly recommended over the years. From this review or study, Ghana developed and implemented MEPS successfully for refrigerating appliances, RACs and lighting systems. This was done through the engagement of relevant stakeholders with complementary financial and technical assistance from development partners. Through MEPS implementation, annual average energy consumptions of refrigerating appliances and RACs have decreased drastically. The implementation of MEPS programmes in Ghana during the period under review yielded 8317.8 GWh (8.32 TWh) of electricity savings, while at the same time reducing fossil CO2 emissions by 4.60 million tonnes. This figure roughly corresponds to the total thermal electricity generated (8424 GWh) in 2017 [6]. At 10 US cents per kWh, about USD 832 million has been saved on electricity bills. This enormous financial saving and environmental benefit resulting from deferred electricity consumption amplifies the positive implication of energy efficiency and MEPS programmes. In conclusion, the implementation of energy efficiency programmes delayed the construction of a 950 MW power plant capacity. The 17 other regulations that are currently being developed for other electrical equipment such as television sets, electric motors, washing machines, blenders, etc. must be concluded in good time to enable further energy savings for the country.
I would like to thank the following organizations that contributed valuable information on the subject: Ghana Energy Commission, Energy Foundation, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research—Institute of Industrial Research, Ghana Revenue Authority, International Energy Agency (IEA), European Union (EU), Collaborative Labelling and Appliance Standards Program (CLASP) and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL).
The author, Edwin Kwasi Tamakloe is an employee of the Ghana Energy Commission which is one of the stakeholder institutions discussed in the article. This is indicated transparently in the author affiliations.
See Figure A1.
Sample of a three (3) star rated energy guide label for refrigerating appliance in Ghana [
The Internet has irrevocably changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing. Consequently, we find it necessary to indicate, unambiguously, our definition of what we consider to be a published scientific work.
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\\n\\nOther than the issue of originality, research misconduct is another major issue that all publishers have to address. IntechOpen’s Retraction & Correction Policy and various publication ethics guidelines identify both redundant publication and (self)plagiarism to fall within the definition of research misconduct, thus constituting grounds for rejection or the issue of a Retraction if the work has already been published.
\\n\\nIn order to facilitate the tracking of a manuscript’s publishing history and its development from its earliest draft to the manuscript submitted, we encourage Authors to disclose any instances of a manuscript’s prior publication, whether it be through a conference presentation, a newspaper article, a working paper publicly available in a repository or a blog post.
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\\n\\nSome basic information about the editorial treatment of different varieties of prior publication is laid out below:
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\\n\\nAll submitted manuscripts originating from a previously published conference paper must contain at least 50% of new original content to be accepted for review and considered for publication.
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\\n\\n2. NEWSPAPER & MAGAZINE ARTICLES
\\n\\nNewspaper and magazine articles usually do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense. Articles appearing in newspapers and magazines rarely possess the depth and structure characteristic of scholarly articles.
\\n\\nSubmitted manuscripts stemming from a previous newspaper or magazine article will be accepted for review and considered for publication. However, Authors are strongly advised to report any such publication in an accompanying note to the External Editor.
\\n\\nAs with the conference papers and presentations, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the newspaper or magazine that published the work, and indicate that they have done so in a note to the External Editor.
\\n\\n3. GREY LITERATURE
\\n\\nWhite papers, working papers, technical reports and all other forms of papers which fall within the scope of the ‘Luxembourg definition’ of grey literature do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense.
\\n\\nAlthough such papers are regularly made publicly available via personal websites and institutional repositories, their general purpose is to gather comments and feedback from Authors’ colleagues in order to further improve a manuscript intended for future publication.
\\n\\nWhen submitting their work, Authors are required to disclose the existence of any publicly available earlier drafts in a note to the Academic Editor. In cases where earlier drafts of the submitted version of the manuscript are publicly available, any overlap between the versions will generally not be considered an instance of self-plagiarism.
\\n\\n4. SOCIAL MEDIA, BLOG & MESSAGE BOARD POSTINGS
\\n\\nWe feel that social media, blogs and message boards are generally used with the same intention as grey literature, to formulate ideas for a manuscript and gather early feedback from like-minded researchers in order to improve a particular piece of work before submitting it for publication. Therefore, we do not consider such internet postings to be publication in the scholarly sense.
\\n\\nNevertheless, Authors are encouraged to disclose the existence of any internet postings in which they outline and describe their research or posted passages of their manuscripts in a note to the Academic Editor. Please note that we will not strictly enforce this request in the same way that we would instructions we consider to be part of our conditions of acceptance for publication. We understand that it may be difficult to keep track of all one’s internet postings in which the researcher´s current work might be mentioned.
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\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2017-03-20
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\n\nThe significance of Peer Review cannot be overstated when it comes to defining, in our terms, what constitutes a published scientific work. Peer Review is widely considered to be the cornerstone of modern publishing processes and the key value-adding contribution to a scholarly manuscript that a publisher can make.
