Anthelmintics most commonly used for treatment in humans and veterinary medicine, mode of action and mechanisms of excretion to the environment.
\r\n\tAlthough the microorganism was later described by several other researchers with multiple synonyms, Escherich was recognized as the first, establishing the definitive name of the microbe as Escherichia coli in 1954.
\r\n\tIn 1933, Alfred Adam showed that certain serotypes of "dyspepsia Koli" (as he called the diarrheagenic E. coli strains) were implicated in epidemics of pediatric diarrhoea. In 1944, Kauffman proposed a classification scheme that is still in use today for the purpose of differentiating commensal types from pathogens and subclassifying them.
\r\n\tEscherichia coli, in its natural habitat, lives in the intestines of most healthy mammals. It is the main facultative anaerobic organism of the digestive system. In healthy individuals, that is, if the bacterium does not acquire genetic elements that encode virulent factors, the bacterium acts as a commensal forming part of the intestinal microbiota and thus helping the absorption of nutrients.
\r\n\tIn humans, E. coli colonizes the gastrointestinal tract of a neonate by adhering to the mucus of the large intestine within a few hours of birth. Since then, it remains in a relationship of mutual benefit. However, these commensal strains can cause infections in immunosuppressed patients.
\r\n\r\n\tPathogenic strains of E. coli, on the other hand, as soon as they colonize a healthy host, can cause infections of varying severity in the intestine, urinary tract, meningitis, and sepsis, among other infections.
\r\n\tDiarrhea caused by pathogenic strains of E. coli is an important cause of death in children under 5 years of age, especially in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, where it is one of the four most important causes of moderate and severe diarrhea, potentially lethal An increase in mortality is associated with enteropathogenic strains.
\r\n\tUrinary tract infections are more common in women because of the short length of the urethra (25 to 50 mm) compared to men (about 15 cm). Among the elderly, urinary infections tend to be of the same proportion between men and women.
\r\n\tBecause the bacteria invariably enter the urinary tract through the urethra (an ascending infection), poor hygiene habits can predispose to infection; however, other factors become important, such as pregnancy, benign or malignant hypertrophy of the prostate, and in In many cases, the initiating event of the infection is unknown. Although ascending infections are the cause of lower urinary tract infections and cystitis, this is not necessarily the cause of upper infections such as pyelonephritis, which may have a hematogenous origin.
Nematodes in nature show astonishing biodiversity since only approximately 30,000 species have been described, but it is estimated that there are a million or more species of nematodes worldwide. Nematodes generally have a long, narrow and thread-like body (‘nema’ from the Greek ‘thread’), not segmented like earthworms. Its body is basically tubular, and the intestine and gonad are surrounded by the wall of the body with its dorsal and ventral longitudinal muscles, epidermis and cuticle. Between the inner and outer tubes, there is a pressurised cavity filled with fluid that acts as a hydrostatic skeleton, all of which allows the nematodes to move in sinusoidal waves. The morphological diversity in this group is restricted and much lower than that of other arthropods or vertebrates. All nematodes go through three or four larval stages, and at the end of each stage, a new cuticle is synthesised, and the previous cuticle is moulted. The nematode species are very diverse, and the most obvious differences are observed in size, which varies from fractions of a millimetre to several metres, cuticular decorations and especially feeding structures. The mouth of nematodes can be a simple tube, or it can be decorated with a perforating stylet (in plant parasites and fungal feeders) or with teeth that can cut, tear or bite in predatory species such as
Nematodes are also the most numerous group of parasites of animals and humans and are widely distributed in a variety of habitats. Some are free-living, while others are in some part of their life cycle parasites of plants and vertebrates or invertebrates [2]. Parasitic nematodes of animals have great economic importance; due to the high frequency with which they occur, they are generally chronic and most interfere with good growth. They can be located in most organs, mainly in the digestive tract, have a direct or indirect life cycle, and some are zoonotic [3].
The cuticle is a noncellular, flexible and elastic structure that generally has externally arranged rings; however, since the cuticle is not visible, it has a smooth, shiny appearance and is secreted by the layer of cells that are immediately below, that is, the hypodermis (Figure 1). The cuticle is formed by several layers whose number and thickness vary according to the species in question and is composed of proteins such as albumin and glycoproteins [4].
