\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"},{slug:"intechopen-identified-as-one-of-the-most-significant-contributor-to-oa-book-growth-in-doab-20210809",title:"IntechOpen Identified as One of the Most Significant Contributors to OA Book Growth in DOAB"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6861",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Plasmonics",title:"Plasmonics",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Plasmonics gives researchers in universities and industries and designers an overview of phenomena enabled by artificially designed metamaterials and their application for plasmonic devices. The purpose of this book is to provide a detailed introduction to the basic modeling approaches and an overview of enabled innovative phenomena. The main research agenda of this book is aimed at the study of modeling techniques and novel functionalities such as plasmonic enhancement of solar cell efficiency, plasmonics in sensing, etc. The topics addressed in this book cover the major strands: theory, modeling and design, applications in practical devices, fabrication, characterization, and measurement. It is worthwhile mentioning that the strategic objectives of developing new artificial functional materials require close cooperation of the research in each subarea.",isbn:"978-1-78984-435-1",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-434-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-738-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73373",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"plasmonics",numberOfPages:252,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"e33a5b5eaffb8edd2de62ce2a21486ea",bookSignature:"Tatjana Gric",publishedDate:"November 21st 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6861.jpg",numberOfDownloads:13354,numberOfWosCitations:40,numberOfCrossrefCitations:14,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:35,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:89,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 21st 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 14th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 13th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 1st 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 30th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"212653",title:"Prof.",name:"Tatjana",middleName:null,surname:"Gric",slug:"tatjana-gric",fullName:"Tatjana Gric",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212653/images/system/212653.jpg",biography:"Dr. Gric’s research career has been focused on the investigation of waveguide devices (waveguide modulators, filters etc.), namely on proposing their electrodynamical analysis. Applied research includes the design of microwave frequency selective structures, waveguide modulators, filters. Fundamental research is primarily concerned with developing rigorous computational methods for the electrodynamical analysis of the waveguide structures. Another major goal of her studies is plasmonics as the examination of the interaction between electromagnetic field and free electrons in a metal. The optically-active nanostructures have been simulated and their fundamental photonic properties have been explored. Moreover, the broad scope of research carried out by Dr. Gric has included investigations into the new fascinating properties of novel materials. Dr. Gric is involved in development of unusual materials and structures that can manipulate the flow of light in ways that are useful in optical sensing, photovoltaics, solid state lighting, fiber optics and other applications. Dr. Gric also has a record of effective teaching in the rank of Associate Professor. She has been conducting independent research projects for the past eight years. Dr. Gric has published extensively in her field of investigation with more than 40 peer-reviewed papers in top journals in physics, electrodynamics, and optics. It is worth noting that her recent publication rate is getting even higher with her being the first author.",institutionString:"Vilnius Gediminas Technical University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Vilnius Gediminas Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"229",title:"Plasma Physics",slug:"plasma-physics"}],chapters:[{id:"61483",title:"Introductory Chapter: Plasmonics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78036",slug:"introductory-chapter-plasmonics",totalDownloads:890,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Tatjana Gric",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61483",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61483",authors:[{id:"212653",title:"Prof.",name:"Tatjana",surname:"Gric",slug:"tatjana-gric",fullName:"Tatjana Gric"}],corrections:null},{id:"63578",title:"A Perspective on Plasmonics within and beyond the Electrostatic Approximation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81038",slug:"a-perspective-on-plasmonics-within-and-beyond-the-electrostatic-approximation",totalDownloads:1002,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Plasmonic is an emerging branch of nanophotonics wherein the electromagnetic properties of nanoparticles are studied for variety of applications. The optics of nanoparticles is studied in terms of surface plasmon resonances and optical cross section. Initially the first principle approach has been used to study the plasmonic fundamentals known as electrostatic approach. Under this approach, various parameters are taken into account to observe the electromagnetic properties of plasmonic nanogeometries. This electrostatic model is only used to analyze the optical signature of smaller size plasmonic geometries. Therefore, for the estimation of optical properties of larger size nanoparticle numerical model (Discrete Dipole Approximation) has been used. The observed surface plasmon resonances could be useful in sensing field, SERS signal detection and thin film solar cell application.",signatures:"Nilesh Kumar Pathak, Parthasarathi, Gyanendra Krishna Pandey and\nR.P. Sharma",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63578",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63578",authors:[{id:"207334",title:"Dr.",name:"Nilesh",surname:"Pathak",slug:"nilesh-pathak",fullName:"Nilesh Pathak"},{id:"223038",title:"Prof.",name:"R P",surname:"Sharma",slug:"r-p-sharma",fullName:"R P Sharma"},{id:"271204",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Partha",surname:"Sarathi",slug:"partha-sarathi",fullName:"Partha Sarathi"},{id:"271205",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyanendra Krishna",surname:"Pandey",slug:"gyanendra-krishna-pandey",fullName:"Gyanendra Krishna Pandey"}],corrections:null},{id:"61796",title:"Localized and Propagated Surface Plasmons in Metal Nanoparticles and Nanowires",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78284",slug:"localized-and-propagated-surface-plasmons-in-metal-nanoparticles-and-nanowires",totalDownloads:1294,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Surface plasmons are coherent electron oscillations behaving as localized and propagated modes in metal nanoparticles and nanowires, respectively. In this chapter, we first review some of the applications made in plasmonics with gold nanorods/nanospheres and silver nanowires. For gold nanoparticles