\n\nOther than the issue of originality, research misconduct is another major issue that all publishers have to address. IntechOpen’s Retraction & Correction Policy and various publication ethics guidelines identify both redundant publication and (self)plagiarism to fall within the definition of research misconduct, thus constituting grounds for rejection or the issue of a Retraction if the work has already been published.
\n\nIn order to facilitate the tracking of a manuscript’s publishing history and its development from its earliest draft to the manuscript submitted, we encourage Authors to disclose any instances of a manuscript’s prior publication, whether it be through a conference presentation, a newspaper article, a working paper publicly available in a repository or a blog post.
\n\nA note to the Academic Editor containing detailed information about a submitted manuscript’s previous public availability is the preferred means of reporting prior publication. This helps us determine if there are any earlier versions of a manuscript that should be disclosed to our readers or if any of those earlier versions should be cited and listed in a manuscript’s references.
\n\nSome basic information about the editorial treatment of different varieties of prior publication is laid out below:
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\n\nGiven that conference papers and presentations generally pass through some sort of peer or editorial review, we consider them to be published in the accepted scholarly sense, particularly if they are published as a part of conference proceedings.
\n\nAll submitted manuscripts originating from a previously published conference paper must contain at least 50% of new original content to be accepted for review and considered for publication.
\n\nAuthors are required to report any links their manuscript might have with their earlier conference papers and presentations in a note to the Academic Editor, as well as in the manuscript itself. Additionally, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the publisher of their conference paper if copyright transfer occurred during the publishing process. Failure to do so may prevent Us from publishing an otherwise worthy work.
\n\n2. NEWSPAPER & MAGAZINE ARTICLES
\n\nNewspaper and magazine articles usually do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense. Articles appearing in newspapers and magazines rarely possess the depth and structure characteristic of scholarly articles.
\n\nSubmitted manuscripts stemming from a previous newspaper or magazine article will be accepted for review and considered for publication. However, Authors are strongly advised to report any such publication in an accompanying note to the External Editor.
\n\nAs with the conference papers and presentations, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the newspaper or magazine that published the work, and indicate that they have done so in a note to the External Editor.
\n\n3. GREY LITERATURE
\n\nWhite papers, working papers, technical reports and all other forms of papers which fall within the scope of the ‘Luxembourg definition’ of grey literature do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense.
\n\nAlthough such papers are regularly made publicly available via personal websites and institutional repositories, their general purpose is to gather comments and feedback from Authors’ colleagues in order to further improve a manuscript intended for future publication.
\n\nWhen submitting their work, Authors are required to disclose the existence of any publicly available earlier drafts in a note to the Academic Editor. In cases where earlier drafts of the submitted version of the manuscript are publicly available, any overlap between the versions will generally not be considered an instance of self-plagiarism.
\n\n4. SOCIAL MEDIA, BLOG & MESSAGE BOARD POSTINGS
\n\nWe feel that social media, blogs and message boards are generally used with the same intention as grey literature, to formulate ideas for a manuscript and gather early feedback from like-minded researchers in order to improve a particular piece of work before submitting it for publication. Therefore, we do not consider such internet postings to be publication in the scholarly sense.
\n\nNevertheless, Authors are encouraged to disclose the existence of any internet postings in which they outline and describe their research or posted passages of their manuscripts in a note to the Academic Editor. Please note that we will not strictly enforce this request in the same way that we would instructions we consider to be part of our conditions of acceptance for publication. We understand that it may be difficult to keep track of all one’s internet postings in which the researcher´s current work might be mentioned.
\n\nIn cases where there is any overlap between the Author´s submitted manuscript and related internet postings, we will generally not consider it to be an instance of self-plagiarism. This also holds true for any co-Author as well.
