\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5522",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Osteonecrosis",title:"Osteonecrosis",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"In this book there are chapters written by great specialists, both doctors and dentists, addressing a very important subject for clinical practice and research: osteonecrosis. In addition to a general review of the subject matter in the introduction, you will find in it some subjects little discussed in other textbooks, such as osteonecrosis of the mandible and osteonecrosis of the spinal vertebrae.",isbn:"978-953-51-3308-7",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3307-0",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4772-5",doi:"10.5772/63261",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"osteonecrosis",numberOfPages:118,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"108218b008b3e8768c595a6ab363c331",bookSignature:"Alessandro R Zorzi and Joao Batista de Miranda",publishedDate:"June 28th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5522.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7096,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:3,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 1st 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 7th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 30th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 27th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 29th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"80871",title:"M.D.",name:"Alessandro Rozim",middleName:null,surname:"Zorzi",slug:"alessandro-rozim-zorzi",fullName:"Alessandro Rozim Zorzi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/80871/images/system/80871.jpeg",biography:'Prof. Dr. Alessandro Rozim Zorzi (M.D., M.Sc., Ph.D.) is the Supervisor of Orthopedic Surgery Medical Residency Program at the State University of Campinas, Researcher and Lecturer of graduation and post graduation at São Leopoldo Mandic Medical School in Brazil. He is the author of dozens of international publications such as original articles, review articles, and book chapters. He is also the editor of the scientific blog "Femur Distal" (http://www.blogs.unicamp.br/femurdistal) and editor of five previous books with IntechOpen since 2014: "Bone Grafting"; "Osteonecrosis"; "Advanced Techniques in Bone Regeneration"; "Primary Total Knee Arthroplasty"; and "Cartilage Repair and Regeneration".',institutionString:"State University of Campinas",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"State University of Campinas",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"84386",title:"Prof.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Batista de Miranda",slug:"joao-batista-de-miranda",fullName:"João Batista de Miranda",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/84386/images/system/84386.jpg",biography:"Professor João Batista de Miranda is the chairman of the Division of Knee Surgery and Inflammatory Diseases, at the Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Campinas State University (Unicamp), Brazil. He performs teaching activities with medical students, orthopedic fellows, and postgraduating researchers. He also develops research and clinical care. He is currently the superintendent of the Unicamp Teaching Hospital. Prof. Miranda obtained PhD with an experimental study on bone regeneration and on allografts. He has published several scientific articles in international journals and is coeditor of the book Bone Grafting of InTechOpen.",institutionString:"University of Campinas",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"State University of Campinas",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1150",title:"Orthopedics",slug:"orthopedics"}],chapters:[{id:"56016",title:"Introductory Chapter: Unusual Aspects of Osteonecrosis of the Human Skeleton",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69805",slug:"introductory-chapter-unusual-aspects-of-osteonecrosis-of-the-human-skeleton",totalDownloads:1197,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Alessandro Rozim Zorzi and João Batista de Miranda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56016",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56016",authors:[{id:"80871",title:"M.D.",name:"Alessandro Rozim",surname:"Zorzi",slug:"alessandro-rozim-zorzi",fullName:"Alessandro Rozim Zorzi"}],corrections:null},{id:"54813",title:"Osteonecrosis and Hip Development Disorder",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68161",slug:"osteonecrosis-and-hip-development-disorder",totalDownloads:1083,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Blood vessel branching of the proximal femur by its scheme differs from all other major joints. This scheme changes during the individual's development, dynamically depending on age. Namely, the caliber, blood flow rate, and dominance of certain arteries from the entire network of blood vessels that participate in the vascular supply of the hip are not equally expressed in all stages of development. In each successive stage, blood supply is dominated by a different artery that, after a certain period of time, shifts its major role to another artery. Anastomoses between individual arteries are not constant in all stages of development, and they represent a great importance for compensatory mechanisms. The disturbance of local arterial blood vessels, at a time when they dominate the blood supply and affect the quality of hip development and maturation, leads to reduced perfusion, and consequently, to the lack of development, ossification, and possible osteonecrosis.",signatures:"Ismet Gavrankapetanović, Amel Hadžimehmedagić, Adnan Papović\nand Mehmed Jamakosmanović",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54813",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54813",authors:[{id:"114919",title:"Prof.",name:"Ismet",surname:"Gavrankapetanovic",slug:"ismet-gavrankapetanovic",fullName:"Ismet Gavrankapetanovic"},{id:"189786",title:"Dr.",name:"Adnan",surname:"Papovic",slug:"adnan-papovic",fullName:"Adnan Papovic"},{id:"196249",title:"Dr.",name:"Amel",surname:"Hadzimehmedagic",slug:"amel-hadzimehmedagic",fullName:"Amel Hadzimehmedagic"},{id:"196250",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmed",surname:"Jamakosmanovic",slug:"mehmed-jamakosmanovic",fullName:"Mehmed Jamakosmanovic"}],corrections:null},{id:"55715",title:"Vertebral Osteonecrosis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69275",slug:"vertebral-osteonecrosis",totalDownloads:1587,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Vertebral osteonecrosis (ON) is a rare, underdiagnosed disease, also called pseudarthrosis due to ischemia following a compression fracture (CF). The main features include the air-occupied intravertebral cleft visualized as a radiolucent shade of linear or semilunar X-ray, namely an intravertebral vacuum cleft (IVC) sign. Usually, this phenomenon shows low signal intensity with all magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) sequences. Another feature of ON of the vertebral body is the intravertebral fluid analogous to edema and fibrosis in histological sections. This appears as low signal intensity on T1-weighted MRI, with high signal intensity on T2-weighted images. The risk factors for vertebral ON are multivariate, and the pathophysiological mechanisms are still unknown with certainty.",signatures:"Elizabeth Pérez Hernández, Eulalio Elizalde Martínez and Juan\nManuel Torres Fernández",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55715",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55715",authors:[{id:"70727",title:"Dr.",name:"Elizabeth",surname:"Perez Hernandez",slug:"elizabeth-perez-hernandez",fullName:"Elizabeth Perez Hernandez"},{id:"206637",title:"Dr.",name:"Eulalio",surname:"Elizalde Martinez",slug:"eulalio-elizalde-martinez",fullName:"Eulalio Elizalde Martinez"},{id:"206638",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Manuel",surname:"Torres Fernandez",slug:"juan-manuel-torres-fernandez",fullName:"Juan Manuel Torres Fernandez"}],corrections:null},{id:"55899",title:"Osteonecrosis of the Jaws. Prevalence, Risk Factors and Role of Microbiota and Inflammation in a Population of Spain",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69315",slug:"osteonecrosis-of-the-jaws-prevalence-risk-factors-and-role-of-microbiota-and-inflammation-in-a-popul",totalDownloads:1381,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Introduction: The purpose of this article is to determine the prevalence of ONJ in patients who have undergone intravenous bisphosphonate therapy, and relate the risk factors described (including Actinomices); indeed, to establish a protocol to reduce the risk of developing ONJ and to evaluate the evolution of the patient according to the sample’s antibiogram.",signatures:"Mario Pérez-Sayáns, Carmen Vidal-Real, José M. Suárez-Peñaranda\nand Abel García-García",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55899",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55899",authors:[{id:"46720",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario",surname:"Pérez-Sayáns García",slug:"mario-perez-sayans-garcia",fullName:"Mario Pérez-Sayáns García"},{id:"172516",title:"Prof.",name:"Abel",surname:"García García",slug:"abel-garcia-garcia",fullName:"Abel García García"},{id:"195478",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmen",surname:"Vidal Real",slug:"carmen-vidal-real",fullName:"Carmen Vidal