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\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
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\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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However, to overcome this limitation, MS could be coupled with a separation technique such as liquid chromatography (LC) or gas chromatography (GC). The sample injected into the MS ought to be separated first. The injected samples could be in the liquid phase for LC/MS or the gas phase for GC/MS. The injection of the sample into MS could be done in two ways: either the sample is collected and then analyzed off-line, or the MS is linked to the chromatograph, and the mass spectrum is obtained as the mixture is eluted [1, 2, 3, 4]. Though the primary benefit of the separation technique coupling with MS is the obtention of a spectrum that allows identifying the separated product, it is not the only advantage that may be attained. The detector must display the following properties:
The products separated before the detector need to stay separated, meaning that the detector does not interfere with the chromatographic resolution.
Highly sensitive.
Can detect all product eluted.
Provide enough information about the structure to be able to identify the compounds eluted.
Selectivity: allows the identification of a specific product in the mixture.
The output signal must be proportional to the concentration.
The response factor must be constant or at least foreseeable.
The performance/cost ratio must be as small as possible.
Do not damage the product.
The deconvolution of chromatographic peaks needs to be possible.
The last parameter is important because of the possibility that one chromatographic peak may correspond to two products.
In this contribution, the MS coupling with GC and LC will be discussed, focusing on the ionization techniques used for the coupling. The most important application of the GC–MS and LC–MS are also given in brief. Finally, the recording and treatment of the outcome are reviewed.
A complex mixture can be separated via GC, and MS can identify these compounds. Hence combining these two techniques can be advantageous. Moreover, GC and MS can both run in the gas phase making the linking straightforward, the performance stable, and good reproducibility.
The GC separates and introduces molecules into the MS via direct injection or after heating. The separation depends on the difference of the thermodynamic properties (boiling points and selective absorption in the stationary phase) and the difference in the distribution in the stationary phase and the mobile phase (carrier gas). In this case, MS acts as a detector, which includes an ionization source, mass analyzer, and electron multiplier tubes. First, the analyzed molecules are injected into MS via GC, and the ionization source ionizes them into gaseous ions, then they enter into the mass analyzer. The separation of ions occurs based on the variance of the mass-to-charge ratios, and then the separated ions reach the electron multiplier, which produces an electrical signal and giving a 3D output of the analyzed molecules. A schematic figure of the main parts of GC–MS is given in Figure 1.
The schematic of the components of GC–MS.
In the open-coupling system, the chromatographic column is connected to the MS with a T-shaped tube encompassing a smaller diameter tube (Figure 2). A deactivated fused silica or platinıumcapillary also leads to this tube and goes into the source of the MS. In order to evade condensation, the capillary needs to be kept under a vacuum and heated. The pressure inside the T-shaped tube must be equal to the atmospheric pressure, so the tube is closed at the edges but not sealed. The oxygen can oxidize the eluted molecules; in order to avoid that, helium is used. The diameter of the tube that enters the MS is essential. It needs to supply an adequate flow with regards to the gaseous conductance and pumping capacity. Hence the diameter of the capillary is 0.15 mm, and the length is 50 cm heated to 250°C will carry 2.5 ml/min of the eluted gas into the source. In practice, this is enough to pump everything coming out of a capillary column. The eluted molecules are not enhanced in an open-coupling system. The experiment is carried under the typical chromatographic environments, with one end of the column is under atmospheric pressure. The advantages of this system are the easiness of the column changing and the simplicity of the settings (no unique settings are needed). This system is generally used when no enhancement is required.
Schematic representation of an open-coupling system.
In this system, the capillary column enters the spectrometer source directly through a set of vacuum-sealed connections. No pumping is needed since the capillary is essentially very lengthy. The column inside diameter of 0.25 mm with a length of 15 m minimum is needed (Figure 3). The major downside of this system is not permitting the solvent’s removal, and the column change is complex. When the column is sufficiently long, the chromatography is conducted between an atmospheric and vacuum at the opening and the other end of the column, respectively.