with a size of 1–100 nm, the surface plasmons are confined around the particle surface as localized modes to enhance the near-field. For diameter of around 200–300 nm silver nanowires with a length up to 10 μm, the surface plasmons can propagate along the nanowires as waveguide modes to guide the plasmons. We then describe some novel results with regarding to gold nanorod enhanced light emission, silver nanowire supported plasmonic waveguide, gold nanosphere mediated whispering-gallery-mode emission, and energy conversion in silver-polymer plasmonic nanostructures. The work of this chapter highlights the applications of metal nanoparticles and nanowires in plasmonic waveguides to achieve optical energy generation, propagation, and conversion.",signatures:"Xianguang Yang and Baojun Li",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61796",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61796",authors:[{id:"248573",title:"Dr.",name:"Xianguang",surname:"Yang",slug:"xianguang-yang",fullName:"Xianguang Yang"},{id:"249196",title:"Prof.",name:"Baojun",surname:"Li",slug:"baojun-li",fullName:"Baojun Li"}],corrections:null},{id:"62689",title:"Plasmonic Modes in Au and AuAg Nanowires and Nanowire Dimers Studied by Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79189",slug:"plasmonic-modes-in-au-and-auag-nanowires-and-nanowire-dimers-studied-by-electron-energy-loss-spectro",totalDownloads:1120,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we review our recent work on the investigation of surface plasmon modes in metallic nanowires and nanowire dimers by means of electron energy loss spectroscopy combined with scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM-EELS). Due to the very high spatial resolution, STEM-EELS is a powerful technique to visualize multipole order surface plasmon modes in nanowires and study the dependency of their resonance energies on different parameters such as nanowire dimensions or nanowire porosity. In addition, we investigate surface plasmon hybridization in nanowires separated by gaps of less than 10 nm or connected by small metallic bridges. In such structures new modes arise, which depend strongly on gap or bridge sizes. Experimental results are supported by finite element simulations. The investigated nanowires and dimers are fabricated by electrodeposition in etched ion-track templates, combined with a selective dissolution processes. The synthesis techniques and their advantages for the fabrication of plasmonic nanostructures are also discussed.",signatures:"Ina Schubert and Maria Eugenia Toimil-Molares",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62689",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62689",authors:[{id:"44310",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Eugenia",surname:"Toimil-Molares",slug:"maria-eugenia-toimil-molares",fullName:"Maria Eugenia Toimil-Molares"},{id:"248071",title:"Dr.",name:"Ina",surname:"Schubert",slug:"ina-schubert",fullName:"Ina Schubert"}],corrections:null},{id:"63009",title:"Arbitrary Form Plasmonic Structures: Optical Realization, Numerical Analysis and Demonstration Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79236",slug:"arbitrary-form-plasmonic-structures-optical-realization-numerical-analysis-and-demonstration-applica",totalDownloads:1178,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Surface plasmon resonance has attracted more and more attention thanks to its wide range of applications in numerous fields (physics, chemistry, biology, etc.). In this chapter, we present different aspects, from theoretical calculation and experimental fabrication to applications demonstration, related to arbitrary shape plasmonic nanostructures. First, numerical calculations based on finite-difference time-domain method were realized to investigate the plasmonic properties of gold nanostructures having various size and shapes. Then the direct laser writing method was demonstrated as an excellent tool for fabrication on demand of arbitrary nanostructures. Plasmonic structures were obtained indirectly by a standard lift-off method from a polymeric template and directly by tightly focusing a continuous-wave laser beam onto a metallic thin film. Finally, demonstration of various applications of fabricated plasmonic structures, namely plasmonic-based data storage, color nanoprinter, tunable filters, and plasmonic-magneto-optics sensors will be shown.",signatures:"Quang Cong Tong, Fei Mao, Mai Hoang Luong, Minh Thanh Do,\nRasta Ghasemi, Tran Quoc Tien, Tho Duc Nguyen and Ngoc Diep Lai",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63009",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63009",authors:[{id:"16450",title:"Dr.",name:"Ngoc Diep",surname:"Lai",slug:"ngoc-diep-lai",fullName:"Ngoc Diep Lai"},{id:"252073",title:"MSc.",name:"Fei",surname:"Mao",slug:"fei-mao",fullName:"Fei Mao"},{id:"252074",title:"Dr.",name:"Quang Cong",surname:"Tong",slug:"quang-cong-tong",fullName:"Quang Cong Tong"},{id:"252075",title:"MSc.",name:"Mai Hoang",surname:"Luong",slug:"mai-hoang-luong",fullName:"Mai Hoang Luong"},{id:"252076",title:"Dr.",name:"Rasta",surname:"Ghasemi",slug:"rasta-ghasemi",fullName:"Rasta Ghasemi"},{id:"252077",title:"Dr.",name:"Duc Tho",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"duc-tho-nguyen",fullName:"Duc Tho Nguyen"},{id:"261044",title:"MSc.",name:"Minh Thanh",surname:"Do",slug:"minh-thanh-do",fullName:"Minh Thanh Do"},{id:"261045",title:"Dr.",name:"Quoc Tien",surname:"Tran",slug:"quoc-tien-tran",fullName:"Quoc Tien Tran"}],corrections:null},{id:"64066",title:"Surface Magneto Plasmons and Their Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79788",slug:"surface-magneto-plasmons-and-their-applications",totalDownloads:1123,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Due to their promising properties, surface magneto plasmons have attracted great interests in the field of plasmonics. Apart from flexible modulation of the plasmonic properties by an external magnetic field, surface magneto plasmons also promise nonreciprocal effect and multi-bands of propagation, which can be applied into the design of integrated plasmonic devices for biosensing and telecommunication applications. In the visible frequencies, hybrid nanodevices consisting of metals and magnetic materials based on surface magneto plasmon are proposed. In the infrared frequencies, highly-doped semiconductors can replace metals, owning to the lower incident wave frequencies and lower plasma frequencies. Furthermore, a promising 2D material-graphene shows great potential in infrared magnetic plasmonics. In this book chapter, we will review the magneto plasmonics with a focus on device designs and applications. We will give the basic theory of surface magneto plasmons propagating in different structures, including plane surface structures and slot waveguides. Based on the fundamental investigation and theoretical studies, we will illustrate various magneto plasmonic micro/nanodevices, such as tunable waveguides, filters, and beam-splitters. Novel plasmonic devices such as one-way waveguides and broad-band waveguides will also be introduced.",signatures:"Bin Hu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64066",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64066",authors:[{id:"249980",title:"Dr.",name:"Bin",surname:"Hu",slug:"bin-hu",fullName:"Bin