Nematode cross section (c) cuticle, (cd) dorsal field, (cl) lateral field, (cm) muscle cell, (cv) ventral field, (i) intestine, (o) ovary, (u) uterus.
The hypodermis is a thin layer of four tubular thickenings, called the dorsal cord, two lateral and one ventral. It contains cells that secrete the layers of the cuticle. The muscular system is composed of two types of muscles, specialised and nonspecialized or somatic, which occupy a position close to the hypodermis of the areas between the cords, forming a single layer of cells, which has an important role in body movements [5].
The specialised muscles are found in several positions and have important functions, such as the oesophageal muscles in the wall of the oesophagus, the intestinal muscles in the wall of the intestine, the dilator and compressor muscles of the anus, the copulatory muscles, those of the copulatory bursa, of the spicules, of the gubernaculum and vulva [4].
Cordero del Campillo
Schematization of (a) digestive system, (b) excretory system, (c) nervous system.
Different types of nematode oesophagus; (a) rhabditoid, (b) strongyloid, (c) filariform, (d) oxyuride, (e) trichuroid.
The excretory system contains two unbranched lateral tubes that are part of the lateral cords of the hypodermis. The excretory duct comprises the transverse canal to the excretory pore, which generally encompasses the cephalic and cervical region of the nematode.
The nervous system of nematodes is formed by the circumoesophageal ring, which contains ganglia and surrounds the oesophagus, with numerous longitudinal nerves (Figure 2). On the dorsal and ventral lines of the body of the nematodes are two of the six short nerves that pass through the anterior part of the body, and another six long nerves pass to the posterior end of the body, likewise a shorter nerve in the ventral line, and the longest in the dorsal line and two small ones in each lateral line. The main nerves emit nerve fibres that can become entangled throughout the body and rejoin these nerves or follow other routes. In general, the sensory organs of parasitic nematodes are less developed than those of nonparasitic nematodes since parasitic life degenerates and atrophies the sensory organs. For these, if we can find the oral papillae, a pair of cervical papillae, and amphidal papillae located in the anterior end, in the posterior end of the body of the male, we can find the genital papillae and other called phasmids in the posterior end of males and females, we can also find an anal ganglion.
The reproductive organs of nematodes are filiform, whitish, long and spirally wound, and their apical end is blind. They continue with long tubes of similar morphology that lead them to the genital cells to the outside. Both the ovaries and the testicles begin as thin threads and are transformed into a central cord, and the surrounding genital cells are later transformed into genital ducts. The male has only one testicle and a vas deferens through which sperm discharge, a seminal vesicle where sperm are stored, and an ejaculatory duct that ends in the cloaca. The testes of most nematodes are of the telegonic type; we also found spermatogonia that extend from the distal portion of the tube and complete along the walls of the central rachis. The spicules are the copulatory organs that are generally found in nematodes, which are elongated and filiform organs of varied dimensions. The spicules are formed in the dorsal sac of the cloaca and are formed by cuticular material. The retractor and ejector muscles are responsible for supporting the spicules, and the gubernaculum is the accessory organ on which the spicules slide and are oriented into and out of the cloaca. Some species also have a caudal pouch, which helps the male attach himself onto the female, and those that do not have it have other cuticular structures, grooves and rough areas.
The female genital tract is formed by the ovary that goes through a maturation process where the oogonia begin in the germinal zone and end in the maturation zone. The oviduct is a short and narrow tube through which the oocytes pass, containing epithelial cells at its base. The seminal receptacle is widening at the beginning of the uterus where sperm are stored. The uterus has an epithelial layer, a basal lamina and muscular annular cells. The vagina is covered in its proximal part by a cuticle, and the vaginal opening is in the ventral medial line of the helminth. The reproductive system of females can be monodelphic, didelphic or polydelphic.
The eggs of the nematodes have a more or less oval shape, and depending on the species, they also vary in size and content. Generally, we find three layers: the lipid layer, the chitinous layer and the external or vitelline layer.