\n\nFor more information on this policy please contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-03-20
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Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10669",title:"Corrosion",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Protection Mechanisms",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4a76d54f8a40fc2e7002a8d13fd617c1",slug:"corrosion-fundamentals-and-protection-mechanisms",bookSignature:"Fahmina Zafar, Anujit Ghosal and Eram Sharmin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"89672",title:"Dr.",name:"Fahmina",middleName:null,surname:"Zafar",slug:"fahmina-zafar",fullName:"Fahmina Zafar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10677",title:"Advanced Topics of 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2022",editors:[{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1382",title:"Theriogenology",slug:"genesiology-theriogenology",parent:{id:"300",title:"Genesiology",slug:"genesiology"},numberOfBooks:3,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:90,numberOfWosCitations:52,numberOfCrossrefCitations:40,numberOfDimensionsCitations:84,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"1382",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10664",title:"Animal Reproduction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2d66af42fb17d0a6556bb9ef28e273c7",slug:"animal-reproduction",bookSignature:"Yusuf Bozkurt and Mustafa Numan Bucak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10664.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"90846",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Bozkurt",slug:"yusuf-bozkurt",fullName:"Yusuf Bozkurt"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7233",title:"New Insights into Theriogenology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"74f4147e3fb214dd050e5edd3aaf53bc",slug:"new-insights-into-theriogenology",bookSignature:"Rita Payan-Carreira",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7233.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5105",title:"Insights from Animal Reproduction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"25cd16b683d1f098bc304cbbdb3206cd",slug:"insights-from-animal-reproduction",bookSignature:"Rita Payan Carreira",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5105.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:3,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"49736",doi:"10.5772/62053",title:"Chromosome Abnormalities in Domestic Animals as Causes of Disorders of Sex Development or Impaired Fertility",slug:"chromosome-abnormalities-in-domestic-animals-as-causes-of-disorders-of-sex-development-or-impaired-f",totalDownloads:4192,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Cytogenetic evaluation is an important step in the diagnosis of infertile or sterile animals. Moreover, the analysis of sex chromosomes is crucial for a proper classification of disorders of sex development (DSD). For many years, chromosome studies mainly addressed the livestock species, while recently, increasing interest in such analysis in companion animals is observed. New molecular and cytogenetic tools and techniques have given opportunities for a precise identification of chromosome mutations. Among them, fluorescence in situ hybridization, besides chromosome banding, has become a gold standard. In this chapter, recent advances in the cytogenetic diagnosis of cattle, pigs, horses, dogs and cats are presented.",book:{id:"5105",slug:"insights-from-animal-reproduction",title:"Insights from Animal Reproduction",fullTitle:"Insights from Animal Reproduction"},signatures:"Izabela Szczerbal and Marek Switonski",authors:[{id:"177030",title:"Prof.",name:"Marek",middleName:null,surname:"Switonski",slug:"marek-switonski",fullName:"Marek Switonski"},{id:"177045",title:"Dr.",name:"Izabela",middleName:null,surname:"Szczerbal",slug:"izabela-szczerbal",fullName:"Izabela Szczerbal"}]},{id:"49857",doi:"10.5772/62207",title:"Germ Cell Determinant Transmission, Segregation, and Function in the Zebrafish Embryo",slug:"germ-cell-determinant-transmission-segregation-and-function-in-the-zebrafish-embryo",totalDownloads:2309,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Animals specify primordial germ cells (PGCs) in two alternate modes: preformation and epigenesis. Epigenesis relies on signal transduction from the surrounding tissues to instruct a group of cells to acquire PGC identity. Preformation, thought to be the more derived PGC specification mode, is instead based on the maternal inheritance of germ cell-determining factors. We use the zebrafish as a model system, in which PGCs are specified through maternal inheritance of germ plasm, to study this process in vertebrates. In zebrafish, maternally inherited germ plasm ribonucleoparticles (RNPs) have co-opted the cytoskeletal machinery to reach progressive levels of multimerization, resulting in the formation of four large masses of aggregated germ plasm RNPs. At later stages, germ plasm masses continue to use components of the cell division machinery, such as the spindles, centrosomes, and/or subcellular organelles to segregate asymmetrically during cell division and subsequently induce germ cell fate. This chapter discusses the current knowledge of germ cell specification focusing on the zebrafish as a model system. We also provide a comparative analysis of the mechanism for germ plasm RNP segregation in zebrafish versus other known vertebrate systems of germ cell preformation, such as in amphibian and avian models.",book:{id:"5105",slug:"insights-from-animal-reproduction",title:"Insights from Animal Reproduction",fullTitle:"Insights from Animal Reproduction"},signatures:"Celeste Eno and Francisco Pelegri",authors:[{id:"177209",title:"Prof.