Real"},{id:"195480",title:"Prof.",name:"José M",surname:"Suárez Peñaranda",slug:"jose-m-suarez-penaranda",fullName:"José M Suárez Peñaranda"}],corrections:null},{id:"54778",title:"Medication-Related Osteonecrosis of the Jaw",doi:"10.5772/67980",slug:"medication-related-osteonecrosis-of-the-jaw",totalDownloads:1848,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Osteonecrosis of the jaw (ONJ) is a common side effect of antiresorptive drugs that are administered to cancer patients for bone metastasis, multiple myeloma, and osteoporosis. Since both bisphosphonate (BP) and denosumab show anti-bone resorption effects with ONJ, antiresorptive agent-related ONJ (ARONJ) has been suggested as a comprehensive term encompassing both BP-related osteonecrosis of the jaw (BRONJ) and denosumab-related osteonecrosis of the jaw (DRONJ). The term medication-related osteonecrosis of the jaw (MRONJ) is proposed as ARONJ with the antiangiogenic inhibitors or molecularly targeted drugs-related ONJ. Suppression of bone remodeling may contribute to the development of osteonecrosis and results in inadequate osteoclast activity to allow healing of the extraction socket. Infection is a major factor in the development of MRONJ. The major treatment goals for patients at risk of developing or who have MRONJ are prioritization and support of continued oncologic treatment in patients receiving antiresorptive and antiangiogenic therapy. To minimize the development of MRONJ in patients at risk, regular dental examinations are encouraged. Oral hygiene should be improved and local infection is managed as early as possible. The use of antibiotics before and after oral surgical procedures has been demonstrated to lower the risk of MRONJ.",signatures:"Kenji Yamagata, Fumihiko Uchida, Naomi Kanno, Toru Yanagawa\nand Hiroki Bukawa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54778",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54778",authors:[{id:"33995",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Yamagata",slug:"kenji-yamagata",fullName:"Kenji Yamagata"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5164",title:"Advanced Techniques in Bone Regeneration",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e99f852544eefac23fb5fe0697c2096d",slug:"advanced-techniques-in-bone-regeneration",bookSignature:"Alessandro Rozim Zorzi and Joao Batista de Miranda",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5164.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"80871",title:"M.D.",name:"Alessandro Rozim",surname:"Zorzi",slug:"alessandro-rozim-zorzi",fullName:"Alessandro Rozim Zorzi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6145",title:"Primary Total Knee Arthroplasty",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"18df110af120b1a8e88e0a1ded2aba75",slug:"primary-total-knee-arthroplasty",bookSignature:"Alessandro Rozim Zorzi and João Batista de Miranda",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6145.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"80871",title:"M.D.",name:"Alessandro Rozim",surname:"Zorzi",slug:"alessandro-rozim-zorzi",fullName:"Alessandro Rozim Zorzi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"943",title:"Bone Grafting",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9afab8beeb4879b2751907783a3de842",slug:"bone-grafting",bookSignature:"Alessandro Zorzi and Joao Batista de Miranda",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/943.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"80871",title:"M.D.",name:"Alessandro Rozim",surname:"Zorzi",slug:"alessandro-rozim-zorzi",fullName:"Alessandro Rozim Zorzi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6052",title:"Cartilage Repair and Regeneration",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e4881b3685ffd70f3f4d3d2c49b1d7f6",slug:"cartilage-repair-and-regeneration",bookSignature:"Alessandro R. 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\r\n\tThis book aims to cover the science of herbicides, an important aspect in the chemical control of weeds in agriculture worldwide. Due to the intense use of herbicides and their great importance in weed management, research in this area is fundamental to ensure the continuous, effective, and safe use of herbicides while minimizing harmful impacts on ecosystems. The physicochemical properties of herbicides are fundamental to understanding their behavior in plants to effective agronomic of weed control and soil behavior, which also assesses environmental impact. Subjects concerning herbicide-resistant weeds and application technology, mechanism of action and physiology of herbicides on plants, and behavior and fate of herbicides in the environment are accepted in this book.
\r\n\r\n\tGiven the above, this book hopes to cover many valuable and up-to-date research topics in the field of herbicide science, making it a complete and up-to-date book in the field of international weed science for all interested professionals.
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Morrison",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/776.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68209",title:"Dr.",name:"John",surname:"Morrison",slug:"john-morrison",fullName:"John Morrison"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"80098",title:"Bundling Weather Index Insurance with Microfinance: Trekking the Long Road between Expectations and Reality – A Study on Sub-Saharan Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101742",slug:"bundling-weather-index-insurance-with-microfinance-trekking-the-long-road-between-expectations-and-r",body:'Agriculture is a major source of food in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), and a primary source of livelihood [1]. The sector employs more than half of the total labour force and accounts for roughly a third of the gross domestic product (GDP) [2, 3, 4]. The share of agriculture in GDP varies significantly by country ranging from below 3% in Botswana to over 50% in Chad [5]. Due to the fragmentation of land caused by population pressure in most rural areas, farm sizes are typically less than 2 hectares each [6]. As a result, smallholder farms are dominant across the subcontinent [7]. They make up 80% of the farms, which translates to approximately 33 million smallholder farms [8]. Although the widely accepted view is that, smallholder farmers produce the majority of the food, because they farm land very intensively resulting in high levels of productivity per unit of land [9, 10], their farms are often too small to provide a sustainable income at the household level, let alone food security [7]1. In addition, smallholder farmers are known to face several challenges associated with missing markets for credit, insurance, information including economies of scale in marketing and transportation [10]. Problematically, they are also reliant on non-drought tolerant crops and seed varieties2, non-mechanised farming systems and subsistence rain-fed farming3, factors which jointly contribute to the volatility of agriculture and the vulnerability of the smallholder farmers [13]. Having a full grasp of the character of risks that affect smallholder farmers is key to developing appropriate solutions to deal with risks. Similarly, it is important to understand how farmers respond to the solutions designed to ameliorate risk as this will help to establish the effectiveness and compatibility of the measures apropos the target market.
This chapter seeks to explore the gap between the assertion, that weather index insurance (WII) is a promising risk transfer mechanism for smallholder farmers in SSA and the realisation that, even where microfinance is made available, subscription rates among smallholder farmers rarely rise. The chapter pays attention to the risk response behaviour of smallholder farmers when presented with the option of purchasing WII that is bundled with microfinance. Weather index insurance is crucial because it potentially addresses welfare losses due to weather risk and complements existing informal risk management strategies [14]. The linkage between WII and credit has been discussed widely in theory but rarely investigated empirically, yet a lot of recommendations have been put forward by scholars for WII to be bundled with microfinance (see [15, 16, 17, 18, 19]). This is because, when smallholder farmers are believed to pose less risk to creditors when they have access to insurance [20]. In this sense, agriculture insurance can crowd-in credit, the lack of which has long been identified as a major, if not the main, constraint for smallholders in developing countries [21].
Access to agriculture insurance is crucial for smallholders because agriculture is generally prone to production failure due to the risk of catastrophic events such as those linked to extreme weather events [22]. Weather extremes have been repeatedly seen to have long-lasting impacts on farming livelihoods [23, 24, 25, 26]. Sub-Saharan Africa is especially vulnerable to weather-related risks because of the strong reliance on climate-sensitive rainfed agriculture [27]. While extreme weather shocks are not new to this region, the frequency and intensity of the events have increased over the past few decades. Based on the Human Cost of Disasters 2000–2019 Report, there has been a sharp increase in weather-related disasters4 over the past 20 years. Notably, disasters including extreme weather events rose from 4212 in the period 1980 to 1999, to 7348 in the period 2000 to 2019 [28]. Weather events figure large among the recorded disasters5.