Generally, parasitic nematodes are sexually reproduced; males produce sperm, and females produce ovules, which are fertilised after copulation. Embryonic development includes the stages of morula, blastula, gastrula, and tadpole where the embryo acquires its shape. The life cycle includes an egg stage, larval stages (three or four) and an adult stage. Between each larval stage, there is a moulting or change in the cuticle, which can be rigid or elastic and allow growth. Through enzymatic action, each larval stage is released from its envelope to reach the next stage, which may be preceded by lethargy. The life cycles may or may not have one or more intermediate hosts, and the eggs or larvae produced in the definitive host are not infectious, except for rare exceptions. Larval development need to reach the infective stage. In the direct cycles, this development occurs in wet soil, prairies or water. In the indirect cycles, the development up to the infective stage occurs in the intermediate host. In the direct cycle, infestation is usually orally through the ingestion of eggs or larvae; and in the indirect cycle, it can be orally through the ingestion of the intermediate host or arthropod bites [5].
Larval migration to reach the site where they reach sexual maturity can occur through the digestive, hepato-cardio-pulmonary or lymphatic-cardio-pulmonary tracts. The process in which a developmental stage reaches another host includes a complex system of relationships between the animal population and the environment, which vary in time and space. The influence of the environment is important with factors such as temperature, humidity, luminosity, winds, rainfall, types of soil, types of vegetation and seasonal variation. Direct sun rays and dehydration rapidly destroy the larval stages, and the temperature has a range in which the conditions are optimal; outside this range, the physiological process stops and can be destroyed [7].
The entomopathogenic nematodes of the families Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae are obligate parasites of arthropods, which live in the soil and are ubiquitous and are used commercially to suppress insect pests that live in the soil in agricultural fields [8]. Their use is incipient in the veterinary field.
Nematodes of the Steinernematidae family are characterised by their mutualistic association with bacteria of the genus
The family Heterorhabditidae consists of one genus,
Natural entomopathogenic nematodes can suppress insects in a wide variety of ecosystems. Insects at any stage of life that come into contact with infested soil are potentially susceptible to infection, and persistent populations of entomopathogenic nematodes in agricultural systems can provide valuable assistance to producers by reducing the costs associated with the management of insect pests. Knowing the environments in which entomopathogenic nematodes persist successfully helps to conserve the natural populations of these insect pathogens that are potentially valuable for agricultural production [8].
Because entomopathogenic nematodes are found in the rhizosphere, moist soil must be sampled for their isolation; it must be sieved to keep it free of organic matter and placed in containers adding larvae of the last instar of greater wax moth
The container with the soil and the larvae of
Once nematode infection is observed on the dead larvae, it is transferred to a White trap, which helps to separate infectious juvenile nematodes [11]. With the result of this isolation, they reproduce again in other larvae of
Anthelmintics are drugs used in the treatment against parasitic diseases, and they continue to be the cornerstone of parasite control programmes in animals; however, their irrational use has led parasites to develop resistance [12].
Since the parasites are grouped into three categories, Nematoda, Cestoda and Trematoda, there are also three categories or groups of drugs that are available for their treatment. Nematocidal drugs against intestinal worms, hookworms, Ascaris and Strongyloides include piperazine, mebendazole, thiabendazole, pyrantel, ivermectin and diethylcarbamazine, among others. Antitrematodal drugs include praziquantel, bithionol sulfoxide, oxamniquine, and metrifonate. The third group of antihelminths are anticestodal drugs, such as niclosamide, which are applied against
The most commonly used anthelmintics, their mode of action and mechanism of excretion to the environment are listed in Table 1.