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Pelegri",slug:"francisco-pelegri",fullName:"Francisco Pelegri"}]},{id:"62171",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79106",title:"Intraoviductal Instillation of a Solution as an Effective Route for Manipulating Preimplantation Mammalian Embryos in vivo",slug:"intraoviductal-instillation-of-a-solution-as-an-effective-route-for-manipulating-preimplantation-mam",totalDownloads:1159,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Preimplantation embryos of mammals are enclosed by a translucent layer called zona pellucida (ZP), which is composed of glycoproteins. ZP is important for protecting against infection by virus and bacteria, and to prevent attachment of embryos to the oviductal epithelia. Due to the presence of ZP, it has been difficult to transfect preimplantation embryos existing within the oviductal lumen, with exogenous nucleic acids, such as DNA and mRNA. However, intraoviductal instillation of nucleic acids, and subsequent in vivo electroporation in pregnant females, enables transfection of these embryos, leading to the production of gene-modified animals. This new method for production of genetically modified animals does not require any ex vivo handling of embryos, which has been essential for traditional transgenesis. In this article, we describe recent advances in the in vivo transfection of preimplantation mammalian embryos, and also the possibility of simple transfection of these embryos through intraoviductal instillation of a solution, alone.",book:{id:"7233",slug:"new-insights-into-theriogenology",title:"New Insights into Theriogenology",fullTitle:"New Insights into Theriogenology"},signatures:"Masahiro Sato, Masato Ohtsuka and Shingo Nakamura",authors:[{id:"177440",title:"Dr.",name:"Masato",middleName:null,surname:"Ohtsuka",slug:"masato-ohtsuka",fullName:"Masato Ohtsuka"},{id:"177444",title:"Dr.",name:"Shingo",middleName:null,surname:"Nakamura",slug:"shingo-nakamura",fullName:"Shingo Nakamura"},{id:"245795",title:"Prof.",name:"Masahiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sato",slug:"masahiro-sato",fullName:"Masahiro Sato"}]},{id:"50061",doi:"10.5772/62470",title:"Sperm Motility Regulatory Proteins: A Tool to Enhance Sperm Quality",slug:"sperm-motility-regulatory-proteins-a-tool-to-enhance-sperm-quality",totalDownloads:2163,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Sperm forward motility is an essential parameter in mammalian fertilization. Studies from our laboratory have identified and characterized a few unique sperm motility regulatory proteins/glycoproteins from the male reproductive fluids and mammalian blood serum. The purified sperm motility-initiating protein (MIP) from caprine epididymal plasma as well as the forward motility-stimulating factor (FMSF) and motility-stimulating protein (MSP) from buffalo and goat serum, respectively, have high efficacy to initiate or increase motility in nonmotile or less motile sperm. Antibody of sperm motility inhibitory factor (MIF-II) has the high potential to enhance sperm vertical velocity and forward motility by increasing intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) level. The appearance and disappearance of D-galactose–specific lectin and its receptor along the epididymis has been reported to be involved in motility regulation in spermatozoa. A novel synthetic cryopreservation method and role of lipid to protect membrane damage during cryopreservation have been demonstrated. Motility-promoting proteins may be extremely useful for improving cattle breeding and breeding of endangered species, thereby helping in enhanced production of animal products as well as in the conservation of animals. Isolated proteins and developed cryopreservation technology may also be beneficial in human infertility clinics to increase the chance of fertilization.",book:{id:"5105",slug:"insights-from-animal-reproduction",title:"Insights from Animal Reproduction",fullTitle:"Insights from Animal Reproduction"},signatures:"Sandhya R. Dungdung, Arpita Bhoumik, Sudipta Saha, Prasanta\nGhosh, Kaushik Das, Sandipan Mukherjee, Debjani Nath, Jitamanyu\nChakrabarty, Chanakyanath Kundu, Bijay Shankar Jaiswal, Mahitosh\nMandal, Arunima Maiti, Saswati Banerjee, Madhumita\nRoychowdhury, Debleena Ray, Debdas Bhattacharyya and Gopal C.\nMajumder",authors:[{id:"50052",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahitosh",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"mahitosh-mandal",fullName:"Mahitosh Mandal"},{id:"177044",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandhya",middleName:null,surname:"Dungdung",slug:"sandhya-dungdung",fullName:"Sandhya Dungdung"},{id:"177920",title:"Dr.",name:"Arpita",middleName:null,surname:"Bhoumik",slug:"arpita-bhoumik",fullName:"Arpita Bhoumik"},{id:"177921",title:"Dr.",name:"Sudipta",middleName:null,surname:"Saha",slug:"sudipta-saha",fullName:"Sudipta Saha"},{id:"177922",title:"MSc.",name:"Prasanta",middleName:null,surname:"Ghosh",slug:"prasanta-ghosh",fullName:"Prasanta Ghosh"},{id:"177923",title:"Dr.",name:"Kaushik",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"kaushik-das",fullName:"Kaushik Das"},{id:"177924",title:"MSc.",name:"Sandipan",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"sandipan-mukherjee",fullName:"Sandipan Mukherjee"},{id:"177925",title:"Dr.",name:"Debjani",middleName:null,surname:"Nath",slug:"debjani-nath",fullName:"Debjani Nath"},{id:"177927",title:"Dr.",name:"Jitamanyu",middleName:null,surname:"Chakrabarty",slug:"jitamanyu-chakrabarty",fullName:"Jitamanyu Chakrabarty"},{id:"177928",title:"Dr.",name:"Chanakyanath",middleName:null,surname:"Kundu",slug:"chanakyanath-kundu",fullName:"Chanakyanath Kundu"},{id:"177929",title:"Dr.",name:"Bijay Shankar",middleName:null,surname:"Jaiswal",slug:"bijay-shankar-jaiswal",fullName:"Bijay Shankar Jaiswal"},{id:"177930",title:"Dr.",name:"Arunima",middleName:null,surname:"Maiti",slug:"arunima-maiti",fullName:"Arunima Maiti"},{id:"177931",title:"Dr.",name:"Saswati",middleName:null,surname:"Banerjee",slug:"saswati-banerjee",fullName:"Saswati