\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8325",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Interventional Pulmonology and Pulmonary Hypertension - Updates on Specific Topics",title:"Interventional Pulmonology and Pulmonary Hypertension",subtitle:"Updates on Specific Topics",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'This book, published by IntechOpen, focuses on interesting aspects of pulmonary medicine. The first section of the book is dedicated to interventional pulmonology, and includes updates on bronchial thermoplasty, virtual bronchoscopy, and endobronchial ultrasound. The second section highlights special aspects of pulmonary circulation and pulmonary hypertension. Throughout the book, the authors offer us not only a "vigorous" review of the current literature but also a research path to further advancement.',isbn:"978-1-78984-042-1",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-041-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-418-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78454",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"interventional-pulmonology-and-pulmonary-hypertension-updates-on-specific-topics",numberOfPages:114,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"eaef88d222f670a00c67f12c5ebdb5e0",bookSignature:"Theodoros Aslanidis",publishedDate:"January 29th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8325.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4276,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:6,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:7,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:13,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 11th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 19th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 18th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 6th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 5th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"200252",title:"Dr.",name:"Theodoros",middleName:null,surname:"Aslanidis",slug:"theodoros-aslanidis",fullName:"Theodoros Aslanidis",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/200252/images/system/200252.png",biography:"Dr. Theodoros K. Aslanidis received an MD from Plovdiv Medical University, Bulgaria, and a Ph.D. from Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece. After serving as a medical doctor in the Hellenic Army Force and as a rural physician at Outhealth Centre, Iraklia and Serres’ General Hospital, Greece, he completed anesthesiology specialty training at Hippokratio General Hospital of Thessaloniki. He also completed Critical Care subspecialty training at AHEPA University Hospital, and the Prehospital Emergency Medicine postgraduate program, Hellenic National Centre for Emergency Care. He served as an EMS physician and emergency communication center medic before moving to his current post as consultant-researcher at the Intensive Care Unit, St. Paul General Hospital of Thessaloniki, Greece. He also serves as a senior lecturer in the Research Faculty, College of Offshore and Remote Medicine, Pretty Bay, Malta.",institutionString:"Saint Paul General Hospital of Thessaloniki",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1047",title:"Pulmonology",slug:"pulmonology"}],chapters:[{id:"66790",title:"Introductory Chapter: Whole Lung Lavage for Pulmonary Alveolar Proteinosis—The Challenges Remain",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86073",slug:"introductory-chapter-whole-lung-lavage-for-pulmonary-alveolar-proteinosis-the-challenges-remain",totalDownloads:303,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:null,signatures:"Theodoros Aslanidis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66790",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66790",authors:[{id:"200252",title:"Dr.",name:"Theodoros",surname:"Aslanidis",slug:"theodoros-aslanidis",fullName:"Theodoros Aslanidis"}],corrections:null},{id:"66911",title:"EUS-B for the Interventional Pulmonologist Using the EBUS Scope in the Esophagus",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84280",slug:"eus-b-for-the-interventional-pulmonologist-using-the-ebus-scope-in-the-esophagus",totalDownloads:892,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter aims at introducing the interested Pulmonologist/Interventional Pulmonologist to the esophageal ultrasound. In this chapter, we give short descriptions of some technical aspects of the endobronchial ultrasound (EBUS) scope and explain in detail why we believe the EBUS scope is well suited to be an esophageal scope in the hands of the trained pulmonologist. The chapter then explains indications and benefits of this procedure that we consider central to the practice of chest physicians. We also describe in steps how to reach each lymph node station using the EBUS scope as a EUS scope (EUS-B) from our own experience. Procedure-related complications and contraindications are also described.",signatures:"Yousef R. Shweihat and Shantanu Singh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66911",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66911",authors:[{id:"274087",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Yousef",surname:"Shweihat",slug:"yousef-shweihat",fullName:"Yousef Shweihat"},{id:"290495",title:"Dr.",name:"Shantanu",surname:"Singh",slug:"shantanu-singh",fullName:"Shantanu Singh"}],corrections:null},{id:"66219",title:"Bronchial Thermoplasty: A New Therapeutic Option in Severe Uncontrolled Asthma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84466",slug:"bronchial-thermoplasty-a-new-therapeutic-option-in-severe-uncontrolled-asthma",totalDownloads:647,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Bronchial thermoplasty (BT) is a new endoscopic treatment approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the management of severe refractory asthma involving the delivery of controlled, therapeutic