Equally alarming are the rising patterns of loss and damage in the agricultural industry that are strongly correlated to the increasing catastrophic events [29]. For example, it is estimated that more than 75% of recent economic losses caused by natural hazards in Sub-Saharan Africa are attributable to climate change-induced weather events [30]. Outcomes linked to economic loss include livelihood insecurity, poverty, food insecurity and poor nutrition – cyclical patterns which can be ameliorated through adaptation financing [31]. What smallholders need therefore is access to perfect financial markets (savings, credit and insurance) and economic incentives to (re)invest in agriculture [7]. Reducing the economic impact of severe weather events is thus a crucial step towards supporting agricultural growth, sustainable livelihoods, poverty alleviation as well as bolstering food security and nutrition [32]. Given the foregoing, the vulnerability of smallholder farmers in lower-income countries is acute in part because they repeatedly lack access to financial mechanisms to efficiently manage production uncertainties [33]. In the absence of effective insurance and credit markets, households remain vulnerable to the financial consequences of high-magnitude loss events.
While SSA is not a single unit and challenges vary spatially and temporally, agriculture, and especially crop production in this region is predominantly rainfed and as such reliant on unpredictable climatic events [24, 31, 34, 35]. Under the current variable climate conditions, SSA already experiences a major deficit in food production especially in semi-arid and subhumid regions and areas [1]. This means a further drop in soil moisture due to mounting climate extremes will have devastating effects on agricultural production and will worsen food insecurity [26]. SSA is vulnerable to climate change also because the economies of most countries in this region are dominated by subsistence agriculture, the productivity of which is grossly susceptible to changing weather patterns [36]. Furthermore, the sub-continent is prone to complex natural climatic phenomena such as the El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), the West African Monsoon and the Indian Ocean Dipole [37], which influence climate variability (inter-annual and intra-seasonal rainfall), trends (upward or downward) and the persistence thereof [38]. The natural climatic phenomena give rise to regional climatic patterns which are impacted to some degree by climate change [37]. Because of the regional climatic phenomena, SSA has a long history of rainfall fluctuations of varying lengths and intensities (ibid) and is prone to cyclical drought patterns which are a frequent event in the semi-arid countries of the sub-continent [1]. The droughts in SSA have in recent times become more frequent and protracted, ostensibly due to climate change [39].
Climate forecasts have shown warming of approximately 0.71°C over much of the African continent in the twentieth Century [1], and an increase of over 1°C in the twenty-first Century [40]. Rather, average near-surface temperatures across parts of the continent have risen by more than twice the global rate of temperature increase in the twenty-first Century [41]. According to WMO [40], the year 2019 was among the three warmest years on record for the continent. Recent decadal predictions encompassing a five-year period from 2020 to 2024, signify continued warming and decreasing rainfall markedly over North and Southern Africa (ibid). Further predictions by Woetzel et al. [42] suggest that, due to climate change, the number and intensity of extreme weather events in SSA are set to increase. This is consistent with findings submitted in the Human Cost of Disasters 2000–2019 Report, which revealed that 1192 extreme weather events were recorded in Africa over the last 20 years (see [28]).
An enquiry on climate change and its likely impacts on SSA cannot be achieved by examining long term weather changes alone [43], as most countries in SSA suffer from intersecting stressors that give rise to low resilience and limited adaptative capacity to climate-related shocks [1]. Incidentally, climate change acts to exacerbate pre-existing conditions and has thus been dubbed a threat multiplier [25]. As such, the effects of drought and other climate extremes in SSA are exacerbated by endemic poverty, complex governance and institutional dimensions; limited access to capital, including markets, infrastructure and technology; ecosystem degradation; and complex disasters and conflicts ([36], p. 435).
SSA accounts for more than half of the world’s extreme poor, amounting to approximately 400 million people, most of which are smallholder farmers [37]. Poverty is among the key reasons why a lot of smallholder farmers in SSA are continuously exposed to inter-annual variations and occasional shocks caused by weather which affect agricultural output beyond their manageable limits [30]. As a result, at the 25th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that took place in Madrid in December 2019, it was revealed that 7 out of the 10 most climate-vulnerable nations in the world are located in Africa [44]. The figure is consistent with findings published in the Human Cost of Disasters 2000–2019 Report, which pointed out that, the top 10 list of countries with the highest share of affected populations by extreme weather shocks over the last 20 years is dominated by Sub-Saharan African countries, which make up 6 out of the 10 countries on the list [28].
Risk is the aggregate of the likelihood or possibility of a shock event occurring, and the severity of loss or impact caused by the event [45]. Three aspects make up risk, namely, threat, uncertainty, and loss. Climate change poses significant risks for food systems and has thus emerged as one of the greatest challenges of the twenty-first Century. Climatic extremes affect the primary sources of farm income, such as crops and livestock, and can further destroy household assets such as farming equipment – investments accumulated over time that are needed to generate future income [46]. Loss and damage due to extreme weather events can push farming households into cycles of poverty. According to GlobalAgRisk [47], households that are just above the poverty line can be pushed instantly below the poverty line by a major weather event. In the absence of perfect financial markets, including savings, credit and insurance, smallholdings in SSA generally struggle to recover from loss and damage caused by extreme weather events [34].
In the absence of perfect financial markets, an array of behavioural responses often emerge to fill in the gaps created by market failures [48]. Despite having considerable experience dealing with weather extremes, smallholders are much less likely to plan for low probability, high consequence risks [49]. This is a result of a cognitive bias that causes people to ignore risks with low probability, except when the likelihood of occurrence is well-known [50]. This psychological phenomenon influences the willingness of poor households to spend their limited income to cover low probability risks. Be that as it may, from a risk perspective, behavioural responses to shocks consist of three types of choices, namely, risk mitigation, risk coping and risk transfer [51]. The behavioural responses are characterised as being
Smallholder farmers in SSA are more susceptible to weather fluctuations than farmers in developed countries, who for instance, can more easily alter crop varieties, irrigate their fields, or secure crop insurance [42]. In more developed countries financial markets exist which allow farmers to insure against shocks
Faced with no savings, credit or insurance, they typically manage risk by smoothing consumption through choosing low-risk activities or technologies, which generally yield low to average returns [56]. Smallholder farmers in SSA also smooth consumption through asset attrition. According to Carter and Lybbert [57], since the rural poor have limited access to financial markets, consumption smoothing typically involves amassing assets in good times to use as a fallback in bad times. For example, a study on the impacts of drought on rural households in Burkina Faso showed that a good number of households that sell livestock do so to offset consumption shortfalls due to negative income shocks. Similar findings were observed in studies carried out in the rural Districts of Buhera and Nyanga in Zimbabwe where farmers mentioned the sale of livestock as a means of buffering income losses caused by production uncertainties [58]. Wealth for the rural poor is usually not in the form of cash or savings [47], but productive assets such as livestock [48]. Thus, when a severe weather event occurs, livestock is often sold off, often at a loss [59], because the distressed sale of large numbers of livestock at the same time flood the market, significantly reducing their value [60]. In contrast, insurance has been seen to positively influence households’ behavioural responses to risk through enabling them to reduce the need to rely on costly coping strategies such as selling productive, as this undermines future productivity. Results from an index-based livestock insurance (IBLI) pilot in Marsabit District of northern Kenya, showed that insured households are less likely to sell livestock [61]. Nonetheless, because insurance is not readily available in most rural areas, and where available, demand for it is low, smallholders tend to rely more on on-farm risk mitigation strategies. Thus, to preserve assets, households may smooth consumption further by cutting back on meals and diverting children from school which undermines crucial investments in human capital, hampering current and future productivity (ibid). In terms of its functional objective, consumption smoothing involves creating a balance between spending and saving to achieve a higher overall standard of living and can for that reason be used as a welfare dimension to assess a household’s preparedness to deal with climate change risk [62].