Schematic representation of a direct coupling system.
The ionization techniques such as electron impact (EI), Chemical ionization (CI), and field ionization (FI) have been accessible for several years, which makes the GC–MS the oldest coupling technique [5]. The ionization occurs inside the instruments for the three mentioned techniques, namely in the high vacuum of the MS. For the hydrophobic and small hydrophobized molecules to be analyzed with GC–MS, the MS must vaporize undecomposed analytes [6]. The gas is led into the ionization chamber of MS via the outlet of the GC separating capillary. The MS must be kept under a vacuum because of the capillary columns, which operate at low flow rates; for this reason, the carrier gas that emerges from the GC column into the chamber of ionization needs to be pumped out.
A hot-cathode discharges electrons through the EI, resulting in an electron beam-forming at the ionization chamber between the glowing cathode and the capture anode (Figure 4). Once the molecules go through the electron beam, an electron is bumped out of the molecule’s surface, which gives a radical cation. The obtained ions at an electron energy of 70 eV are unstable and deteriorate rapidly, generating characteristic fragments that are automatically identified through the spectrum libraries. The GC–MS allows easy and reliable identification as well as the quantification of the molecules existing in the user database. Currently, NSIT 20 Mass Spectral Library has 350.643 carefully evaluated spectra.
Schematic representation of EI source.
The CI is similar to the EI, except that the reactant gas molecules are ionized and not the analyte molecules (Figure 5). Ammonia, methane, or isobutane may be used as a reactant gas. The charge transfer due to the deprotonation (negative ion mode) or protonation (positive ion mode) occurs between the analyte molecules and the ionized reactant gas. The negative CI is particularly very sensitive. The detection of a quantity of octafluoronaphthalene corresponding to 200,000 molecules was successfully reached in 1992 when McLafferty and Michnowicz used negative CI [7]. The CI generates fewer fragment ions contrary to EI.
Schematic representation of CI source.
The FI almost does not generate any fragments. A high voltage is applied to a carbon-activated metal fiber in the source chamber. The excavating of separate electrons from the analyte molecules occurs due to the high field strengths that form at the tips of the branches of the carbon dendrites [8, 9]. The FI is a less sensitive ionization technique compared to the EI and CI (Figure 6).
Schematic representation of FI source.
Coupling GC with MS opened the door to several applications [10]. In this contribution, we will limit to the most important ones.
Environmental monitoring: The major application of GC–MS is monitoring environmental pollutants. Dibenzofurans, herbicides, dioxins, phenols, sulfur, and chlorophenol are all detected via GC–MS in air, soil, and water.
Medicine: the detection of numerous congenital metabolic diseases is possible due to GC–MS usage for the screening tests. If the subject has a genetic metabolic disorder, a specific compound is detected in the urine.
Food: GC–MS can analyze aromatic compounds present in food or beverages, including ester, alcohols, and fatty acids. It is mainly used to detect contamination or spoilage. Oils, perfumes, and essential oils also can be analyzed.
Forensic: especially forensic toxicology, GC–MS finds a wide application identifying poisons and steroids (anabolic steroids) in biological samples and anti-doping labs.
Pharmaceutical: The GC–MS is used primarily for the identification of impurities in the active pharmaceutical ingredients. Furthermore, in the field of medicinal chemistry, it can be used to characterize the synthesized compounds.
Biological: Narcotics, alcohols, and drugs can be detected in the body fluid via GC–MS. Moreover, it allows the detection of pollutants and metabolites in serum.
Geochemical research: GC–MS finds a vital application in geochemical research because of the structured mass spectral peaks and low volatile sample analyzability. The atmosphere of Venus was analyzed using GC–MS.
Chemical war: The detection of chemical warfare agents in public places is performed using GC–MS.