Chemical group | Drug | Target/mode of action | Main mechanism of excretion |
---|---|---|---|
Aminoacetonitriles | Monepantel* | nAChR allosteric modulator | Urine and feces [14, 15] |
Benzimidazoles | Albendazole* Cambendazole Fenbendazole Mebendazole* Oxfendazole Oxibendazole Parbendazole Thiabendazole* Triclabendazole | β-Tubulin inhibitor Fumarate reduct ase inhibitor β-Tubulin inhibitor | Urine and feces [14, 15] |
Benzimidazoles (pro-) | Febantel Netobimin Thiophanate | β-Tubulin inhibitor | Urine and feces [16, 17] |
Cyclooctadepsipeptides | Emodepside | LAT-1/SLO-1 inhibitor | Urine and feces [18] |
Imidazothiazoles | Tetramisole* Levamisole* | L-subtype nAChR agonist | Urine [19, 20] |
Macrocyclic lactones | Abamectin* Doramectin Ivermectin* Moxidectin* Nemadectin | Glutamate- and GABA-gated chloride channels receptor agonist | Urine and feces [21, 22, 23] |
Organophosphates | Dichlorvos Haloxon Trichlorfon | Acetylcholinesterase inhibitor | Urine [24] |
Pyrazinoisoquinolines | Phenothiazine Piperazine Praziquantel | GABA receptor agonist Depolarization of the tegument. Rapid levels of Ca2+ in the sarcoplasmic reticulum | Urine [25, 26] |
Salicylanilides | Closantel Niclosamide Oxyclozanide Rafoxanide | Uncoupler of the oxidative phosphorylation | Urine and feces [23, 27] |
Spiroindoles | Derquantel* | nAChR antagonist | Urine [28] |
Substituted phenols | Bithionol Nitroscanate Nitroxynil | Uncoupler of the oxidative phosphorylation | Urine and feces [18] |
Tetrahydro-pyrimidines | Morantel* Pyrantel pamoate* Pyrantel tartrate | L-subtype nAChR agonist | Urine and feces [23, 29, 30] |
Anthelmintics most commonly used for treatment in humans and veterinary medicine, mode of action and mechanisms of excretion to the environment.
Note: The compounds which are marked with an asterisk are also used in humans.
Abbreviations: GABA, γ-aminobutyric acid; LAT-1, latrophilin-1; nAChR, nicotinic acetylcholine receptor; SLO-1, slowpoke potassium channel type 1.
Table adapted from Sepúlveda-Crespo et al. [31].
Because there is a diversity of anthelmintics, only some of the currently most used will be described as an example of the studies that have been performed for each of the active ingredients available.
There are several pharmacokinetic cycles for anthelmintics in animals, from which it is derived that excretion varies; for example, thiabendazole follows an enterohepatic cycle, the amount that is absorbed is rapidly metabolised in the liver by hydroxylation, and its main metabolite is 5-hydroxythiabendazole, which is also metabolised by glucuronidation and sulfate formation. After 8 h of its administration, 90% of the drug is eliminated as a metabolite through the urine and 5% in the faeces. Five days after the last dosage, it was completely eliminated from the body [13].
The fenbendazole that is absorbed is metabolised (and vice versa) and converted into oxfendazole (active compound), fenbendazole sulfone, fenbendazole-2-aminosulfone and other minor metabolites. The drug that is not absorbed (most of it) is eliminated in faeces and the rest in urine and milk, where 0.3% of the applied dose is detected. In sheep, cattle, and pigs, 44 to 50% of the fenbendazole dose is excreted unchanged in the faeces and less than 1% in urine [32, 33].
For closantel, its elimination is up to 75% in faeces and to a lesser amount in urine 0.57, 50% of the administered dose is eliminated in 50 to 85 hours, excreting up to 90% of the dose unchanged [27, 34].
Regarding the complete cycle of pharmacokinetics in animals, ivermectin, for example, is a commonly used drug that has been developed by laboratories for its application by different routes (subcutaneous, oral and topical). The oral route shows lower bioavailability, but its values in plasma can last from seven to 14 days, so in low doses (10–40 μg/kg/day), it can be very effective for the control of infestations by parasites (the intramuscular route is not recommended). The absorption processes show differences according to the routes of application and the species treated. Some oily preparations applied subcutaneously reach therapeutic concentrations of 80 to 90 days with a half-life of 36 hours [35]. It has a high volume of distribution with slight variations between species. Because it is a natural lipophilic substance, it is widely distributed in all tissues and tends to accumulate in adipose tissue. The highest concentrations are found in the liver, bile and skin, while the lowest concentrations are in the brain. It is poorly metabolised in the body; therefore, a large part of the dose is excreted unchanged [22].