In addition to consumption smoothing, smallholder farmers in SSA also smooth income when dealing with climate change risk [44]. Income smoothing refers to the different strategies and approaches used by households to control the impact of extreme volatility in household income [48]. It is most often achieved
In all, there is an overlap between different types of shocks and behavioural responses to shocks. As the discussion above attests, high-frequency low losses are usually managed at the farm level and mitigated in part through access to household investments [63]. In an ideal world, residual risk (low frequency, medium loss) that cannot be retained by the farmer is better of transferred to third parties, usually insurance companies [45], which is not always an option for smallholders in SSA. Where insurance is an option, smallholders often deem it too costly for their limited income. Nonetheless, transferring a portion of income risk to a third party enables the farmer to have enough money to invest in higher-risk/higher-yield production technologies, such as improved seeds and inputs [20]. When weather-related shocks strike, households that receive indemnity payments have more response options, which notionally should reduce their reliance on detrimental coping strategies [66]. Although smallholder farmers in SSA have developed numerous adaptation mechanisms to cope with weather fluctuations over time, evidence has repeatedly shown that their methods are not adequate to deal with climate change [36]. If climate change adaptation investments are not made (e.g. by governments, multinational corporations and donor communities), the adaptation mechanisms used by smallholder farmers in SSA will not keep up with climate change impacts [22]. The Paris Agreement underlined the global importance of adaptation and contains provisions related to adaptation finance that follow guidelines from the Cancun Adaptation Framework [67]. Paragraph 28 of the Cancun Adaptation Framework stressed the need to explore options for risk-sharing and risk insurance, including options for micro-finance to reduce the devastating impacts of disasters among vulnerable populations [68].
Risk-sharing or risk transfer is a risk management strategy that involves the contractual shifting of risk from one party to another [51]. Risk transfer is most often achieved through an insurance policy, where the insurance carrier assumes the defined risks for the policyholder in exchange for a fee, or insurance premium [69]. Agricultural insurance is one risk transfer tool that farmers can use to manage risks that cannot be mitigated at the farm level [30]. It offers a promising means of cushioning in times of climate change-induced loss and damage for smallholder farmers [35]. Globally, however, less than 20% of smallholder farmers have any form of agricultural insurance [22]. Although the estimated global agricultural insurance premium volume almost doubled in the period 2004–2007, it remained low in African countries where it roughly reached an average of 0.13% of the 2007 agricultural GDP [70]. As a result, some scholars claim that only about 1.3% of the smallholder farmers in SSA have agricultural insurance [71]. Raithatha and Priebe [22] set the figure at 3%, while a more recent study suggests that the figure is around 3.5% which at any rate is far below the rates in Asia (46.2%) and Latin America (15.8%) [72]. Despite the low uptake of agricultural insurance by smallholder farmers in SSA, agriculture insurance is firmly believed can reduce the economic impact of severe weather events and help stimulate economic development through supporting agricultural growth, poverty alleviation, and the development of rural finance [14]. Based on the functional objective of agriculture insurance, it is an income smoothing
There are various types of agriculture insurance, the main ones being, indemnity-based crop insurance (e.g., named peril crop insurance and multiple peril crop insurance) and index-based insurance (e.g., index-based livestock insurance, area yield index insurance and weather index insurance). This chapter looks specifically at weather index insurance (WII). Weather index insurance has been presented as an important risk transfer mechanism that can assist smallholder farmers to deal better with climate risk [22, 35, 73]. The underlying risk for a WII product is the behaviour of the specific weather variable that contributes to production losses [14]. WII focuses on weather-related shocks because rainfall and temperature patterns for instance pose a serious threat for farmers [20]. The pervasive nature of catastrophic weather events is especially well-suited for index products, which explicitly insure against covariate shocks (ibid). Unlike traditional insurance, index-based insurance compensates policyholders according to a pre-determined index value [69] that serves as a proxy for losses rather than upon the assessed losses for individual policyholders [51]. Thus, some of the advantages of WII are that it has low operational costs, fast claim settlement speed and low risk of moral hazard and adverse selection [35]. Low operational costs give WII a critical advantage over traditional insurance, yet the hedging effectiveness of weather index-based insurance tends to be diminished by the often imperfect correlation between the index and realised losses. This is caused for instance, by the non-insurable difference between the weather events happening at the farm site and those occurring at the reference weather station, which is referred to as geographical basis risk [74]. In light of this, some of the drawbacks of WII include high basis risk, high actuarial difficulty, and high set-up costs [75].
The earliest applications of WII in emerging economies in the Americas and Asia are said to have taken place respectively in Mexico in 2002, followed by India in 2003 [47]. In SSA, the first application of weather index is said to have taken place in Malawi in 2005 [76] followed by Ethiopia in 2006 [77]. Almost 2 decades later, however, index insurance markets are still very thin in most African countries. To lessen the limitations of WII, insurance providers have initiated changes to their products being guided by scholarly recommendations and emerging best practices. Some of the key recommendations submitted by the scholarly community include interlinking reliable weather data with location-specific crop and agronomic conditions using flexible geospatial crop modelling tools (see [78]), interlinking WII with subsidies (see [79]) and interlinking WII with microfinance (see [16]). The mixed results of many WII pilot projects to date, for example, as presented by the lack of widespread implementation of even those projects considered successful, followed by the consistently low adoption rate by smallholder farmers, warrant an investigation into the changes needed for the products to become more scalable and sustainable.
Smallholder farmers often do not qualify for credit provided by mainstream banks due to the lack of usable collateral (e.g. savings, reliable earnings, effective land titles and other tangible and intangible assets) to guarantee loan repayments [49, 80]. In addition, the large fluctuations in farm revenue generally make it less commercially attractive to lenders, thus hampering credit provision to the agriculture sector [16]. Credit constraints discourage farmers from investing in higher-risk/higher-yield production technologies, such as improved seeds and inputs [20], which would otherwise boost their capacity to withstand the negative impacts of extreme weather events. In some instances, however, if no collateral is present, lenders may require crop insurance to securitize the repayment of the loan [16]. Thus, crop insurance can facilitate credit. Microfinance Institutions (MFIs) specialise in the supply of credit to segments of the population that is typically unattended by mainstream banks. The promise of microfinance is centred on the awarding of microloans to the poorest of the poor without requiring collateral [81]. What makes microfinance different from traditional forms of credit is its focus on small loans and other low-cost financial services which the poor can use to generate income and become self-reliant [82, 83]. However, while insurance may in some instances unlock credit, bundling microfinance with insurance is far from being the panacea for the credit constraint problem [21]. This is why more insight into the impact of linking insurance and credit is needed, particularly since the adoption rate of WII in SSA has remained low even in cases where microfinance has been made available.
Studies have indicated an uptake of less than a fourth of the smallholder population [80], which shows clearly that demand for WII is low. Actual demand according to the preceding scholars varies from 2 to 40% or 50% maximum. In general, low demand is ascribed to several factors which include farmer budgetary constraints, lack of trust in financial institutions, poor understanding of the contract, and the often imperfect correlation between the index and realised losses (basis risk) [84]. Marr et al. [80] have gone on to group the reasons for low demand into 3 categories namely, (1) neoclassical (i.e., risk aversion, risk mitigation, basis risk and price), (2) behavioural (i.e., understanding, trust and education), and (3) pecuniary determinants capturing credit and liquidity constraints (i.e., wealth, liquidity, credit and income). To weigh in briefly on the effect of the given determinants of low demand, firstly, it has been noted already in this chapter that smallholders are generally risk averse, which causes them to depend more on traditional risk mitigation strategies. Secondly, because, their risk mitigation strategies are limited, they are among the most vulnerable populations to climate change. Thirdly, when presented with risk mitigation strategies such as insurance, smallholders are not always willing to pay for indemnity. Aside from being risk averse, they are poor and often credit and liquidity constrained. Inevitably, price is a crucial factor that the smallholders consider before signing up for an insurance policy. There are thus tensions between what must be charged to insure low-probability high-consequence events and the willingness of households to pay for insurance products designed to protect against losses caused by these events [33].