Hu"}],corrections:null},{id:"62426",title:"Plasmonic Enhancement of Solar Cells Efficiency: Material Dependence in Semiconductor Metallic Surface Nano-Modification",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79113",slug:"plasmonic-enhancement-of-solar-cells-efficiency-material-dependence-in-semiconductor-metallic-surfac",totalDownloads:1104,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Recent experimental data shown a promising direction in employing nano-plasmonics for increasing efficiencies of the solar cells. The effect is due to metallic nanoparticles’ plasmons mediating energy transfer from the incoming e-m wave to the semiconductor in a regime violating limits in energy transitions imposed by the momentum conservation, due to translational invariance departure in surface nano-modified system. The chapter presents analysis of material dependence of near-field coupling to band electrons of surface plazmons in metallic nanoparticles deposited on the top of semiconductor substrate in nano-modified solar cells. Various materials for metal and substrate are comparatively studied upon the quantum Fermi Golden Rule approach in theoretical quantitative modeling of the plasmon-electron coupling that enhances ordinary PV effect. The material dependence of the plasmon-mediated efficiency growth in two types of solar cells, multi-crystalline Si and CIGS (copper-indium-gallium-diselenide), modified by various surface-deposited metallic nanoparticles is additionally illustrated by the experimental data.",signatures:"Janusz E. Jacak and Witold A. Jacak",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62426",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62426",authors:[{id:"174529",title:"Dr.",name:"Witold",surname:"Jacak",slug:"witold-jacak",fullName:"Witold Jacak"},{id:"187250",title:"Dr.",name:"Janusz",surname:"Jacak",slug:"janusz-jacak",fullName:"Janusz Jacak"}],corrections:null},{id:"62912",title:"Plasmonic Intracellular Delivery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79384",slug:"plasmonic-intracellular-delivery",totalDownloads:884,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter describes the significance of plasmonics to the field of intracellular delivery. We begin by discussing the significance of intracellular delivery, its applications in biology and medicine, and the currently available intracellular delivery techniques. Next, we discuss the field of plasmonic intracellular delivery, beginning with the discovery of optoporation. In optoporation, a laser beam is tightly focused onto a cell membrane to generate a transient pore, through which membrane-impermeable cargo can enter the cell. To improve the throughput of this technique, plasmonic materials were used for their ability to efficiently absorb laser light and generate spatially confined electric fields. Here, we describe the process by which plasmonic materials absorb laser light energy and generate plasmons. These plasmons transfer their energy to their surroundings, resulting in a rise in temperature and the subsequent creation of a bubble or shockwave. Finally, we describe how the properties of plasmons and plasmon-mediated effects facilitate cell poration for intracellular delivery.",signatures:"Marinna Madrid",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62912",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62912",authors:[{id:"247621",title:"Dr.",name:"Marinna",surname:"Madrid",slug:"marinna-madrid",fullName:"Marinna Madrid"}],corrections:null},{id:"62462",title:"Plasmonics in Sensing: From Colorimetry to SERS Analytics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79055",slug:"plasmonics-in-sensing-from-colorimetry-to-sers-analytics",totalDownloads:1634,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:28,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter gives a brief overview of plasmonic nanoparticle (NP)-based sensing concepts ranging from classical spectral-shift colorimetry to the highly active field of surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) spectroscopy. In the last two decades, colloidal approaches have developed significantly. This is seen with, for example, refractive-index sensing, detection of ad−/desorption and ligand-exchange processes, as well as ultrasensitive chemical sensing utilizing well-defined nanocrystals or discrete self-assembled superstructures in 2D and 3D. Apart from individual NPs, the rational design of self-assembled nanostructures grants spectroscopic access to unprecedented physicochemical information. This involves selected research examples on molecular trapping, ligand corona analysis, SERS-encoding, and biosensing. The origin of the SERS effect, also in regard to hot spot formation by off-resonant excitation, is reviewed and discussed in the context of the current challenge to formulate a generalized metric for high SERS efficiency. Special emphasis lies in addressing the fundamental design criteria and the specific challenges of these particle-based sensing techniques.",signatures:"Christian Kuttner",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62462",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62462",authors:[{id:"247741",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",surname:"Kuttner",slug:"christian-kuttner",fullName:"Christian Kuttner"}],corrections:null},{id:"62272",title:"Plasmonics on Optical Fiber Platforms",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79146",slug:"plasmonics-on-optical-fiber-platforms",totalDownloads:1076,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Optical fiber platforms are promising for plasmonics research and applications, thanks to their compactness, flexibility, and cost-effectiveness, which are further leveraged by easy accessibility to numerous fiberized sources and devices. In this chapter, the author particularly pays attention to novel surface plasmon polariton (SPP) devices implemented onto optical fiber platforms. First, the author investigates novel circular metallic nanoslit-based optical fiber facets for the generation of axially symmetric SPPs with significantly enhanced noise characteristics. Second, the author investigates novel metallic Fresnel-zone-plate optical fiber facets for super-variable focusing with incident wavelength and for selective focusing with incident polarization. Third, the author investigates novel metal-coated angled optical fiber facets for versatile SPP coupling and its application to wavelength-dependent off-axis beaming, which offer high efficiency, unidirectionality, and perfect compatibility with fiberized light sources. The author expects that these investigations will broaden both fiber optics and plasmonics research fields, and also be useful for various novel applications, including micro-/nanomachining, optical trapping, and biomedical sensing, for example.",signatures:"Hyuntai Kim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62272",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62272",authors:[{id:"250296",title:"Dr.",name:"Hyuntai",surname:"Kim",slug:"hyuntai-kim",fullName:"Hyuntai Kim"}],corrections:null},{id:"62894",title:"Ultrathin Oxide Wrapping of Plasmonic Nanoparticles via Colloidal Electrostatic Self-Assembly and their Enhanced