Industrial: Aromatic solvent and inorganic gases can be analyzed via GC–MS to detect impurities in cosmetics.
High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is an innovative type of LC used in various fields, including food analysis and pharmaceuticals. It is primarily beneficial for low or non-volatile organic compounds that are not suitable for GC. The main difference between HPLC and LC is the solvent’s mobility. In the case of LC, the solvent moves by force of gravity, while in HPLC, it moves under high pressure obtained through pumps. The use of the pumps ensures the overcome of the pressure drop in the column and reducing the separation time. The combined technique between MS and HPLC is generally identified as LC–MS (Figure 7).
Schematic representation of LC–MS.
LC coupling with MS is more complicated than with GC because of the need to generate gas-phase ions for the MS. Furthermore, the necessity to eliminate the elution solvent is another downside of LC–MS. In the case of water, if the column used has a small diameter permitting a maximum flow rate of 0.1 ml min−1, which is equal to 0.1 g min−1 of water, generating a flow rate of 135 cm3 min−1 of gas at atmospheric pressure. This flow is too high to be injected under a vacuum into a source. In order to overcome this downside, numerous methods are used [11, 12, 13].
The coupling of HPLC and MS became possible with the installation of electrospray ionization (ESI) and atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI) in the commercial apparatus [14, 15].
Electrospray ionization (ESI) consists of pressing the analytes present in the solution through a capillary. The charged droplets form when a high voltage is applied (between 1.5 and 5 kV) [16]. The charge density improves with the elimination of solvents from the droplets via continuous evaporation. In addition, the surface area increases due to splitting droplets into smaller droplets at a specific charge density (Coulomb explosion). At the end of this process, the remaining microdroplets emit single ions, or the droplets only contain single solvated ions that will be entirely desolvated upon further drying [17, 18, 19]. The transfer of the ions into the high vacuum of the MS is carried out via a capillary or small hole in the front plate through electric fields (Figure 8).
Schematic representation of ESI.
ESI is applicable for various compounds such as proteins and peptides, oligosaccharides, bio-organic molecules, polymers, and non-covalent complexes.
APCI has attracted considerable attention due to its ability to produce ions from solution and analyzing rather nonpolar compounds. Like electrospray, the liquid analyte is directly injected into the ionization chamber via an APCI probe (Figure 9). The analyte solution is submitted to a nebulization to produce fine droplets of aerosol spray, which will undergo rapid heating in the nitrogen stream and then emerge at the end of the probe as a stream of a vaporized analyte. In the area of the corona discharge needle, the reagent ions are formed. The analyte molecules react with these ions and form protonated or deprotonated analyte ions that are singly charged [20, 21].
Schematic representation of APCI.
Generally, the transfer of proton happens in the positive mode to generate [A+H]+ ions. However, the negative mode may also occur, and the M− and [A−H]− are formed from electron transfer or proton loss, respectively. During ionization, the solvent clusters and high gas pressure influence the reagent ions resulting in reduced fragmentation and intact quasi-molecular ions. The process is considered more energetic than ESI, which results in the absence of multiple charging [22].
The matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization (MALDI) is another ionization technique, which permits high molecular weight molecules injection into the gas phase as intact ions. MALDI technique gives desorbed analyte with a relative mass of 300KDa. In MALDI, the analytes are crystallized using an excess matrix compound (DBA, Sinapic acid, etc). Then the crystalşized analyte is carried into the high vacuum of the MS and irradiated via laser. Finally, the analyte molecules are carried into the gas phase after the matrix evaporated the absorbed laser energy (Figure 10). The transfer of protons between the matrix and analyte molecules is responsible for ionization [23, 24, 25]. The downside of this technique is the connection to the chromatography, which needs to be indirect either manually or through robotics. Currently, MALDI is limited to scanning applications where a matrix sprayed sample is scanned in two-dimension via a laser beam to get a mass distribution to produce false-color images [26, 27].