Fourthly, basis risk interacts with other factors such as price and is an important factor known to drive price beyond the reach of smallholders. To increase demand for WII, suppliers need to focus on minimising basis risk. Even as basis risk is an inherent problem for index insurance, it can be reduced through product design and application [47]. To increase demand for WII, suppliers need to additionally educate smallholders about the benefits of insurance, which should be followed up by cultivating relationships of trust [85]. There is a further need for suppliers to come up with innovative ways to make insurance more attractive to smallholders. This involves adapting financial services and products to match the risk profile of the market demographic [33], for example through bundling WII with microfinance.
Bundling index-insurance with credit is a practice that is widely debated in literature but mainly at a theoretical level [80]. There are several benefits that come with combining microcredit with insurance, some of which have already been discussed in this chapter. Since both insurance and credit are recognised as important tools for smoothening and enhancing income [16], it is believed that when bundled together, they can enhance on-farm efforts (e.g., through increased input, improved seed varieties and investments in and specialised and diversified farming) to mitigate climate risks. Meyer et al. [21] are of the view that neither credit nor insurance markets can exist independently in low-collateral environments. This makes perfect sense considering that insurance can ensure the success of credit by promoting lending to smallholders in credit constrained environments where farmers have weak collateral to offer, and systemic risks are the main cause of loan defaults. While credit on the other hand can ensure the success of insurance by enhancing household income and protecting farmers against the financial risk of crop failure. Linking the two contracts thus seems beneficial for farmer productivity, food systems resilience and incidentally, the growth of rural financial markets. A potential downside of this practice, however, which cannot be overlooked by this chapter is that, if a loss occurs which is not covered by the insurance because the index was not correlated to the realised loss and an indemnity payment was not triggered, the farmer may not be able to repay their loan. On its own, index insurance can harm farmers by extracting insurance payments while providing little or no actual risk coverage [20]. When combined with credit, the farmer may be worse off than if their loan were not insured because they have to pay the insurance premium as well as repay the loan [21]. This shows that while insurance could unlock credit and produce desired results such as higher investments, it could also produce undesired results such as higher default rates (ibid).
A few empirical studies have been carried out to understand the credit insurance linkage in different parts of SSA, and the results have been conflicted. Among these, a study by Giné and Yang [19] sought to test whether reducing risk through WII induces greater demand for credit among smallholder farmers in Malawi. Half the farmers were randomly selected to be offered credit to purchase high-yielding hybrid maize and groundnut seeds for planting. The other half were offered a similar credit package but were also required to purchase (at actuarially fair rates) a weather insurance policy that partially or fully forgave the loan in the event of poor rainfall. The uptake of credit was 33% for farmers offered a loan without insurance and 17.6% for farmers offered a loan bundled with weather insurance. The findings suggest that smallholders do not always value insurance as the demand for credit fell when bundled with insurance. An explanation for the behavioural response given by the authors is that farmers understood that they were implicitly insured by the limited liability inherent in the loan contract so that going for a loan bundled with insurance (for which an insurance premium was charged) would effectively increase the interest rate on the loan. On the other hand, the overall poor uptake rate could be taken to mean that smallholders generally do not trust financial institutions [86].
In a study carried out by Karlan et al. [87]. A randomised control trial was conducted to investigate whether price risk affected the demand for credit by smallholders in Eastern Ghana. Farmers were offered loans with an indemnity component that forgave 50% of the loan if crop prices dropped below a threshold price. A control group was offered a standard loan product at the same interest rate. Loan uptake was high among all farmers. The indemnity component had little impact on the uptake or other outcomes of interest. The indemnity product had incorporated insurance into the loan rather than as an add on, to avoid potential choice overload problems that arise sometimes when too many choices cause stagnation in decision making. Yet, findings showed a high take-up rate of credit despite indemnity, which made it difficult for the authors to assess heterogeneity in behavioural response. What is apparent from the findings is that insurance made no difference to the demand for credit. This again implying that smallholders do not always value insurance. To explain the outcome, the authors suggested among other reasons that, the farmers perhaps did not understand the contract.
In a different study carried out by Mishra et al. [88] in Northern Ghana, results also found no evidence that insurance has a significant impact on increasing the uptake of credit. The study investigated whether coupling agricultural loans with micro-level and meso-level drought index insurance can stimulate the demand and supply of credit and increase technology adoption. Based on empirical findings, if at all, bundling loans with insurance increased the likelihood of loan applications for female farmers. Gallenstein et al. [84] published a paper on the same population in Northern Ghana. The authors investigated the willingness to pay for drought index insurance backed loans and found out that insurance lowered overall demand for loans. In fact, adding an insurance policy to an agricultural loan reduced the demand for credit as 75.3% of the population were willing to pay the market interest rate for the uninsured loan. What is also apparent from the findings of this study is that smallholders do not always value insurance. In this case, insurance had a bearing on demand for credit, albeit in a negative way.
Different results were observed, however, in a study carried out in Machakos County, Kenya by Ndegwa et al. [89]. The authors sought to investigate the causal effect of bundling WII with credit on uptake of agricultural technology among smallholders. 1170 sample households were randomly assigned to one of three research groups, namely, control, risk contingent credit and traditional credit. Based on the findings the average credit uptake rate was 33% with the uptake of bundled credit being significantly higher than that of traditional credit. In this case, insurance was seen to influence the uptake of credit. By and large, the study observed that risk rationing was among the key reasons responsible for the negative credit uptake among smallholders.
In another study, Pelka et al. [74] analysed the influence of weather variations on the repayment performance of credit among smallholder farmers in Madagascar. The farmers studied primarily grow rice in monoculture. The weather risk for rice cultivation in the central highlands of Madagascar is the excessive amount of rain in the harvest period (between the end of February to April), which reduces rice yields and, thus, leads to revenue losses for farmers. Findings demonstrated a high correlation between precipitation and credit risk, where credit risk is defined as whether or not a borrower can pay back all loan instalments by the due date. Thus, findings revealed in particular that, the credit risk of loans granted to smallholders increased in the harvesting period due to the excessive amount of precipitation. Based on the analysis given by the authors, credit risk would reduce significantly if the farmers had weather index insurance policies. This assumption is based on the hypothesis that, “the effect of weather events on the repayment performance of loans equals the effect of the returns of weather index-based insurance on the repayment performance of loans” Pelka et al. [74]. As such, the authors surmise that weather index-based insurance might have the potential to mitigate a portion of the risk in agricultural lending. In this study, the authors do not seem to argue for the bundling of credit and WII, but instead, propose that WII would be instrumental in mitigating credit risk in cases where lending is involved which would work only where the weather index is perfectly correlated to the realised loss. To avoid issues of credit risk, the weather index insurance programs in Malawi often bundle credit with mandatory weather index insurance [78]. However, while making insurance mandatory is good in that it assures worried lenders, the downside is that it may discourage farmers from seeking loans [21] as seen in experiments carried out in Malawi and Ghana earlier cited in this section.
A review of the literature showed mostly mixed results regarding the impact of bundling WII with microfinance among smallholders in SSA. The literature confirmed the premise that, even where microfinance has been made available, the demand for WII has remained consistently low across the sub-continent. Thus, a wide gap still exists between the expectations of what WII can achieve for smallholder farmers in dealing with climate change risk, and the reality that is on the ground, which is that current demand varies from 2 to 40% (50% at the most). While WII may not provide complete protection against losses, it can improve the financial protection coverage needed for smallholders to effectively deal with the financial consequences of high-magnitude climatic loss events. In this way, WII can play an instrumental role in creating an enabling environment for rural financial services including banking and microfinance. For WII to work, it must complement existing risk management strategies, to ensure all round cover against climate change risks.