Performances",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79573",slug:"ultrathin-oxide-wrapping-of-plasmonic-nanoparticles-via-colloidal-electrostatic-self-assembly-and-th",totalDownloads:936,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Ultrathin and uniform oxide layer-wrapped plasmonic nanoparticles (NPs) have been expected in the fields of light energy conversion and optical sensing fields. In this chapter, we proposed a universal strategy to prepare such core-shell plasmonic NPs based on colloidal electrostatic attraction and self-assembly procedures. Based on the self-assembly strategy, laser ablation of metal targets in liquid medium was conducted at room temperature to one-pot fabricate the oxide-wrapped plasmonic NPs. It demonstrates that a series of core-shell nanostructured NPs such as Au@Fe2O3, Au@Al2O3, Au@CuO, Au@ZnO, Pt@TiO2, and Pd@TiO2, have been readily obtained free of contaminations. Technical analyses illustrate that those composite NPs possess uniform and symmetrical oxides layers with several nanometers in thickness. Furthermore, both the thickness and crystallinity of the oxides layer could be precisely tailored simply by controlling hydrolysis of precursors and irradiation durations. Finally, due to ultrathin wrapping of oxides, the as-obtained core-shell plasmonic NPs show excellent surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) and gas-sensing performances compared with bare metal or oxides NPs.",signatures:"Haoming Bao, Hongwen Zhang, Guangqiang Liu and Weiping Cai",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62894",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62894",authors:[{id:"58810",title:"Dr.",name:"Guangqiang",surname:"Liu",slug:"guangqiang-liu",fullName:"Guangqiang Liu"},{id:"58811",title:"Prof.",name:"Weiping",surname:"Cai",slug:"weiping-cai",fullName:"Weiping Cai"},{id:"247986",title:"Mr.",name:"Haoming",surname:"Bao",slug:"haoming-bao",fullName:"Haoming Bao"},{id:"247989",title:"Dr.",name:"Hongwen",surname:"Zhang",slug:"hongwen-zhang",fullName:"Hongwen Zhang"}],corrections:null},{id:"62576",title:"Plasmonic Effect in Photoelectrochemical Cells",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79580",slug:"plasmonic-effect-in-photoelectrochemical-cells",totalDownloads:1113,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Two types of third-generation photovoltaic (PV) cells are sensitized by dyes and quantum dots (QDs), the former being dye-sensitized solar cell abbreviated as DSSC. The second is the quantum dot-sensitized solar cell or QDSSC. There are three main components in DSSC and QDSSC. The photoanode is the component where the light is being absorbed either by molecules of the dye or by the quantum dots (QDs). The sensitizers are attached on the semiconductor (normally TiO2) surface. The conduction band (CB) of the semiconducting material should be at a level lower than the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) of the dye molecules or CB of QDs for fast electron transfer. Incorporation of plasmonic materials into the photoanode can increase light absorption efficiency by surface plasmon effect and thus improve the efficiency of the DSSCs and QDSSCs. Plasmonic materials that have been employed include gold (Au), silver (Ag) and aluminum (Al) nanoparticles (NPs). Different NPs exhibit different effects on the cell parameters. Covering the NPs with a thin wide bandgap semiconducting film is necessary to protect the plasmonic NP materials from the corrosive nature of the electrolyte.",signatures:"Abdul Kariem Bin Mohd Arof and Mohd Hamdi Bin Ali Buraidah",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62576",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62576",authors:[{id:"186084",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdul Kariem",surname:"Arof",slug:"abdul-kariem-arof",fullName:"Abdul Kariem Arof"},{id:"263490",title:"Dr.",name:"Mh",surname:"Buraidah",slug:"mh-buraidah",fullName:"Mh Buraidah"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7393",title:"Atmospheric Pressure Plasma",subtitle:"from Diagnostics to Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1e06b02c1a2008b06370a0ed2f36521c",slug:"atmospheric-pressure-plasma-from-diagnostics-to-applications",bookSignature:"Anton Nikiforov and Zhiqiang Chen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7393.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"176861",title:"Dr.",name:"Anton",surname:"Nikiforov",slug:"anton-nikiforov",fullName:"Anton Nikiforov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6735",title:"Plasma Science and Technology",subtitle:"Basic Fundamentals and Modern Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6438c65002222003fa8943fe40ebdb7b",slug:"plasma-science-and-technology-basic-fundamentals-and-modern-applications",bookSignature:"Haikel Jelassi and Djamel Benredjem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6735.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"233397",title:"Dr.",name:"Haikel",surname:"Jelassi",slug:"haikel-jelassi",fullName:"Haikel Jelassi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8856",title:"Electrostatic Discharge",subtitle:"From Electrical breakdown in Micro-gaps to Nano-generators",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc66d347ac7bb73c1ae552a0dcbc976c",slug:"electrostatic-discharge-from-electrical-breakdown-in-micro-gaps-to-nano-generators",bookSignature:"Steven H. 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\r\n\tWaste in general is any substance (solid, liquid or gas) that has no direct use and is discarded permanently. Waste is considered hazardous if it exhibits any of the following characteristics: flammability, reactiveness, explosiveness, corrosiveness, radioactivity, infectivity, irritability, sensitizing, or bioaccumulativity. Today, the most important wastes are biomedical and food waste. Biomedical waste refers to any waste which is generated during diagnosis, treatment, or immunization of human beings or animals, or in research activities, production, and testing occurring thereto.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tContamination with biomedical waste and its impact on the environment are global concerns. Biomedical waste that has not been collected and disposed in accordance with the regulations can become a total environmental hazard and cause negative impact on human health and the environment. Medical centers including hospitals, clinics, and places where diagnosis and treatment are conducted generate waste that is highly hazardous and put people under risk of fatal diseases. On the other hand, food waste is commonly produced in all the steps of food life cycle, such as during agricultural production, industrial manufacturing, processing and distribution, and is even consumer-generated within private households. Food waste mostly contains high-value components such as phytochemicals, proteins, flavor compounds, polysaccharides, and fibers, which can be reused as nutraceuticals and functional ingredients. Adsorption is a practicable separation method for purification, along with bulk separation where surface characteristics and pore structures are the main properties in determining equilibrium rate. Managing waste materials on the whole is often unsatisfactory, especially in developing countries, and the unreasonable disposal of waste is a major issue worldwide.