Banerjee"},{id:"177932",title:"Dr.",name:"Madhumita",middleName:null,surname:"Roychowdhury",slug:"madhumita-roychowdhury",fullName:"Madhumita Roychowdhury"},{id:"177933",title:"MSc.",name:"Debleena",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"debleena-ray",fullName:"Debleena Ray"},{id:"177934",title:"Dr.",name:"Debdas",middleName:null,surname:"Bhattacharyya",slug:"debdas-bhattacharyya",fullName:"Debdas Bhattacharyya"},{id:"177935",title:"Dr.",name:"Gopal Chandra",middleName:null,surname:"Majumder",slug:"gopal-chandra-majumder",fullName:"Gopal Chandra Majumder"}]},{id:"63404",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80229",title:"Subclinical Endometritis in Dairy Cattle",slug:"subclinical-endometritis-in-dairy-cattle",totalDownloads:1859,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Subclinical endometritis is recognized as a cause of poor reproductive performance in dairy cows. Inflammation of the endometrium persisting after postpartum uterine involution has been related with prolonged calving-conception intervals and low fertility in dairy cows. The subclinical nature of this condition makes it necessary in the use of endometrial cytology or biopsy for diagnosing it. There are some controversies among authors in relation to the postpartum period from which a physiological endometrial inflammation should be considered a pathological subclinical endometritis. Therefore, depending on the sampling period after calving, different studies establish a different degree of polymorphonuclear leukocyte infiltration as cutoff point to diagnose subclinical endometritis. Controversies also exist regarding the pathogenesis of the disease and its consequences on the fertility of dairy cattle. The aim of this chapter was to review the current knowledge on this uterine pathology.",book:{id:"7233",slug:"new-insights-into-theriogenology",title:"New Insights into Theriogenology",fullTitle:"New Insights into Theriogenology"},signatures:"Luis Angel Quintela Arias, Marcos Vigo Fernández, Juan José\nBecerra González, Mónica Barrio López, Pedro José García Herradón\nand Ana Isabel Peña Martínez",authors:[{id:"243272",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Quintela Arias",slug:"luis-angel-quintela-arias",fullName:"Luis Angel Quintela Arias"},{id:"243886",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Peña Martínez",slug:"ana-isabel-pena-martinez",fullName:"Ana Isabel Peña Martínez"},{id:"243887",title:"Prof.",name:"Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"García Herradón",slug:"pedro-garcia-herradon",fullName:"Pedro García Herradón"},{id:"243888",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan José",middleName:null,surname:"Becerra González",slug:"juan-jose-becerra-gonzalez",fullName:"Juan José Becerra González"},{id:"256852",title:"Dr.",name:"Mónica",middleName:null,surname:"Barrio López",slug:"monica-barrio-lopez",fullName:"Mónica Barrio López"},{id:"256854",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcos",middleName:null,surname:"Vigo Fernández",slug:"marcos-vigo-fernandez",fullName:"Marcos Vigo Fernández"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"49736",title:"Chromosome Abnormalities in Domestic Animals as Causes of Disorders of Sex Development or Impaired Fertility",slug:"chromosome-abnormalities-in-domestic-animals-as-causes-of-disorders-of-sex-development-or-impaired-f",totalDownloads:4190,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Cytogenetic evaluation is an important step in the diagnosis of infertile or sterile animals. Moreover, the analysis of sex chromosomes is crucial for a proper classification of disorders of sex development (DSD). For many years, chromosome studies mainly addressed the livestock species, while recently, increasing interest in such analysis in companion animals is observed. New molecular and cytogenetic tools and techniques have given opportunities for a precise identification of chromosome mutations. Among them, fluorescence in situ hybridization, besides chromosome banding, has become a gold standard. In this chapter, recent advances in the cytogenetic diagnosis of cattle, pigs, horses, dogs and cats are presented.",book:{id:"5105",slug:"insights-from-animal-reproduction",title:"Insights from Animal Reproduction",fullTitle:"Insights from Animal Reproduction"},signatures:"Izabela Szczerbal and Marek Switonski",authors:[{id:"177030",title:"Prof.",name:"Marek",middleName:null,surname:"Switonski",slug:"marek-switonski",fullName:"Marek Switonski"},{id:"177045",title:"Dr.",name:"Izabela",middleName:null,surname:"Szczerbal",slug:"izabela-szczerbal",fullName:"Izabela Szczerbal"}]},{id:"50144",title:"Proliferative Endometrial Lesions Hidden behind the Feline Pyometra",slug:"proliferative-endometrial-lesions-hidden-behind-the-feline-pyometra",totalDownloads:2542,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"The literature refers to pyometra as the most important pathology in the feline uterus, which is often associated with cystic endometrial disease (cystic endometrial hyperplasia/pyometra complex or CEH-Pyo). The etiology of pyometra is complex and probably multifactorial, but hormonal influences are suggested to play an important role in the pathogenesis. Progestagen-based contraceptives may be risk factors for the CEH-Pyo syndrome, for endometrial adenocarcinoma and also to mammary tumors in this species.",book:{id:"5105",slug:"insights-from-animal-reproduction",title:"Insights from Animal Reproduction",fullTitle:"Insights from Animal Reproduction"},signatures:"Maria dos Anjos Pires, Hugo Vilhena, Sónia Miranda, Miguel\nTavares Pereira, Fernanda Seixas and Ana Laura Saraiva",authors:[{id:"41065",title:"Dr.",name:"Sónia",middleName:null,surname:"Miranda",slug:"sonia-miranda",fullName:"Sónia Miranda"},{id:"161556",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Dos Anjos",middleName:null,surname:"Pires",slug:"maria-dos-anjos-pires",fullName:"Maria Dos Anjos Pires"},{id:"179547",title:"MSc.",name:"Hugo",middleName:null,surname:"Vilhena",slug:"hugo-vilhena",fullName:"Hugo Vilhena"},{id:"179548",title:"MSc.