Schematic representation of MALDI.
No fragmentations due to ionization are obtained when ESI, APACI, and MALDI are used, hence the “soft” reference. Furthermore, because of their covered polarity and molecular weight array, ESI and MALDI are perfect for bio-molecules analysis.
ESI and MALDI, in particular, are ideal for bioanalytics (proteins, peptides, etc.) due to their covered polarity and molecular weight range.
The LC–MS found application in numerous fields. In this section, the most crucial area will be discussed.
Forensic: LC–MS could be used to determine toxicity in food and beverages, also in drug analysis. The LC–MS can detect trace amounts of toxins in numerous materials [28].
Doping: LC/EDI-MS in negative mode can detect doping agents such as 4-Methyl-2-hexaneamine in the urine [29, 30].
Environmental: Phenyl urea-based herbicides are detected via LC–MS as well as trace amounts of carbaryl in food [31].
Pharmacology: LC–MS is used to quantify and elucidate the structure of drugs in biological samples (urine, saliva, plasma, etc). It can also be used for the study of the metabolism of drugs [30].
Regardless of GC–MS or LC–MS, an online data system is present, containing an acquisition processor, a magnetic recorder, and a computer.
As a function of time, the spectrometer offers two series of outputs: the number of ions detected and, at the same time, the mass of these ions is given. The mass of each ion emerges with a particular distribution over some time, as displayed in Figure 11. Thus, the number of ions detected can be computed from the area under the curve, whereas the centroid of the peak displays the ion’s mass. The mass determination is effectuated via the acquisition processor, where the signal related to the number of ions accumulates quickly.
Schema of a chromatogram.
For instance, in 1 s, a spectrometer covers 500 mass, which means in 2 ms 1 mass. For this period, eight measurements of the number of ions ought to be conducted, meaning 0.25 ms assigned for each sample. In other words, 4000 samples ought to be measured per second, and the frequency of the sampling is 4 kHz. The ions detector’s current goes through a resistance 4000 times a second, and at the end of the resistance, the acquisition processor is responsible for reading the potential difference relative to the number of ions detected and then digitalize it. The obtained output value corresponds to the y axis of the mass spectrum. The x-axis value corresponds to the reading of the mass indicator. The bar graph is the result of an algorithm that permits the processor to define the limits of the peak and centroid. The number of ions corresponds to the sum of the values read within these limits, whereas the ion’s mass corresponds to the interruption of the indicator value at the centroid. A representative obtained bar graph is given in Figure 12.
MS spectra.
In the case of a broader mass range scanning or high-resolution usage, increasing the sampling speed is needed, increasing the data points per unit time.
One of the essential characteristics of the data acquisition process is the dynamic range, connected in part to the signal digitization possibilities. For instance, an ion detector may identify one to a million ions that reach the detector at once.
Its dynamic range, the largest to the lowest measurable signal ratio, is equivalent to 106. In an ADC with 16 bits, the numerical obtained values are between 1 and 216. Therefore the dynamic range is considerably lower than that of the detector. However, this problem can be overcome by reading different value ranges consecutively.
The subsequent operations are possible because of the newly available programs.
The operators can select numerous parameters such as the scan mode or the selected-ion monitoring mode, the array of the scanned masses, low or high resolution, primarily due to the acquisition program. The acquisition processor settings are arranged to correspond to the data supplied by the operator regarding the analysis to be performed. The parameter offered by the operator wholly controls the recent apparatus. Automatic injectors allow the performance of numerous successive chromatographic analyses with no interference from the operator. The most current systems allow the programing of tuning modifications or Changement in the type of measurement. For instance, the operator can program the system to measure the spectrum in a negative mode if an ion with a given m/z value is spotted at a set retention time. The MS was revolutionized with these options.
The operator can intervene and modify the parameters at any time due to the interactive program. Additionally, the following operations may be done:
Reconstruction of the ion chromatogram based on the sum of the intensities of the ions detected.