\r\n\tThe following issues will be of particular interest for this book: effects of waste on environment and health, biomedical waste - storage, management, treatment, and disposal, biomedical waste contamination, food waste, potential applications of low-cost sorbents in agricultural and food sectors, biosorbents and bioadsorbents, adsorption of modified agricultural and biological wastes (biosorption), compounds recovered from food waste, and agricultural and food waste-derived sorbents.
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Ribeiro",slug:"ediane-maria-gomes-ribeiro"},{id:"97955",title:"Dr.",name:"Gisela Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Dellamora Ortiz",fullName:"Gisela Maria Dellamora Ortiz",slug:"gisela-maria-dellamora-ortiz"}]},{id:"29166",title:"Advanced Oxidation Processes in Food Industry Wastewater Treatment – A Review",slug:"advanced-oxidation-processes-in-food-industry-wastewater-treatment-a-review",signatures:"Anne Heponiemi and Ulla Lassi",authors:[{id:"94998",title:"MSc.",name:"Anne",middleName:null,surname:"Heponiemi",fullName:"Anne Heponiemi",slug:"anne-heponiemi"},{id:"95000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulla",middleName:null,surname:"Lassi",fullName:"Ulla Lassi",slug:"ulla-lassi"}]},{id:"29167",title:"X-Ray Microtomography for Food Quality Analysis",slug:"x-ray-microtomography-for-food-quality-analysis",signatures:"Janine Laverse, Pierangelo Frisullo, Amalia Conte and Matteo Alessandro Del Nobile",authors:[{id:"90784",title:"Prof.",name:"Matteo",middleName:null,surname:"Del Nobile",fullName:"Matteo Del Nobile",slug:"matteo-del-nobile"}]},{id:"29168",title:"Corrosion in the Food Industry and Its Control",slug:"corrosion-in-the-food-industry-and-its-control",signatures:"Benjamín Valdez Salas, Michael Schorr Wiener, Margarita Stoytcheva, Roumen Zlatev and Monica Carrillo Beltran",authors:[{id:"65522",title:"Dr.",name:"Benjamin",middleName:null,surname:"Valdez",fullName:"Benjamin Valdez",slug:"benjamin-valdez"}]},{id:"29169",title:"Computer-Based On-Line Assessment of Sterilizing Value and Heat Distribution in Retort for Canning Process",slug:"computer-based-on-line-assessment-of-sterilizing-value-and-heat-distribution-in-retort-for-canning-p",signatures:"Montip Chamchong, Vilasinee Sangsom and Nuttakorn Charoeamkitti",authors:[{id:"100940",title:"Dr.",name:"Montip",middleName:null,surname:"Chamchong",fullName:"Montip Chamchong",slug:"montip-chamchong"}]},{id:"29170",title:"Ice-Temperature Storage Technology of Fruits and 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Vilela"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7332",title:"Some New Aspects of Colloidal Systems in Foods",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0dd822267e027684bd3ff53da4f2ef41",slug:"some-new-aspects-of-colloidal-systems-in-foods",bookSignature:"Jafar M. Milani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7332.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"91158",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jafar",surname:"Milani",slug:"jafar-milani",fullName:"Jafar Milani"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8504",title:"Pectins",subtitle:"Extraction, Purification, Characterization and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ff1acef627b277c575a10b3259dd331b",slug:"pectins-extraction-purification-characterization-and-applications",bookSignature:"Martin Masuelli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8504.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99994",title:"Dr.",name:"Martin",surname:"Masuelli",slug:"martin-masuelli",fullName:"Martin Masuelli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[{type:"book",id:"1408",title:"Scientific, Health and Social Aspects of the Food Industry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e683dc398eabec0db3a88e891209a406",slug:"scientific-health-and-social-aspects-of-the-food-industry",bookSignature:"Benjamin Valdez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1408.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65522",title:"Dr.",name:"Benjamin",surname:"Valdez",slug:"benjamin-valdez",fullName:"Benjamin Valdez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"77681",title:"Recent Advances in Biodistribution, Preclinical and Clinical Applications of Radiolabelled Iodine",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99113",slug:"recent-advances-in-biodistribution-preclinical-and-clinical-applications-of-radiolabelled-iodine",body:'This chapter will focus on presenting a review of the current situation regarding the use of radioiodine labeled agents in clinical and preclinical nuclear medicine imaging and radionuclide therapy. We will show the actual clinical applications and summarize the preclinical and clinical research efforts undergoing today in this dynamic field of medicine. These agents were found to be interesting since they can be applied to both imaging the disease and for therapy, by delivering a will localized radiation dose to a target tissues or tumor volume within the human anatomy. This delivery is carried out by the so called carrier systems such as, monoclonal antibodies or fragments of those and also by nanoparticles both inorganic and organic and microspheres. These carriers will carry the radioactivity of the radionuclide to the targeted biological site. There are two types of targeting the first is direct targeting, when the pharmaceutical accumulation in a tissue or site is done through inherent pathophysiological characteristics; or indirect which occurs if the used carries possess higher affinity to bind to a particular cell type or tissue. The good example of such radiopharmaceutical is tositumomab (131I-labeled anti-CD20 antibody), which received Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval for the treatment of Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma in 2003.
Physical and temporal variability of the iodine −131 activity distributions in tissue constitute what is commonly called bio distribution models. The models are based on what is known in mathematics as compartmental modeling. For the sake of radiation dose calculations scientist may use different models to estimate the activity present in the patient body and the fraction of the radioactivity released from his or her body using simple two compartment model. More rigorous models also exist, having more than five compartments.
Biodistribution experiments are also published and new ones are still being published it is a dynamic field of research. The same apply for different radiopharmaceuticals. Organs Residence time is one important factors being measured while developing a bio distribution experiments leading to the proposal of a new bio distribution model.