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Tavares Pereira",slug:"miguel-tavares-pereira",fullName:"Miguel Tavares Pereira"},{id:"179549",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Seixas",slug:"fernanda-seixas",fullName:"Fernanda Seixas"},{id:"179550",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Saraiva",slug:"ana-laura-saraiva",fullName:"Ana Laura Saraiva"}]},{id:"49944",title:"The Use of Reproductive Technologies to Produce Transgenic Goats",slug:"the-use-of-reproductive-technologies-to-produce-transgenic-goats",totalDownloads:2465,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Recombinant DNA technology has revolutionized the production of therapeutic proteins. Thus, genes of a great number of human proteins have already been identified and cloned. The use of farm animals as bioreactors may be the better choice to produce recombinant therapeutic proteins. For this activity, the term “pharming” was created, referring to the use of genetic engineering to obtain a transgenic or genetically modified animal. Considering the advantages and disadvantages of livestock species, goats appear as a very good model. In addition, the first human commercially approved biological drug (antithrombin (AT)) was produced from the milk of transgenic goats. The aim of this chapter is to present various reproductive technologies used to obtain transgenic goats secreting recombinant proteins in milk. Initially, this chapter presents the methods for embryo production (in vivo and in vitro) to realize the DNA microinjection in pronuclear embryos. Thus, the techniques of superovulation of donors (in vivo embryo production) and ovarian stimulation for oocyte recovery (in vitro embryo production) are described. Also, the methods for DNA microinjection and embryo transfer are detailed in this chapter. Finally, this chapter describes the reproductive procedures used for obtaining transgenic goats by cloning.",book:{id:"5105",slug:"insights-from-animal-reproduction",title:"Insights from Animal Reproduction",fullTitle:"Insights from Animal Reproduction"},signatures:"Vicente J. F. Freitas, Luciana M. Melo, Dárcio I.A. Teixeira, Maajid H.\nBhat, Irina A. Serova, Lyudmila E. Andreeva and Oleg L. Serov",authors:[{id:"177122",title:"Dr.",name:"Vicente",middleName:null,surname:"Freitas",slug:"vicente-freitas",fullName:"Vicente Freitas"},{id:"177194",title:"Dr.",name:"Luciana",middleName:null,surname:"Melo",slug:"luciana-melo",fullName:"Luciana Melo"},{id:"177195",title:"Dr.",name:"Dárcio",middleName:null,surname:"Teixeira",slug:"darcio-teixeira",fullName:"Dárcio Teixeira"},{id:"177196",title:"Dr.",name:"Maajid",middleName:null,surname:"Bhat",slug:"maajid-bhat",fullName:"Maajid Bhat"},{id:"185365",title:"Dr.",name:"Irina",middleName:null,surname:"Aleksandrovna SEROVA",slug:"irina-aleksandrovna-serova",fullName:"Irina Aleksandrovna SEROVA"},{id:"185366",title:"Dr.",name:"Lyudmila",middleName:null,surname:"Evgenievna ANDREEVA",slug:"lyudmila-evgenievna-andreeva",fullName:"Lyudmila Evgenievna ANDREEVA"},{id:"185367",title:"Dr.",name:"Oleg",middleName:null,surname:"Leonidovich SEROV",slug:"oleg-leonidovich-serov",fullName:"Oleg Leonidovich SEROV"}]},{id:"63404",title:"Subclinical Endometritis in Dairy Cattle",slug:"subclinical-endometritis-in-dairy-cattle",totalDownloads:1859,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Subclinical endometritis is recognized as a cause of poor reproductive performance in dairy cows. Inflammation of the endometrium persisting after postpartum uterine involution has been related with prolonged calving-conception intervals and low fertility in dairy cows. The subclinical nature of this condition makes it necessary in the use of endometrial cytology or biopsy for diagnosing it. There are some controversies among authors in relation to the postpartum period from which a physiological endometrial inflammation should be considered a pathological subclinical endometritis. Therefore, depending on the sampling period after calving, different studies establish a different degree of polymorphonuclear leukocyte infiltration as cutoff point to diagnose subclinical endometritis. Controversies also exist regarding the pathogenesis of the disease and its consequences on the fertility of dairy cattle. The aim of this chapter was to review the current knowledge on this uterine pathology.",book:{id:"7233",slug:"new-insights-into-theriogenology",title:"New Insights into Theriogenology",fullTitle:"New Insights into Theriogenology"},signatures:"Luis Angel Quintela Arias, Marcos Vigo Fernández, Juan José\nBecerra González, Mónica Barrio López, Pedro José García Herradón\nand Ana Isabel Peña Martínez",authors:[{id:"243272",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Quintela Arias",slug:"luis-angel-quintela-arias",fullName:"Luis Angel Quintela Arias"},{id:"243886",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Peña Martínez",slug:"ana-isabel-pena-martinez",fullName:"Ana Isabel Peña Martínez"},{id:"243887",title:"Prof.",name:"Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"García Herradón",slug:"pedro-garcia-herradon",fullName:"Pedro García Herradón"},{id:"243888",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan José",middleName:null,surname:"Becerra González",slug:"juan-jose-becerra-gonzalez",fullName:"Juan José Becerra González"},{id:"256852",title:"Dr.",name:"Mónica",middleName:null,surname:"Barrio López",slug:"monica-barrio-lopez",fullName:"Mónica Barrio López"},{id:"256854",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcos",middleName:null,surname:"Vigo Fernández",slug:"marcos-vigo-fernandez",fullName:"Marcos Vigo Fernández"}]},{id:"79909",title:"Cryopreservation Methods and Frontiers in the Art of Freezing Life in Animal