The chromatogram can be enlarged or vertically amplified to highlight the low-intensity peaks.
Multiple spectra can be displayed on the screen. Therefore, the comparison of spectra, one at the beginning and the other at the end of elution, is possible.
Detecting compounds that may not be noticeable on the chromatogram.
Coupling an MS to chromatography leads to an enhanced dynamic range of the chromatography as well as an improved resolution.
Other programs can be used; they are given below:
Individual program: Can be used to draw spectra with several formats, comparing spectra, and 2D or 3D spectra drawing.
A subtraction program is used to eliminate the background noise from a spectrum or highlight the variations between 2 spectra.
Library search programs: for the identification of the obtained spectrum.
Labeling a mass to an elemental composition can be effectuated by limiting the search to acceptable chemical formulas. For instance, a mass of 40 Da can be ascribed to C2H5O and CHO2. Again, low or high resolution can be used for calculation. The downside of the low resolution is that the number of possibilities is too high.
The calculated isotopic abundances can be compared with experimental values.
Utility programs can be used to extract spectra from analysis and then delete the others.
In summary, it can be said that the most popular separation techniques (GC, HPLC) can be coupled with MS applying suitable ionization techniques. Coupling essentially removes current constraints of the single methods; thus, chromatography coupled with MS has become crucial in many analytics fields. Mainly in the area of bioanalytics, “proteomics” has launched an entirely different area of work over the past 20 years.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Integrity - We are consistent and dependable, always striving for precision and accuracy in the true spirit of science.
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\n\nIntechOpen is a dynamic, vibrant company, where exceptional people are achieving great things. We offer a creative, dedicated, committed, and passionate environment but never lose sight of the fact that science and discovery is exciting and rewarding. We constantly strive to ensure that members of our community can work, travel, meet world-renowned researchers and grow their own career and develop their own experiences.
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Unfortunately, empathy is a malleable phenomenon in that its elicitation is not automatic, but modulated by multiple interlocking factors. This chapter explores the specific phenomenon of intergroup empathy bias—the difference in empathy for members of social ingroups versus outgroups—which poses profound challenges for our modern human world characterized by a multitude of groups, ethnicities, and cultures. The chapter frames the discussion by contextualizing empathy as consisting of three interacting component processes, namely experience sharing, perspective taking, and empathic concern. It then goes on to examine research describing the effects of intergroup bias on each of these component processes. Next, it explores the factors, both at the level of the group and at the level of the individual, which may contribute to empathic breakdown in intergroup contexts. Finally, it considers strategies that may have potential in mitigating intergroup empathy bias. 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Research further indicates that theta oscillatory power is involved in different cognitive functions, such as spatial navigation, memory, creativity, and divided attention. The current manuscript will provide a synthesis of current knowledge regarding the importance of theta’s different roles in relation to hypnosis and their connections to movement. Indeed, several movement paradigms, such as Quadrato Motor Training, have been found to modulate theta activity, significantly improving cognition and emotional well-being. The utility of such movement paradigms as a therapeutic vehicle closely related to hypnosis, and the underlying characteristics allowing these neuromodulations, will be discussed. 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For each school of therapy, five treatments are included, creating a database of 45 sessions. We describe the project and the method of conversation analysis using examples of these transcripts and hypothesise that while all three schools of therapy are faced with common fundamental problems concerning the realisation of empathy, one can observe empathy profiles specific to each school. Here, we introduce theoretical groundwork and the terminology of conversation analysis. The topic may be of particular interest to clinicians, since everyday problems are examined through the prism of microanalysis.",book:{id:"5912",slug:"empathy-an-evidence-based-interdisciplinary-perspective",title:"Empathy",fullTitle:"Empathy - An Evidence-based Interdisciplinary Perspective"},signatures:"Michael B. 