Factors altering such models are very important to be aware of, because the alteration in the bio distribution will directly impact the radiation dose calculations and therefore the safety of the patients undergoing radioiodine therapy. To the best of our knowledge there are no general agreement on the methods or standards applied when reporting bio distribution studies. Therefore we will attempt to summarize the ones in the literature.
Biokinetic data are variables that describe the bio distribution space time functions.
Among the most common of these variables are: the uptake fraction by the organ example the thyroid, the excreted fraction as (urine or feces), the biological half-life or time in a specific organ or body tissues like blood, thyroid, and intestine for example. The fractions are mostly given as % and the time are often given in days most of the times in the case of radioactive iodine. Biokinetic data for radioactive iodine are reported in ICRP-30 [1].
Radionuclide delivery systems are now as antibodies, nanoparticles both inorganic and organic and finally as Microspheres.
In this reference good information is given on targeted radionuclide therapy for the thyroid cancer treatment. Parallelism is shown between preclinical animal models in rats and mice versus humans [2].
Translation of the experimental findings and research results is an issue that warrants the attention of the researcher; in this case the range of radiation in tissues and the organ sizes needs to be considered. Also the difference among the metabolism and metabolism rate models used directly affects the biodistribution in the animal or the human under study.
Compartmental models are used for internal radioisotope ingestions or injections dosimetry since the seventies. We are referring to the ICRP publication 30 published in 1979. In that documents several compartmental models are proposed, we focus on the model proposed for iodine metabolism in humans.
In order to apply the model a set of differential equations has to be solved simultaneously to obtain the biodistribution of iodine in human body. The equations can be solved numerically using algorithm included in software like Mathematica or Matlab.
Biokinetic models parameters are taken for healthy individuals. In order to apply the models to cancer patients for example, the metabolic data has to be customized to represent their actual metabolism status. Currently, scientists are recommending the use of personalized radiopharmaceutical therapy where each therapeutic procedures is planned based on the individual patient data and not using the generic data from reports like ICRP and others.
The following 4 differential equations are for the model in Figure 1:
Five compartments human body biokinetic model of iodine as per ICRP-30 report.
This five compartment model is the one proposed by the −30 to represent the biokinetic model of iodine in healthy individuals.
After solving the system of simultaneous four differential equations above the solution yield the following.
These results are for the healthy individuals, solving the same system for thyroid cancer patients yields the following [3, 4]:
We can see that there is a significant difference in the values obtained. Where the importance of personalized dose estimates, the analysis of the results dictates the importance to take into account the pathology of the patients and his thyroid disease status and diagnosis before interpreting the results of any biokinetic experiment or data analysis.
The radiopharmaceutical kinetic data often known as Biodistribution is a function of space and time. Imaging the whole body or specific region using planar scintillation Gamma camera can be used to obtain the necessary data for the study. The accuracy of this method is better when the radiopharmaceutical is localized in a specific area of the body or organ and this region do not overlap with other uptake area in the planar projection.
A region of interest (ROI) is determined in order to estimate the absolute amount of radioactivity in the organ. Modern Gamma cameras provide capability to delineate ROI of nay shape and to perform statistical analysis on the pixels inside the ROI to obtain the number of counts per pixel inside the ROI and the count rate.
Sequential imaging as a function of time postadministration of the radiopharmaceutical provides the time dependence of activity (time-activity curve) [5]. In this reference a full description of the imaging based method using planar gamma camera, SPECT and PET are described in great details.
Clinical and preclinical imaging protocols are published by different groups of scientists worldwide. Imaging is the key part of the bio distribution data acquisition experiment and constitutes the primary data for the model that will be proposed based on the results obtained during the experiment.
Imaging acquisition at different times after oral administration of a known activity of I-131 1100 MBq is the most common used with human subjects. Using a clinical gamma camera scanned data form the organs of interest, example the stomach using an region of interest (ROI) is converted to counts per pixel per sec. Will be acquired and data will be extracted for further analysis.
Such technique will allow the distribution of the agent in tumors and normal organs to be quantified [6]. Dosimetry as implemented in RPT may be thought of as the ability to perform the equivalent of a pharmacodynamic study in treated patients in real time [7]. When patient dosimetry is performed it allow prediction of treatment success based on reported results in the literature, it is then possible to calculate both normal tissue and tumor doses.
Organ uptake, Reminder of body uptake, Assumed waste. Derivation of the biological half –life values in different organs: they are theoretical estimations of the time-dependent quantity of I-131 in various compartments.
In Ref. [7] the authors have found that estimated biological half-life’s obtained via the biokinetic model of radioiodine for thyroid cancer patients was found to strongly deviate from those recommended by Eckerman’s suggestion for healthy male.
By definition lambda is given by:
Where T1/2 is the half-life. it could be the biological (Tb), physical (Tp) or effective (Teff) half-life depending on the application.
Knowing that:
The biological half-life of radiopharmaceuticals is organ dependents. We will observe dissimilar values for different organs.
Time integrated activity coefficients (TIAC) are known also as organs residence times. They are proportional to the radiation absorbed dose by the organ or body tissue.
The radiopharmaceutical effective half-life is different for each organ in the body. And they are dependent of the biodistribution or the individual organ uptake fraction of the total injected activity. The same applies to the tumor tissues targeted by the radiopharmaceutical therapy; in our case here it is the remaining of the post ablation thyroid tissues treated using I-131.
In many medical applications involving the administration of iodine-131 (131I) in the form of iodide (I−), most of the dose is delivered to the thyroid gland [3].
To reliably estimate the thyroid absorbed dose, the following data are required:
the thyroid gland size (i.e. mass), the fractional uptake of 131I by the thyroid, the spatial distribution of 131I within the thyroid, and the length of time 131I is retained in the thyroid before it is released back to blood, distributed in other organs and tissues, and excreted from the body [4, 8, 9, 10].