Models",slug:"cryopreservation-methods-and-frontiers-in-the-art-of-freezing-life-in-animal-models",totalDownloads:230,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The development in cryobiology in animal breeding had revolutionized the field of reproductive medicine. The main objective to preserve animal germplasm stems from variety of reasons such as conservation of endangered animal species, animal diversity, and an increased demand of animal models and/or genetically modified animals for research involving animal and human diseases. Cryopreservation has emerged as promising technique for fertility preservation and assisted reproduction techniques (ART) for production of animal breeds and genetically engineered animal species for research. Slow rate freezing and rapid freezing/vitrification are the two main methods of cryopreservation. Slow freezing is characterized by the phase transition (liquid turning into solid) when reducing the temperature below freezing point. Vitrification, on the other hand, is a phenomenon in which liquid solidifies without the formation of ice crystals, thus the process is referred to as a glass transition or ice-free cryopreservation. The vitrification protocol applies high concentrations of cryoprotective agents (CPA) used to avoid cryoinjury. This chapter provides a brief overview of fundamentals of cryopreservation and established methods adopted in cryopreservation. Strategies involved in cryopreserving germ cells (sperm and egg freezing) are included in this chapter. Last section describes the frontiers and advancement of cryopreservation in some of the important animal models like rodents (mouse and rats) and in few large animals (sheep, cow etc).",book:{id:"10664",slug:"animal-reproduction",title:"Animal Reproduction",fullTitle:"Animal Reproduction"},signatures:"Feda S. Aljaser",authors:[{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",issn:"2631-6218",scope:"\r\n\tThis book series will offer a comprehensive overview of recent research trends as well as clinical applications within different specialties of dentistry. Topics will include overviews of the health of the oral cavity, from prevention and care to different treatments for the rehabilitation of problems that may affect the organs and/or tissues present. The different areas of dentistry will be explored, with the aim of disseminating knowledge and providing readers with new tools for the comprehensive treatment of their patients with greater safety and with current techniques. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This series of books will focus on various aspects of the properties and results obtained by the various treatments available, whether preventive or curative.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/3.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 4th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"1",title:"Oral Health",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/1.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"173955",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Marinho",slug:"sandra-marinho",fullName:"Sandra Marinho",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGYMQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-06-01T13:22:41.png",biography:"Dr. Sandra A. Marinho is an Associate Professor and Brazilian researcher at the State University of Paraíba (Universidade Estadual da Paraíba- UEPB), Campus VIII, located in Araruna, state of Paraíba since 2011. She holds a degree in Dentistry from the Federal University of Alfenas (UNIFAL), while her specialization and professional improvement in Stomatology took place at Hospital Heliopolis (São Paulo, SP). Her qualifications are: a specialist in Dental Imaging and Radiology, Master in Dentistry (Periodontics) from the University of São Paulo (FORP-USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP), and Doctor (Ph.D.) in Dentistry (Stomatology Clinic) from Hospital São Lucas of the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (HSL-PUCRS, Porto Alegre, RS). She held a postdoctoral internship at the Federal University from Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM, Diamantina, MG). She is currently a member of the Brazilian Society for Dental Research (SBPqO) and the Brazilian Society of Stomatology and Pathology (SOBEP). Dr. Marinho's experience in Dentistry mainly covers the following subjects: oral diagnosis, oral radiology; oral medicine; lesions and oral infections; oral pathology, laser therapy and epidemiological studies.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"State University of Paraíba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/2.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"179568",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Wen Lin",middleName:null,surname:"Chai",slug:"wen-lin-chai",fullName:"Wen Lin Chai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHGAQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-05-23T14:31:12.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Chai Wen Lin is currently a lecturer at the Department of Restorative Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Malaya. She obtained a Master of Dental Science in 2006 and a Ph.D. in 2011. Her Ph.D. research work on the soft tissue-implant interface at the University of Sheffield has yielded several important publications in the key implant journals. She was awarded an Excellent Exchange Award by the University of Sheffield which gave her the opportunity to work at the famous Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Gothenburg, Sweden, under the tutelage of Prof. Peter Thomsen. In 2016, she was appointed as a visiting scholar at UCLA, USA, with attachment in Hospital Dentistry, and involvement in research work related to zirconia implant. In 2016, her contribution to dentistry was recognized by the Royal College of Surgeon of Edinburgh with her being awarded a Fellowship in Dental Surgery. She has authored numerous papers published both in local and international journals. She was the Editor of the Malaysian Dental Journal for several years. Her main research interests are implant-soft tissue interface, zirconia implant, photofunctionalization, 3D-oral mucosal model and pulpal regeneration.