It has been detected that the gastric content has the highest concentration of the drug. On the other hand, it is concentrated in large amounts in the mucus and intestinal content, so it is feasible to recover a large amount in the faeces, regardless of its route of administration. Ivermectin metabolism is carried out by hydroxylation processes in the rumen, stomach or intestine, regardless of the route of administration. Its metabolites are 24-hydroxymethyl-H2B1a, and 24-hydroxymethyl-H2B1b is eliminated by bile, so large amounts are detected in faeces, although it is also excreted in urine (2%) and in milk. Faecal excretion represents 90% of the total administered dose and in cattle up to 98% or more [35].
In horses, unlike ruminants, the absorption process is faster after oral administration than with subcutaneous administration, and although the injection results in a greater bioavailability, the oral route is preferred, since parenteral administration can produce local swelling and other adverse reactions. Plasma concentrations are higher and are reached more quickly in horses than in sheep, probably because the rumen delays absorption in ruminants. However, the half-lives of sheep in subcutaneous and oral application were 3.7 and 2.8 days, respectively, similar to those of sheep. In horses, the mean residence time is also longer after oral administration (4.2 days) and subcutaneous administration (3 days) and longer in donkeys (6.5 days), with a half-life of 7.4 days. In horses treated subcutaneously, most of the dose (90%) was excreted faecally in 4 days. The higher concentrations found in equine faeces compared to cattle faeces have been attributed to a lower production of more concentrated faeces [22].
Once in the environment, ivermectin can be rapidly degraded when exposed to sunlight. This photodegradation occurs in the presence of ultraviolet light and can occur between 0.5 and 23 days, a period in which it can affect living beings that have contact with the drug, such as earthworms, beetles, insects, fish and even humans [36]. If the meat or by-products of treated animals are consumed by humans, it usually constitutes a public health problem. The residual effect of the drug can be 10 to 12 weeks, and this is considered ideal for the control of ectoparasites, such as fleas, ticks or flies [35].
The test was performed in a flat-bottomed cell culture plate; to facilitate the procedure, a 24-well plate was used. Nematodes are applied, and counts are performed in each of the wells. Finally, the treatments are inoculated to avoid mortality due to inadequate management [37]. The plate was incubated at 25 ± 1°C for 24 hours in complete darkness, after which a second nematode count was performed to determine the living and dead individuals in each well [38].
For the larval migration inhibition test, a migration system is used that allows the physical separation of IJ with motility of the immobile ones through a 25 μm polypropylene mesh filter. The diameter of the pores allows active larvae, but not dead larvae, to pass through the mesh. In a new plate, the mesh filter is placed in each well, and the total volume of each well is transferred from the plate used in the motility test. The samples are incubated for 24 hours at 25 ± 1°C in complete darkness, and then the live and dead nematodes were counted [39].
The egg counts of parasitic nematodes present in the excrement are considered the main test for parasite control because it has been shown that animals maintain relatively consistent levels of egg excretion over time.
In this technique, a suspension of faecal material is dispersed in a solution of higher density than the eggs of parasites (solution with common salt, 33% zinc sulfate, 35% magnesium sulfate, saturated sugar solution, sodium nitrate, etc.). The difference in specific gravity causes the eggs to rise to the surface or all float to the same level. The solution mixed with the excrement is allowed to settle, and most of the faecal particles will fall towards the bottom since their density is greater than that of the solution. This step is important for some parasitological diagnostic techniques but not for this test. Therefore, the procedure should be completed in the shortest possible time or regularly homogenise the mixture.
To achieve the procedure and determine the reduction of eggs per gram of excreted faeces, it is necessary to use the parasitological technique that uses the device called McMaster chamber where the number of eggs in a given amount of liquid (0.15 mL) is verified and then procedures to estimate the amount of parasitic nematode eggs per gram of excrement used initially are performed, this activity must be done before and after treatments with anthelmintics, and subsequently calculate the percentage of reduction of the egg count with the following formula:
This technique is commonly used in the initial tests when populations of chemically resistant nematodes are suspected.