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Our preferred definition is moral, emotive, cognitive and behavioural dimensions working in harmony to benefit the patient. Understanding the feelings, attitudes and experiences of a patient is the first step towards a potent and effective interview and, thereby, therapeutic agreement. Thus, clinical empathy may be the most powerful tool for a successful collaboration between the patient and the doctor. This chapter discusses the history of clinical empathy starting with Sir William Osler’s definition of ‘neutral empathy’ where he argues that physicians need to neutralise their emotions so that they can ‘see into’ and, thereby, be able to ‘study’ the patient’s ‘inner life’, to Halpern’s insightful observations about the power of empathy, which ‘lies in its ability to help us cross the divide between clinicians and patients created by their very different circumstances’. This is followed by a summary of the literature deliberating the increasing concern among medical educators and medical professionals regarding the decline in medical students’ empathy during medical school, which brings us to our research question: are there significant changes in empathy levels over time in undergraduate medical education? This body of work reports on a cross-sectional study of all medical students enrolled at an Australian medical school, known for its cultural, social and religious diversity, in 2011. The research instrument used consisted of a survey encompassing questions on demographics in addition to the Jefferson Scale of Physician Empathy, Student version (JSPE-S). Empathy levels were compared while controlling for effects of age, gender, marital status, religious belief, ethnicity/cultural background, year of medical training, previous education and level of completion of programmes promoting altruism in an attempt to identify their effect on the levels of empathy. A total of 404 students participated in the study. The scores of the JSPE-S ranged from 34 to 135 with a mean score of 109.07 ± 14.937. This is considered moderate to high when compared to reported scores in previous studies on medical students. Female medical students had significantly higher empathy scores compared to their male counterparts in total and in individual years. Contrary to the literature, there were no significant differences in empathy scores in relation to the stage of medical training. Findings suggest that there is a gender difference in the levels of empathy, favouring female medical students, and that empathy levels may be preserved in medical school despite prior evidence that a decline is pervasive.",book:{id:"5912",slug:"empathy-an-evidence-based-interdisciplinary-perspective",title:"Empathy",fullTitle:"Empathy - An Evidence-based Interdisciplinary Perspective"},signatures:"Iman Hegazi, Annemarie Hennessy and Ian Wilson",authors:[{id:"199901",title:"Dr.",name:"Iman",middleName:null,surname:"Hegazi",slug:"iman-hegazi",fullName:"Iman Hegazi"},{id:"200210",title:"Prof.",name:"Ian",middleName:null,surname:"Wilson",slug:"ian-wilson",fullName:"Ian Wilson"},{id:"200211",title:"Prof.",name:"Annemarie",middleName:null,surname:"Hennessy",slug:"annemarie-hennessy",fullName:"Annemarie Hennessy"}]},{id:"71429",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91619",title:"Hypnosis and Hypnotherapy: The Role of Traditional Versus Alternative Approach",slug:"hypnosis-and-hypnotherapy-the-role-of-traditional-versus-alternative-approach",totalDownloads:1049,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Hypnosis is a state of mind that is characterized by focused attention and heightened receptivity for suggestions. It is either established by compliance with instructions or achieved naturally; the critical nature of the mind is bypassed during hypnosis and acceptable suggestions are delivered. Misperceptions about hypnosis by clinical practitioners and their clients have been shaped through years of inaccurate but interesting portrayals of hypnosis in books, plays, and movies. Part of the misperceptions is that individuals with seemingly magical powers to manipulate the unsuspecting innocent with their authoritative voice commands and penetrating eyes are depicted as hypnotists. This chapter will review the traditional and conventional approaches used in hypnosis, their advantages and disadvantages as well as where hypnosis is used as a complementary or alternative therapy to the modern day orthodox medicine. Despite the pejorative image display of hypnosis and misconceptions surrounding it, hypnosis still has numerous applications in contemporary medicine. Hypnotherapy conducted by