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},editorTwo:{id:"479686",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghee Seong",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"ghee-seong-lim",fullName:"Ghee Seong Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003ScjLZQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-06-08T14:17:06.png",biography:"Assoc. Prof Dr. Lim Ghee Seong graduated with a Bachelor of Dental Surgery from University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur in 2008. He then pursued his Master in Clinical Dentistry, specializing in Restorative Dentistry at Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK, where he graduated with distinction. He has also been awarded the International Training Fellowship (Restorative Dentistry) from the Royal College of Surgeons. His passion for teaching then led him to join the faculty of dentistry at University Malaya and he has since became a valuable lecturer and clinical specialist in the Department of Restorative Dentistry. He is currently the removable prosthodontic undergraduate year 3 coordinator, head of the undergraduate module on occlusion and a member of the multidisciplinary team for the TMD clinic. He has previous membership in the British Society for Restorative Dentistry, the Malaysian Association of Aesthetic Dentistry and he is currently a lifetime member of the Malaysian Association for Prosthodontics. Currently, he is also the examiner for the Restorative Specialty Membership Examinations, Royal College of Surgeons, England. He has authored and co-authored handful of both local and international journal articles. His main interest is in prosthodontics, dental material, TMD and regenerative dentistry.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:47,paginationItems:[{id:"82938",title:"Trauma from Occlusion: Practical Management Guidelines",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105960",signatures:"Prashanth Shetty, Shweta Hegde, Shubham Chelkar, Rahul Chaturvedi, Shruti Pochhi, Aakanksha Shrivastava, Dudala Lakshmi, Shreya Mukherjee, Pankaj Bajaj and Shahzada Asif Raza",slug:"trauma-from-occlusion-practical-management-guidelines",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Trauma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11567.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}},{id:"82654",title:"Atraumatic Restorative Treatment: More than a Minimally Invasive Approach?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105623",signatures:"Manal A. Ablal",slug:"atraumatic-restorative-treatment-more-than-a-minimally-invasive-approach",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Caries - The Selection of Restoration Methods and Restorative Materials",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11565.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"82608",title:"Early Management of Dental Trauma in the Era of COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105992",signatures:"Khairul Bariah Chi Adam, Haszelini Hassan, Pram Kumar Subramaniam, Izzati Nabilah Ismail, Nor Adilah Harun and Naziyah Shaban Mustafa",slug:"early-management-of-dental-trauma-in-the-era-of-covid-19",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Trauma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11567.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}},{id:"82767",title:"Teeth Avulsion",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105846",signatures:"Manal Abdalla Eltahir, Randa Fath Elrahman Ibrahim and Hanan Alharbi",slug:"teeth-avulsion",totalDownloads:20,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Trauma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11567.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6668",title:"Dental Caries",subtitle:"Diagnosis, Prevention and Management",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6668.jpg",slug:"dental-caries-diagnosis-prevention-and-management",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Zühre Akarslan",hash:"b0f7667770a391f772726c3013c1b9ba",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Dental Caries - Diagnosis, Prevention and Management",editors:[{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7139",title:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7139.jpg",slug:"current-approaches-in-orthodontics",publishedDate:"April 10th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Belma Işık Aslan and Fatma Deniz Uzuner",hash:"2c77384eeb748cf05a898d65b9dcb48a",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",editors:[{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"7572",title:"Trauma in Dentistry",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7572.jpg",slug:"trauma-in-dentistry",publishedDate:"July 3rd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Serdar Gözler",hash:"7cb94732cfb315f8d1e70ebf500eb8a9",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Trauma in Dentistry",editors:[{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7060",title:"Gingival Disease",subtitle:"A Professional Approach for Treatment and Prevention",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7060.jpg",slug:"gingival-disease-a-professional-approach-for-treatment-and-prevention",publishedDate:"October 23rd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",hash:"b81d39988cba3a3cf746c1616912cf41",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Gingival Disease - A Professional Approach for Treatment and Prevention",editors:[{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. 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