There are many limitations to conducting experimental studies on parasitic nematodes to assess the anthelmintic potential of a new product or drug, both for in vitro studies and in vivo studies. The difficulties, among others, are the difficulty of evaluating their activity in adult stages of parasitic nematodes kept outside the host, the cost of infection and sacrifice of experimental donor animals, and the impossibility of obtaining large quantities of the stages of the nematodes under study., the cost of maintaining the hosts, labour, the total time of handling the animals, and the approval of different ethics committees, among others not listed [40, 41, 42].
Although there are problems because in vitro studies with biological models different from parasitic nematodes sometimes do not offer reliable results, the use of entomopathogenic nematodes can help to standardise studies or preliminary tests that allow establishing the correct methodology. as its use to determine the effect on nontarget species.
Of the nematodes commonly used as a biological model for the assessment of anthelmintic products in vitro is
Nematocides are usually toxic with a broad spectrum and have high volatility or other properties that promote migration through the soil. The use of chemical nematocides is increasing every day even though they have been banned [46] or even though alternative nematocides are being created [47, 48].
Despite the diversity of methodologies used in the assessment of nematocides, the results are differences between assessed compounds, and the same assessment must be performed several times; sometimes, the limited number of nematodes cultured in laboratory conditions does not allow for the necessary repetitions. In addition, the standardisation time of tests can be prolonged.
There is a diversity in the assessment methodologies of phytopathogenic nematocides. From petri dish assessments with the challenge of the chemical being in relatively large spaces, which allow the nematode much movement [49], to the assessment in cell culture chambers [50] with an incubation and assessment period similar to those carried out in studies on parasitic nematodes of animals [51].
Due to the characteristics of entomopathogenic nematodes, they will always be a biological model with great availability to establish an assessment technique in a new laboratory, since the availability of specimens allows us to test a bioassay a greater number of times before using phytopathogenic nematodes and thus train the personnel who will carry out the process.
As in all tests where biological organisms are used, there are advantages and disadvantages, in this case between the test performed and between the organisms used as a biological model, so the main objective is to strengthen and exploit the advantages. Below are some advantages and disadvantages of the possible use of entomopathogenic nematodes as biological models to determine the effectiveness of a biological or chemical nematocide of parasitic nematodes of plants or animals.
Advantages
Small size.
The short life cycle is quickly completed.
In the right conditions they reproduce all year round.
Short life span.
Known and simple anatomy.
Abundant progeny.
Simple and economical cultivation.
It can be maintained for long periods in the laboratory.
Several strains can be easily maintained in a small space.
Constant motility with little stimulus.
They are cosmopolitan.
They live in the rhizosphere in more than one of their stages of the biological cycle.
Isolation and identification are relatively fast, inexpensive and do not require much training.
Disadvantages
Relatively simple anatomy.
Possible problem due to the type of feeding in its different stages of development.
It is not possible to assess bioavailability and organic toxicity.
It could only be used for standardisation of tests.
The toxicity to entomopathogenic nematodes is probably not similar to that of parasitic nematodes.
The differences in their anatomy and physiology should be considered in studies.
Currently, there is an urgent demand for the development of new anthelmintic drugs due to various circumstances; reaching their generation and assessment is not a short route and requires many economic resources; every time there has been the need for them, it has been solved. However, the assessment of the product or the new drug in controlled or field conditions is extremely complicated.
Research is required for continuous improvement in the management of parasitic nematodes, emphasising the reduction of the use of chemotherapeutics and the development of resistance to anthelmintics, for which viable options are required for the assessment of this resistance. Entomopathogenic nematodes offer an opportunity that favours these aspects, in addition to helping to understand the interactions of these chemicals with the rhizosphere and the environment in general once they are excreted by animals.
Complications in the assessment of new drugs can be analysed in various ways; however, this chapter proposes an alternative solution for the lack of target nematodes (human or animal parasites) in sufficient quantity and in the biological stage of the nematodes in which the assessment is desired. Entomopathogenic nematodes, due to their characteristics, are an alternative to perform the assessments of new drugs on nontarget nematodes that even allow generating populations resistant to a chemical product to assess a new drug, combinations of them or to simulate activities that limit dispersion of the resistance.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. 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