Estimation of absorbed dose to non-thyroid tissues likewise requires knowledge of the time course of activity in each organ. Such data are rarely available, however, and therefore dose calculations are generally based on reference models. The MIRD and ICRP have published metabolic models and have calculated absorbed doses per unit intake for many nuclides and radioactive pharmaceuticals. Given the activity taken into the body, one can use such models and make reasonable calculations for average organ doses. When normal retention and excretion pathways are altered, the baseline models need to be modified, and the resulting organ dose estimates are subject to larger errors.
Even if the uptake of iodine is very specific to thyroid tissue, side effects from off-target accumulation are common. Frequent short-term side effects after 131I therapy of patients with differentiated thyroid cancer are gastrointestinal symptoms, pain or swelling in the neck or salivary glands, while frequent late effects are functional problems with salivary glands [11, 12, 13, 14, 15].
The hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis is an example of an endocrine feedback loop that is known to have a circadian rhythm [16].
Patients with chronic renal failure exhibited significant salivary gland, oral, nasal, and gastric activity 1 week after radioiodine administration [17].
Active iodide (I−) transport in both the thyroid and some extra-thyroidal tissues is mediated by the Na+/I− symporter (NIS).
The cDNA encoding NIS was isolated in 1996, marking a major breakthrough in thyroid research that led to the subsequent characterization of NIS at the molecular level. Functional NIS is found in several extra-thyroidal tissues, such as the salivary glands, stomach, and lactating breast, as well as in primary and metastatic breast cancers. The latter findings have raised the possibility that NIS-mediated 131I− treatment may be effective in breast cancer. One of the most remarkable properties of NIS is that it transports different substrates with different stoichiometries. TSH is the primary regulator of NIS in the thyroid at both the transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels. At the molecular level, excess I− may have a deleterious effect on the thyroid by modifying NIS mRNA stability and increasing the production of reactive oxygen species. Thyroidal NIS function is also regulated by direct cross talk between NIS and a K+ channel [18].
In the last two decades, NIS has become an important player in the use and optimization of gene therapy owing to its capacity as a reporter and as a therapeutic gene
NIS expression and activity correlate with cell viability because only living cells can accumulate I−. NIS also offers higher detection sensitivity, because it actively transports its substrates rather than simply binding a substrate stoichiometrically. Moreover, NIS can translocate a variety of substrates, which can be detected using different systems, such as gamma cameras, PET, and SPECT (single-photon emission computed tomography) combined with computed tomography (CT) [18]
Radiopharmaceutical therapy (RPT) is emerging as a safe and effective targeted approach to treating many types of cancer. In RPT, radiation is systemically or locally delivered using pharmaceuticals that either bind preferentially to cancer cells or accumulate by physiological mechanisms. Almost all radionuclides used in RPT emit photons that can be imaged, enabling non-invasive visualization of the biodistribution of the therapeutic agent. Compared with almost all other systemic cancer treatment options, RPT has shown efficacy with minimal toxicity. With the recent FDA approval of several RPT agents, the remarkable potential of this treatment is now being recognized [6]. We will mention a few emerging clinical development of radioiodine labeled RPT agents newly available or still under development at the present time. RPT development is a multidisciplinary endeavor, requiring expertise in radiochemistry, radiobiology, oncology, pharmacology, medical physics and radionuclide imaging and dosimetry.
Theranostic is the general concept of using a radionuclide- labeled agent that may be imaged to guide radiopharmaceutical therapy; a radionuclide that may be used for both imaging and therapy, and it is the new trend in RPT.
I-131 meta- iodobenzylguanidine (mIBG): for Adrenergic receptor tumors; the active uptake mechanism via the adrenaline transporter and storage in presynaptic neurosecretory granules. FDA approved but clinical trials are ongoing. This radiopharmaceutical can be used to treat patients with neuroblastomas [19].
mIBG radiolabelled with high- specific- activity iodine-131 was recently approved by the FDA for the treatment of adult and pediatric patients aged 12 years or older with unresectable metastatic phaeochromocytoma or paraganglioma.
I-131- labeled CLR131 for Pediatric cancer, head and neck cancer, multiple myeloma, leukemia, lymphoma. The radio-labeled phospholipid ether analogue targeting cancer cell- specific lipid raft microdomains. It is still undergoing the phase of clinical trials and testing.
I-131- labeled CLR1404 for unresponsive solid tumor, multiple myeloma. The radio-labeled phospholipid ether analogue targeting cancer cell-specific lipid raft microdomains. It is still undergoing the phase of clinical trials and testing.
Radiolabeled sdAbs prove to be promising vehicles for molecular imaging and targeted radionuclide therapy of metastatic lesions in the brain. Administration of [I-131]-2Rs15d and [Ac-225]-2Rs15d alone and in combination with trastuzumab showed a significant increase in median survival in 2 tumor models that remained largely unresponsive to trastuzumab treatment alone [20]. Puttemans et al. [21] have described the use of the anti-HER2 sdAb 2Rs15d, coupled to 111In or 131I for detection via PECT/CT, and coupled to 131I or 225Ac for targeted radionuclide therapy (TRNT) of HER2pos brain lesions and compare its therapeutic efficacy and systemic toxicity to that of trastuzumab, a clinically-approved anti-HER2 treatment. They have demonstrated that radiolabeled sdAbs are ideal vehicles for targeted radionuclide therapy and molecular imaging, not only for systemic disease, but also for metastatic lesions in the brain. Moreover, histopathological analysis after therapy revealed no significant early toxicity. Dosimetry based on ex vivo biodistribution data confirmed most activity is retained within the kidneys until 48 h after administration, however after extrapolation to therapeutic activities the cumulative absorbed dose (25 Gy) remains close to the considered toxicity threshold of 23 Gy to kidneys [21].
The amount of 131I- tositumomab prescribed to patients was determined by assessing the whole- body clearance rate, so that the amount administered was adjusted to deliver the same whole- body absorbed dose in all treated patients [21], making it the first RPT agent whose package insert specified an absorbed dose- based treatment planning procedure. Such an approach was, in part, necessitated because the radioiodine in iodine-131- labeled antibodies is cleaved (due to dehalogenation) from the antibody if the radiolabelled antibody construct is internalized.