a trained therapist is considered as a complementary or safe alternative to present day orthodox medication for numerous ailments.",book:{id:"9050",slug:"hypnotherapy-and-hypnosis",title:"Hypnotherapy and Hypnosis",fullTitle:"Hypnotherapy and Hypnosis"},signatures:"Mikail Hudu Garba and Mohammed Mamman",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"70731",title:"Theoretical Perspective of Traditional Counseling",slug:"theoretical-perspective-of-traditional-counseling",totalDownloads:1531,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter discusses the theoretical perspective of traditional counseling from an African context. Traditional counseling involves a broad perspective that enhances learning for transformation and integration of sociocultural values that are peculiar to each human society. A cursory review of the literature suggests that the concept of traditional counseling is rooted in traditional systems of knowledge and sociocultural customs and practices, and it promotes a collective approach to problem identification, resolution, and management. The traditional counseling process centers on four aspects: traditional counselor, client, family, and community. The key elements that inform the theoretical framework of traditional counseling from an African perspective are: cultural context, collective belief system, and initiation rituals Traditional systems of knowledge deemed essential for each generation are passed on successively to the next generation by elderly people who do not only have the necessary wisdom and experience, but are also adorned with social competences and skills.",book:{id:"9136",slug:"counseling-and-therapy",title:"Counseling and Therapy",fullTitle:"Counseling and Therapy"},signatures:"Hector Chiboola",authors:[{id:"314172",title:"Prof.",name:"Hector",middleName:null,surname:"Chiboola",slug:"hector-chiboola",fullName:"Hector Chiboola"}]},{id:"71429",title:"Hypnosis and Hypnotherapy: The Role of Traditional Versus Alternative Approach",slug:"hypnosis-and-hypnotherapy-the-role-of-traditional-versus-alternative-approach",totalDownloads:1054,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Hypnosis is a state of mind that is characterized by focused attention and heightened receptivity for suggestions. It is either established by compliance with instructions or achieved naturally; the critical nature of the mind is bypassed during hypnosis and acceptable suggestions are delivered. Misperceptions about hypnosis by clinical practitioners and their clients have been shaped through years of inaccurate but interesting portrayals of hypnosis in books, plays, and movies. Part of the misperceptions is that individuals with seemingly magical powers to manipulate the unsuspecting innocent with their authoritative voice commands and penetrating eyes are depicted as hypnotists. This chapter will review the traditional and conventional approaches used in hypnosis, their advantages and disadvantages as well as where hypnosis is used as a complementary or alternative therapy to the modern day orthodox medicine. Despite the pejorative image display of hypnosis and misconceptions surrounding it, hypnosis still has numerous applications in contemporary medicine. Hypnotherapy conducted by a trained therapist is considered as a complementary or safe alternative to present day orthodox medication for numerous ailments.",book:{id:"9050",slug:"hypnotherapy-and-hypnosis",title:"Hypnotherapy and Hypnosis",fullTitle:"Hypnotherapy and Hypnosis"},signatures:"Mikail Hudu Garba and Mohammed Mamman",authors:null},{id:"72155",title:"Verbal Communication in Counselling and Therapy",slug:"verbal-communication-in-counselling-and-therapy",totalDownloads:851,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Globalisation has many facets which affect individuals and families alike. One of the areas affected by globalisation is communication, which is no longer regarded as something that happens between two or more individuals in a physical setting, but in the twenty-first century, can take on a different form. Hence, through the use of media and technology, verbal communication has taken a back seat. Social media platforms have become children’s main mode of communication and in the process losing sight of the most important aspects that verbal communication entails, like how the message is communicated and received. It is sometimes forgotten that the message often carries thoughts and emotions proving that it is more than simply the translation of information. Communication is a symbolic process by which people create shared meanings. Thus, the absence of verbal communication in families has resulted in parents not really engaging with their children and being aware of what they are up to, thus leading to an unstable family environment which is not conducive to the positive development of children. This chapter will explore the importance of verbal communication for the creation of attentiveness in children and a stable family environment.",book:{id:"9136",slug:"counseling-and-therapy",title:"Counseling and Therapy",fullTitle:"Counseling and Therapy"},signatures:"Zoleka Ntshuntshe, Nokuzola Gqeba and Malinge Gqeba",authors:[{id:"313908",title:"Dr.",name:"Zoleka",middleName:null,surname:"Ntshuntshe",slug:"zoleka-ntshuntshe",fullName:"Zoleka Ntshuntshe"},{id:"314487",title:"Dr.",name:"Z.",middleName:null,surname:"Gqeba",slug:"z.