The chapter focused mainly on demand side dynamics paying considerable attention to the risk behavioural responses of the smallholders. It is crucial to understand how farmers respond to solutions designed to mitigate against risk as this will help to establish the effectiveness and compatibility of the measures apropos the target market. Based on the reviewed studies, the determinants of low demand for WII are many, ranging from risk aversion, liquidity and credit constraints, lack of trust in financial institutions, poor understanding of the indemnity contract to risk rationing. To improve demand for WII, suppliers need to design products to match the needs of target markets. A needs-based approach or deficit model recognises all needs, including underlying needs as valid claims. And so, insurance providers must be fully cognizant of community needs in their entirety for them to package WII more attractively. This would entail tackling more than just weather risk. Some insurance providers are already doing this. For example, research has shown that the uptake of WII is higher in Ethiopia when insurance is channelled through group-based informal insurance schemes
Demographical information and behavioural economics make generalisations about populations which can help insurance providers to know what the customers are looking for and how their product meets customer needs [90]. Since WII takes on an anti-poverty approach, insurance providers should go beyond tactical strategies, and understand and view things from the perspectives of smallholder farmers. Thus, customer empathy is a requirement for the design of WII packages that meet the underlying needs of customers, while factoring in customer feelings about the products being offered. A typical market research seeks to understand the obvious characteristics of population (e.g., age, sex, income, employment, level of education, farm size, cropping activities). While a person-centered market research would seek to understand further information such as, how cultural beliefs and attitudes/religious views/willingness to adopt change/willingness to pay for change/value placed on change (in monetary terms) influence technological preferences. Other information that could be sought by insurance providers include, household structure/headship and gender practices, to ascertain who does what? who has what? and who decides what? at the household level. SSA is home to more than 500 million women who account for about half of the continent’s population [91]7. Based on data from 45 countries in SSA for the periods 1980–2015, until the ages of 15–19, there are more boys than girls in the rural sector and fewer boys than girls in the urban sector, which changes dramatically between the ages 20–24 [92]. This suggests that in a lot of countries in SSA, there are more women than men who live and work in rural areas from the age of 20 onwards. This is consistent with reports which state that, in SSA, women are responsible for much of the food production in rural areas [93]. According to WorldBank [91], the share of labour varies across countries, ranging from 24% in Niger to 56% in Uganda, but remains consistently well below the commonly cited 60–80%. Despite their contribution to agriculture, women in male headed households have very little say in decision-making compared to women who head their own homes (female headed households) [94]. The point is, if women are a major demographic in rural areas, gender differences and practices are important factors that should be incorporated into the design and application of WII in SSA. In a study on Northern Ghana carried out by Gallenstein et al. [84], bundling loans with microinsurance was seen to increase the likelihood of loan applications for female farmers more than men. An analysis into such behavioural patterns could help WII providers to package their products in a gender sensitive manner so as to appeal to the needs of both male and female smallholders, which will potentially increase demand.
The more information is understood about the characteristics and preferences of the target population, and the more inclusive the insurance product or package is, the more likely it is to influence demand in a positive way. For as long as WII suppliers do not genuinely put the people first, combining WII with other innovations will not increase demand. Bundling WII with key farm inputs such agricultural inputs (i.e., fertilisers, seeds, loans, etc.), key agricultural institutions (e.g., Agri-banks, input suppliers, farmers’ organisations, etc.) has not boosted demand for WII in Malawi [27]. From the lessons learned in this chapter, a ‘One Size Fit All’ WII design does not work well in SSA – what worked in Machakos County, Kenya did not work in Eastern and Northern Ghana.
This publication was made possible (in part) by a grant from Carnegie Corporation of New York. The statements made and views expressed are solely the responsibility of the author.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
I would like to acknowledge my academic supervisor Professor Mark New whose comments enabled me to improve this chapter.
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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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Unachukwu",authors:[{id:"241837",title:"Mr.",name:"Godwill Azeh",middleName:null,surname:"Engwa",slug:"godwill-azeh-engwa",fullName:"Godwill Azeh Engwa"},{id:"274194",title:"BSc.",name:"Paschaline Ferdinand",middleName:null,surname:"Okeke",slug:"paschaline-ferdinand-okeke",fullName:"Paschaline Ferdinand Okeke"},{id:"286975",title:"Dr.",name:"Friday",middleName:null,surname:"Nweke Nwalo",slug:"friday-nweke-nwalo",fullName:"Friday Nweke Nwalo"},{id:"286976",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Unachukwu",slug:"marian-unachukwu",fullName:"Marian Unachukwu"}]},{id:"27687",doi:"10.5772/29869",title:"Heavy Metals and Human Health",slug:"heavy-metals-and-human-health",totalDownloads:18954,totalCrossrefCites:83,totalDimensionsCites:191,abstract:null,book:{id:"1012",slug:"environmental-health-emerging-issues-and-practice",title:"Environmental Health",fullTitle:"Environmental Health - Emerging Issues and Practice"},signatures:"Simone Morais, Fernando Garcia e Costa and Maria de Lourdes Pereira",authors:[{id:"13875",title:"Prof.",name:"Simone",middleName:null,surname:"Morais",slug:"simone-morais",fullName:"Simone Morais"},{id:"79715",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria De Lourdes",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"maria-de-lourdes-pereira",fullName:"Maria De Lourdes Pereira"},{id:"87294",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia E Costa",slug:"fernando-garcia-e-costa",fullName:"Fernando Garcia E Costa"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"64851",title:"Herbal Medicines in African Traditional Medicine",slug:"herbal-medicines-in-african-traditional-medicine",totalDownloads:14207,totalCrossrefCites:30,totalDimensionsCites:52,abstract:"African traditional medicine is a form of holistic health care system organized into three levels of specialty, namely divination, spiritualism, and herbalism. The traditional healer provides health care services based on culture, religious background, knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs that are prevalent in his community. Illness is regarded as having both natural and supernatural causes and thus must be treated by both physical and spiritual means, using divination, incantations, animal sacrifice, exorcism, and herbs. Herbal medicine is the cornerstone of traditional medicine but may include minerals and animal parts. The adjustment is ok, but may be replaced with –‘ Herbal medicine was once termed primitive by western medicine but through scientific investigations there is a better understanding of its therapeutic activities such that many pharmaceuticals have been modeled on phytochemicals derived from it. Major obstacles to the use of African medicinal plants are their poor quality control and safety. Traditional medical practices are still shrouded with much secrecy, with few reports or documentations of adverse reactions. However, the future of African traditional medicine is bright if viewed in the context of service provision, increase of health care coverage, economic potential, and poverty reduction. Formal recognition and integration of traditional medicine into conventional medicine will hold much promise for the future.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Ezekwesili-Ofili Josephine Ozioma and Okaka Antoinette Nwamaka\nChinwe",authors:[{id:"191264",title:"Prof.",name:"Josephine",middleName:"Ozioma",surname:"Ezekwesili-Ofili",slug:"josephine-ezekwesili-ofili",fullName:"Josephine Ezekwesili-Ofili"},{id:"211585",title:"Prof.",name:"Antoinette",middleName:null,surname:"Okaka",slug:"antoinette-okaka",fullName:"Antoinette Okaka"}]},{id:"76640",title:"Control of Clinical Laboratory Errors by FMEA Model",slug:"control-of-clinical-laboratory-errors-by-fmea-model",totalDownloads:1131,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Patient safety is an aim for clinical applications and is a fundamental principle of healthcare and quality management. The main global health organizations have incorporated patient safety in their review of work practices. The data provided by the medical laboratories have a direct impact on patient safety and a fault in any of processes such as strategic, operational and support, could affect it. To provide appreciate and reliable data to the physicians, it is important to emphasize the need to design risk management plan in the laboratory. Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA) is an efficient technique for error detection and reduction. Technical Committee of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) licensed a technical specification for medical laboratories suggesting FMEA as a method for prospective risk analysis of high-risk processes. FMEA model helps to identify quality failures, their effects and risks with their reduction/elimination, which depends on severity, probability and detection. Applying FMEA in clinical approaches can lead to a significant reduction of the risk priority number (RPN).",book:{id:"9808",slug:"contemporary-topics-in-patient-safety-volume-1",title:"Contemporary Topics in Patient Safety",fullTitle:"Contemporary Topics in Patient Safety - Volume 1"},signatures:"Hoda Sabati, Amin Mohsenzadeh and Nooshin Khelghati",authors:[{id:"340486",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Hoda",middleName:null,surname:"Sabati",slug:"hoda-sabati",fullName:"Hoda Sabati"},{id:"348872",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Amin",middleName:null,surname:"Mohsenzadeh",slug:"amin-mohsenzadeh",fullName:"Amin Mohsenzadeh"},{id:"348874",title:"MSc.",name:"Nooshin",middleName:null,surname:"Khelghati",slug:"nooshin-khelghati",fullName:"Nooshin Khelghati"}]},{id:"64762",title:"Mechanism and Health Effects of Heavy Metal Toxicity in Humans",slug:"mechanism-and-health-effects-of-heavy-metal-toxicity-in-humans",totalDownloads:10236,totalCrossrefCites:100,totalDimensionsCites:229,abstract:"Several heavy metals are found naturally in the earth crust and are exploited for various industrial and economic purposes. Among these heavy metals, a few have direct or indirect impact on the human body. Some of these heavy metals such as copper, cobalt, iron, nickel, magnesium, molybdenum, chromium, selenium, manganese and zinc have functional roles which are essential for various diverse physiological and biochemical activities in the body. However, some of these heavy metals in high doses can be harmful to the body while others such as cadmium, mercury, lead, chromium, silver, and arsenic in minute quantities have delirious effects in the body causing acute and chronic toxicities in humans. The focus of this chapter is to describe the various mechanism of intoxication of some selected heavy metals in humans along with their health effects. Therefore it aims to highlight on biochemical mechanisms of heavy metal intoxication which involves binding to proteins and enzymes, altering their activity and causing damage. More so, the mechanism by which heavy metals cause neurotoxicity, generate free radical which promotes oxidative stress damaging lipids, proteins and DNA molecules and how these free radicals propagate carcinogenesis are discussed. Alongside these mechanisms, the noxious health effects of these heavy metals are discussed.",book:{id:"7111",slug:"poisoning-in-the-modern-world-new-tricks-for-an-old-dog-",title:"Poisoning in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Poisoning in the Modern World - New Tricks for an Old Dog?"},signatures:"Godwill Azeh Engwa, Paschaline Udoka Ferdinand, Friday Nweke Nwalo and Marian N. Unachukwu",authors:[{id:"241837",title:"Mr.",name:"Godwill Azeh",middleName:null,surname:"Engwa",slug:"godwill-azeh-engwa",fullName:"Godwill Azeh Engwa"},{id:"274194",title:"BSc.",name:"Paschaline Ferdinand",middleName:null,surname:"Okeke",slug:"paschaline-ferdinand-okeke",fullName:"Paschaline Ferdinand Okeke"},{id:"286975",title:"Dr.",name:"Friday",middleName:null,surname:"Nweke Nwalo",slug:"friday-nweke-nwalo",fullName:"Friday Nweke Nwalo"},{id:"286976",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Unachukwu",slug:"marian-unachukwu",fullName:"Marian Unachukwu"}]},{id:"65467",title:"Anesthesia Management for Large-Volume Liposuction",slug:"anesthesia-management-for-large-volume-liposuction",totalDownloads:5965,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The apparent easiness with which liposuction is performed favors that patients, young surgeons, and anesthesiologists without experience in this field ignore the many events that occur during this procedure. Liposuction is a procedure to improve the body contour and not a surgery to reduce weight, although recently people who have failed in their plans to lose weight look at liposuction as a means to contour their body figure. Tumescent liposuction of large volumes requires a meticulous selection of each patient; their preoperative evaluation and perioperative management are essential to obtain the expected results. The various techniques of general anesthesia are the most recommended and should be monitored in the usual way, as well as monitoring the total doses of infiltrated local anesthetics to avoid systemic toxicity. The management of intravenous fluids is controversial, but the current trend is the restricted use of hydrosaline solutions. The most feared complications are deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary thromboembolism, fat embolism, lung edema, hypothermia, infections and even death. The adherence to the management guidelines and prophylaxis of venous thrombosis/thromboembolism is mandatory.",book:{id:"6221",slug:"anesthesia-topics-for-plastic-and-reconstructive-surgery",title:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery",fullTitle:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery"},signatures:"Sergio Granados-Tinajero, Carlos Buenrostro-Vásquez, Cecilia\nCárdenas-Maytorena and Marcela Contreras-López",authors:[{id:"273532",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergio Octavio",middleName:null,surname:"Granados Tinajero",slug:"sergio-octavio-granados-tinajero",fullName:"Sergio Octavio Granados Tinajero"}]},{id:"30178",title:"Chest Mobilization Techniques for Improving Ventilation and Gas Exchange in Chronic Lung Disease",slug:"chest-mobilization-techniques-for-improving-ventilation-and-gas-exchange-in-chronic-lung-disease",totalDownloads:31193,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"648",slug:"chronic-obstructive-pulmonary-disease-current-concepts-and-practice",title:"Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease",fullTitle:"Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease - Current Concepts and Practice"},signatures:"Donrawee Leelarungrayub",authors:[{id:"73709",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jirakrit",middleName:null,surname:"Leelarungrayub",slug:"jirakrit-leelarungrayub",fullName:"Jirakrit Leelarungrayub"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"3",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82444",title:"Epigenomics in Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma",slug:"epigenomics-in-malignant-pleural-mesothelioma",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105408",abstract:"Malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM) is a tumor with a relatively low incidence, but whose carcinogenesis, for the most part, involves epigenetic factors that keep its heterogeneity and sometimes are a therapeutic target or an obstacle to the effectiveness of the newest treatments. This chapter summarizes the principal epigenetic dysregulation mechanisms involved in the MPM pathogenesis. The most studied mechanism is hypermethylation mediated by DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) in different tumor suppressor genes, and the relation with asbestos fiber exposure, which represents the main risk factor. Physiopathology is related to chronic inflammation mediated by free radicals that produce chromosomal alterations, genomic instability, increased angiogenesis, and tumor invasion factors like EGFR, FGFR, TGF-B, and PDGF. Additionally, independent methylation pathways that produce gene silencing such as polycomb complex and SWI/SNF mutation are reviewed. Finally, other mechanisms are described such as hypomethylation with imprint loss and pro-oncogenic gene activation that induce immunological responses, as well as acetylation, deacetylation, and demethylation in the chromatin and histone context.",book:{id:"10831",title:"Mesothelioma - Diagnostics, Treatment and Basic Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10831.jpg"},signatures:"Aldo Manuel Alvarez Moran, Pablo Alejandro Ávila Sánchez, Jorge Alejandro Torres Ríos and Lorena Vega Castillo"},{id:"82383",title:"The Role of Immune Checkpoints in Cancer Progression",slug:"the-role-of-immune-checkpoints-in-cancer-progression",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105628",abstract:"Immune checkpoint proteins are like two-faced swords that first act as gatekeepers of the immune system to protect the host from tissue damage. In contrast, these proteins can corroborate cancer progression by inhibiting tumor-specific immune responses. Here, we summarized the regulation and signaling cascade of immune checkpoints molecules (PD-1/PD-L1, CTLA-4, TIM3, TIGIT, LAG3, and BTLA), including their role in providing co-inhibitory signals for regulating T-cell response. The involvement of immune checkpoint molecules to drive cancer growth is elaborated with explanations about various anticancer strategies, such as (1) the overexpression of immune checkpoints in cancer cells, immune cells, or the surrounding environment leading to incapabilities of the tumor-specific immune response, (2) immune checkpoints interference to metabolic pathways then deplete nutrients needed by immune cells, (3) the interaction between immune checkpoints and regulatory T cells. Lastly, future challenges of immune checkpoint inhibitors are discussed briefly to get insight into their applicability in the clinical setting.",book:{id:"11278",title:"Regulatory T Cells",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11278.jpg"},signatures:"Rahmad Aji Prasetya and