Radioimmunotherpy using antibodies injection is another application of I-131 in oncology. Administered to patients suffering from hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), the product will target the hepatic cancer cells while sparing other adjacent tissues. The whole body biodistribution is required in order to perform radiation dosimetry, evaluate the risk from the treatment and to ensure patient safety.
I-131 - labeled a CD45 for Bone marrow transplant preparation.
The I-131 based antibody targeting CD45+ cells for bone marrow ablation before transplantation. It is still undergoing the phase of testing and planned clinical trials. Early studies showed the potential to image the radioiodinated antibodies using SPECT [22, 23].
The radiolabelled antibodies were used for total body irradiation in preparation for bone marrow transplantation (BMT). report results of a study on patients with acute myelogenous leukemia in a phase I clinical trial where results showed that it is possible while appending I-131 to M195 antibody to deliver beta emitter particles to the targeted cells in the bone marrow, it was also possible to image the disease in the bone marrow.
The tumor-homing property of mesenchyme stem cells (MSCs) allows targeted delivery of therapeutic genes into the tumor microenvironment. The application of sodium iodide symporter.
(NIS) as a theranostic gene allows noninvasive imaging of MSC biodistribution and transgene expression before therapeutic radioiodine application. Linking therapeutic transgene expression to induction of the chemokine CCL5/RANTES allows a more focused expression within primary tumors, as the adoptively transferred MSC develop carcinoma-associated fibroblast-like characteristics. Although RANTES/CCL5-NIS targeting has shown efficacy in the treatment of primary tumors, it was not clear if it would also be effective in controlling the growth of metastatic disease. To expand the potential range of tumor targets, we investigated the biodistribution and tumor recruitment of MSCs transfected with NIS under control of the RANTES/CCL5 promoter (RANTES-NIS-MSC) in a colon cancer liver metastasis mouse model established by intrasplenic injection of the human colon cancer cell line LS174t. Results show robust MSC recruitment with RANTES/CCL5-promoter activation within the stroma of liver metastases as evidenced by tumor-selective iodide accumulation, immunohistochemistry, and real-time polymerase chain reaction. Therapeutic application of 131I in RANTES-NIS-MSC–treated mice resulted in a significant delay in tumor growth and improved overall survival. Conclusion: This novel gene therapy approach opens the prospect of NIS-mediated radionuclide therapy of metastatic cancer after MSC-mediated gene delivery [24].
in the area of preclinical development regarding tumor targeted therapy using radioiodine labeled molecules an active research work is undergoing using Nano and microsphere technologies. The good example of such radiopharmaceutical is tositumomab (131I-labeled anti-CD20 antibody), which received Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval for the treatment of Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma in 2003.
Initial clinical trials of 131I- labeled iodized oil (131I- labeled Lipiodol) were completed in the late 1980s/early 1990s (285–288), and clinical investigations of this treatment modality continued until 2013 (NCT00116454, NCT00870558 and NCT00027768).
Administration of 131I- labeled Lipiodol in the adjuvant setting, after resection or radiofrequency ablation for hepatocellular carcinoma, yielded a 6- month increase in recurrence free survival and a 24- month increase in median overall survival [25].
RPT has proven to be an effective cancer treatment when other standard therapeutic approaches have failed. However, despite more than 40 years of clinical investigation, RPT has not become a part of the cancer treatment armamentarium in the same way as other therapies. ‘Targeted’ cancer therapies are associated with clinical trial failure rates of 97% (ref. 1), partly because the agents targeted a pathway that was not involved in promoting the cancer phenotype2. By contrast, RPT has been unsuccessful owing to a failure to adopt and rigorously evaluate this treatment modality, which may be explained in part by the multidisciplinary nature of the treatment.
Additional challenges facing the development and application of RPT include public perception and fear of radioactivity as well as the perceived complexity of the treatment.
The need for a new specialty or subspecialty to provide the multidisciplinary training needed to safely and effectively administer RPT agents to patients and subsequently manage them. Such a specialty or subspecialty would require training in nuclear medicine, radiation oncology and also general oncology as delivery of radiation is involved, the participation of medical physicists familiar with both imaging and radionuclide dosimetry is important.
The article by Jongho Jeon [25], reviews recent progress in cancer therapy using radiolabeled nanomaterials including inorganic, polymeric, and carbon-based materials and liposomes. The article first provides an overview of radiolabeling methods for preparing anticancer agents that have been investigated recently in preclinical studies. Next, they discuss the therapeutic applications and effectiveness of beta or alpha emitter-incorporated nanomaterials in animal models and the emerging possibilities of these nanomaterials in cancer therapy [26].
In contrast to biologics or chemotherapeutics, both radiation delivery and the biological response to radiation may be mathematically modeled and used to understand the parameters of a treatment that are most important in influencing efficacy and toxicity. The capability to use multiple agents in one carrier is very unique about nanomaterials [27].
Unlike chemotherapy and external beam radiation therapy RPT has not yet been established as a treatment modality in oncology. Mainly because lots of suggested RPT agents are still undergoing clinical trials and some are still in the preclinical stage. The known fact is that, the tumor response to RPT can be mathematically modeled and also the radiation dosimetry is well established [24, 25]. There are research projects underway that focus on the use of combination therapy using targeted RPT along with chemotherapy for example in the treatment of resistant tumors that cannot be treated uniquely by traditional therapy like chemotherapy, this area of research is also quit active at the present time [28].
One challenge is the validation studies and the regulatory approval of clinical software packages that need to be established prior to routine clinical use is still underway. Certainly this area of research and development is very dynamic and requires multidisciplinary team work including oncology, nuclear medicine, imaging sciences and medical physics; and clinically also it will probably require some kind of new medical subspecialty. The medical physicist should be trained in both imaging based and radionuclide dosimetry methods. As medical physicists we see this as an opportunity for future medical physicist starting his or her career to specialize in this new evolving area of clinical medical physics.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.” or delete this entire section.
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The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. 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