-gqeba",fullName:"Z. 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CH treatments are documented in some detail in a number of different domains where hypnosis is used as an adjunct to therapy for the treatment of debilitating psychological conditions. The techniques and procedures are designed to desensitise and reprocess dysfunctional cognitions, emotions and memories enabling positive change in cognitive perceptions and visualisation. The author, an academic and experienced clinical practitioner of CH for more than 10 years, recognises that there is much scepticism regarding this therapy. It is hoped that this review will give greater understanding and more credence to this highly effective therapy in both the scientific community and medical profession.",book:{id:"9050",slug:"hypnotherapy-and-hypnosis",title:"Hypnotherapy and Hypnosis",fullTitle:"Hypnotherapy and Hypnosis"},signatures:"Elizabeth Brooker",authors:null},{id:"72454",title:"The Integrative Theory of Hypnosis in the Light of Clinical Hypnotherapy",slug:"the-integrative-theory-of-hypnosis-in-the-light-of-clinical-hypnotherapy",totalDownloads:725,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The chapter describes the author’s integrative theory of hypnosis and hypnotherapy (ITHH) and the universal hypnotherapy (UH) method. The ITHH contains neurophysiological, biological, and communicative components. (1) Hypnosis is triggered by symbolical hypnogenic situations of inability of decision-making and/or its behavioral realization. Hypnosis development results in qualitative reorganization of the brain activation system functioning from distribution to generation of activity. Hypnosis deepening is based on the increase of brain activation. Hypnosis development in right-handers is associated with a regressive reorganization of the left hemisphere to the right hemisphere functioning mode, with whole brain functioning on right hemispheric principle. (2) Hypnotization generates hypnogenic stress. Hypnotherapy activates a readaptation process, including neurohormonal, neurotransmitter secretions; activation of the immunological and biochemical responses; and spontaneous change of pain sensation. (3) Hypnotic communication styles (directive, non-directive) are (i) changing due to historical evolution of social communication styles and (ii) indirectly using the representations about hypnosis. The UH utilizes the ITHH, being close to the positive and mindfulness psychotherapeutic approaches. The complex of UH and psycho-education formed positive-dialogue psychotherapy (PDP) for the treatment of anxiety disorders. The randomized clinical trial of PDP efficiency in the therapy of panic and generalized anxiety disorders confirmed high clinical efficiency and the mindfulness effect of UH.",book:{id:"9050",slug:"hypnotherapy-and-hypnosis",title:"Hypnotherapy and Hypnosis",fullTitle:"Hypnotherapy and Hypnosis"},signatures:"Rashit Tukaev",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"240",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 18th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"13633",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelhamid",middleName:null,surname:"Mellouk",slug:"abdelhamid-mellouk",fullName:"Abdelhamid Mellouk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13633/images/1567_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Paris 12 Val de Marne 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learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"13818",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatti",slug:"asim-bhatti",fullName:"Asim Bhatti",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13818/images/system/13818.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Deakin University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"151889",title:"Dr.",name:"Joao Luis Garcia",middleName:null,surname:"Rosa",slug:"joao-luis-garcia-rosa",fullName:"Joao Luis Garcia Rosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/151889/images/4861_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:"J. 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Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. 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