Devyani Diah Wulansari"},{id:"82331",title:"Diseases of Medicinal Plants Cultivated in Karnataka and Their Management",slug:"diseases-of-medicinal-plants-cultivated-in-karnataka-and-their-management",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104632",abstract:"A broad spectrum of fungal diseases infecting selected 10 medicinal plants surveyed in Karnataka, India, was studied in the present research. We present a detailed review on previously reported as well as our present investigation’s details of fungal diseases, etiology, symptoms, and its management. Some of the commonly observed diseases are Anthracnose disease, Blight disease, Leaf spot, Root rot, Powdery mildew, Downy mildew, and Wilt disease. The detailed analysis of medicinal plants revealed that the medicinal plants are susceptible to diverse fungal phytopathogens. Therefore, sustainable management of the diseases is necessary for the successful cultivation of disease-free medicinal plants.",book:{id:"11299",title:"Medicinal Plants",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11299.jpg"},signatures:"P. Swetha and R. Sundararaj"},{id:"82446",title:"Possibility of Using a VR System as an Action Observation Therapeutical Technique",slug:"possibility-of-using-a-vr-system-as-an-action-observation-therapeutical-technique",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105579",abstract:"In recent years, 3D virtual reality (VR) systems are increasingly finding their way into biomedical applications. Nevertheless, in most cases a 3D VR is being used as an interactive system (such as Xbox Kinect or Playstation VR). These interactive systems, however effective they may have proven, not only limit use of 3D VR in patients incapable to engage in these systems due to their physical or mental disability, but also put significant requirements on medical institutions for an equipment, medical personal, and therefore institutional budget. In this article, we are proposing a 3D VR as an stand-alone action observation training device, which could limit requirements associated with abovementioned interactive systems due to its capability to stimulate a mirror neuron system of human brain, while adding minimal demands on both patient and medical facility. Research studies that confirm activity in the motor cortex will be described. We focus on the literature that describes theories, models, and experimental studies dealing with the effects of motion observations that are involved in the control and final performance of motor skills.",book:{id:"11832",title:"Neurorehabilitation and Physical Therapy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11832.jpg"},signatures:"Jaroslav Langer, Monika Šorfová and David Ravnik"},{id:"82439",title:"Cellular Cytotoxicity and Multiple Sclerosis",slug:"cellular-cytotoxicity-and-multiple-sclerosis",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105681",abstract:"Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease in which discrete central nervous system lesions result from perivascular immune cell infiltration associated with damage to myelin (demyelination), oligodendrocytes and neurons. This culminates in debilitating neurological symptoms, primarily affecting women in their child-bearing years. Both the innate and adaptive branches of the immune system have been implicated in disease initiation and progression, and although the underlying cause remains elusive, there is compelling evidence for a complex interaction between genetic and environmental factors, leading to inflammation and neurodegeneration. Both direct cellular toxicity and antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) involving several cell types have been identified in playing major roles. These cells and their interactions in the pathogenesis of MS will be discussed.",book:{id:"11678",title:"Cytotoxicity",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11678.jpg"},signatures:"Annie M.L. Willson and Margaret A. Jordan"},{id:"82430",title:"Hepatocellular Carcinoma",slug:"hepatocellular-carcinoma",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105473",abstract:"Over 1 million cases of liver cancer are estimated to occur by 2025, making it a global health challenge. In almost 90% of cases of liver cancer, it is hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The main risk factors for HCC development are infection with hepatitis B and C viruses, although nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) associated with metabolic syndrome or diabetes mellitus is becoming more prevalent in the West. The molecular pathogenesis of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis-associated HCC is unique. A quarter of all HCCs present with mutations that are potentially actionable but have not yet been translated into clinical practice. In the advanced stages of the disease, systemic therapy is expected to be administered 50–60% of the time to HCC patients. In phase III trials, six systemic therapies have been approved (atezolizumab plus bevacizumab, sorafenib, lenvatinib, regorafenib, cabozantinib, and ramucirumab), and new trials are evaluating combination therapies, such as checkpoint inhibitors and tyrosine kinase inhibitors or anti-VEGF therapies. The findings of these clinical trials are expected to alter the landscape of managing HCC at all stages of the disease.",book:{id:"11265",title:"Hepatotoxicity",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11265.jpg"},signatures:"Rahmat Adetutu Adisa and Lateef Adegboyega Sulaimon"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:792},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/22.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 27th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"356540",title:"Prof.",name:"Taufiq",middleName:null,surname:"Choudhry",slug:"taufiq-choudhry",fullName:"Taufiq Choudhry",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000036X2hvQAC/Profile_Picture_2022-03-14T08:58:03.jpg",biography:"Prof. Choudhry holds a BSc degree in Economics from the University of Iowa, as well as a Masters and Ph.D. in Applied Economics from Clemson University, USA. In January 2006, he became a Professor of Finance at the University of Southampton Business School. He was previously a Professor of Finance at the University of Bradford Management School. He has over 80 articles published in international finance and economics journals. His research interests and specialties include financial econometrics, financial economics, international economics and finance, housing markets, financial markets, among others.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Southampton",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo is a Professor at the Department of Engineering of the University of Naples “Parthenope”, Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plant, logistics, manufacturing and safety. She serves as an Associate Editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process. She is a member of AHP Academy and a member of several editorial boards. 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He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. He then completed his Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia in 2008. He has served in the Malaysian army as a Medical Officer with the rank of Captain upon completing his Internship before joining USM as a trainee lecturer. He is now serving as an academic and researcher at Monash University Malaysia. He is a life-member of the Malaysian Association of Thoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery (MATCVS) and a committee member of the MATCVS Database. He is also a life-member of the College of Surgeons, Academy of Medicine of Malaysia; a life-member of Malaysian Medical Association (MMA), and a life-member of Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (IMAM). Recently he was appointed as an Interim Chairperson of Examination & Assessment Subcommittee of the UiTM-IJN Cardiothoracic Surgery Postgraduate Program. As an academic, he has published numerous research papers and book chapters. He has also been appointed to review many scientific manuscripts by established journals such as the British Medical Journal (BMJ). He has presented his research works at numerous local and international conferences such as the European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Society of Cardiovascular Surgery (ESCVS), to name a few. He has also won many awards for his research presentations at meetings and conferences like the prestigious International Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition (ITEX); Design, Research and Innovation Exhibition, the National Conference on Medical Sciences and the Annual Scientific Meetings of the Malaysian Association for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. He was awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri (DSPN) by the Governor of Penang in July, 2015.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"14",type:"subseries",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). 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Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983"},editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",slug:"ana-isabel-flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",slug:"christian-palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:34,paginationItems:[{id:"81595",title:"Prosthetic Concepts in Dental Implantology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104725",signatures:"Ivica Pelivan",slug:"prosthetic-concepts-in-dental-implantology",totalDownloads:23,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - 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