radiofrequency (RF) energy to the airway wall. It is based on the premise of controlling bronchospasm through a reduction of airway smooth muscle (ASM). Several clinical trials have demonstrated improvements in asthma-related quality of life and a reduction in the number of exacerbations following treatment with BT. However, several questions remain regarding the use of BT, mechanism of action, selection of appropriate patients, and long-term effects. Further studies are expected to elucidate the underlying mechanisms that result in these improvements. This chapter discusses key aspects of BT with a focus on the potential clinical effects of this promising procedure. It also offers insight into the barriers to implementing a successful BT program and strategies for overcoming them.",signatures:"Kumar Sachin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66219",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66219",authors:[{id:"279150",title:"Dr.",name:"Sachin",surname:"Kumar",slug:"sachin-kumar",fullName:"Sachin Kumar"}],corrections:null},{id:"66175",title:"Virtual Bronchoscopy for Tumors and Traumatic Lesions of the Airways",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84562",slug:"virtual-bronchoscopy-for-tumors-and-traumatic-lesions-of-the-airways",totalDownloads:660,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The given MSCT of 26 patients with tumoral damage of a trachea is analyzed. Data of MSCT of 61 patients with tumoral damage of bronchial tubes of primary and secondary genesis and hyperplastic lymph nodes are analyzed. In the analysis, a comprehensive analysis of the native, post-processing data and volumetric reconstructions allows more fully appreciating the nature of the changes, the topography, the extent and prevalence of neoplastic lesions tracheobronchial system. Differential diagnostics of benign and malignant lesions are conducted especially in the stenotic lesions when execution of bronchofibroscopy was impossible. Virtual bronchoscopy (VB) MSCT allowed determining the presence of a complete or partial rupture of the main bronchus, its distance to the bifurcation of the trachea, the state of the collapsed lung, the presence of fluid in the hemithorax, and secondary changes in the bone structures of the chest. The VB played an important role in monitoring the adequacy of reconstructive measures on the damaged bronchus, excluding the occurrence of postoperative stenosis. Virtual bronchoscopy of multispiral computed tomography with the capabilities of multiplanar and volumetric reconstructions and post-processing image processing is an optimal noninvasive method for determining the traumatic lesion of the main bronchi and monitoring the success of the reconstructive surgical manual",signatures:"Kotlyarov Peter Mikhaylovich",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66175",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66175",authors:[{id:"285142",title:"M.D.",name:"Petr",surname:"Kotlyarov",slug:"petr-kotlyarov",fullName:"Petr Kotlyarov"}],corrections:null},{id:"68408",title:"Pulmonary Vascular Reserve and Aerobic Exercise Capacity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88399",slug:"pulmonary-vascular-reserve-and-aerobic-exercise-capacity",totalDownloads:801,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pulmonary circulation has long been known to have specific proprieties of recruitment and distention to keep the hemodynamic pressure low even when facing very high blood flow. Aerobic exercise especially at high intensity has the particularity to increase considerably the cardiac output. The ability of the pulmonary circulation to face high blood flow with maintaining low pressures is considered as the pulmonary vascular reserve. Furthermore, high pulmonary vascular reserve has been shown to be characterized by low pulmonary vascular resistance, high pulmonary vascular distensibility, high pulmonary capillary volume, and high lung diffusing capacity allowing for lower ventilation at a same metabolic cost. The pulmonary vascular reserve thus reflects the capacity of the pulmonary circulation, including the capillary network, to adapt to high exercise levels. Interestingly, a high pulmonary vascular reserve is an advantage as it is associated with a superior aerobic exercise capacity (VO2max). This observation strongly suggests that exercise capacity is modulated by the functional state of the pulmonary circulation. However, why or when pulmonary vascular reserve may be related to a higher aerobic exercise capacity remains incompletely understood. The present chapter will discuss the role of each component of the pulmonary vascular reserve during exercise and develop the factors able to influence the pulmonary vascular reserve in heathy individuals.",signatures:"Vitalie Faoro and Kevin Forton",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68408",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68408",authors:[{id:"300151",title:"Prof.",name:"Vitalie",surname:"Faoro",slug:"vitalie-faoro",fullName:"Vitalie Faoro"},{id:"308116",title:"MSc.",name:"Kevin",surname:"Forton",slug:"kevin-forton",fullName:"Kevin Forton"}],corrections:null},{id:"67708",title:"2-Methoxyestradiol in Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension: A New Disease Modifier",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86812",slug:"2-methoxyestradiol-in-pulmonary-arterial-hypertension-a-new-disease-modifier",totalDownloads:973,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH), a debilitating and incurable disease, predominantly develops in women. Estradiol metabolism leads to the production of numerous metabolites with different levels of estrogenic activity and very often opposing biological effects. Dysregulated estradiol metabolism was recently linked to the penetrance, progression, and prognosis of the disease. Ongoing clinical trials are examining the effects of estradiol synthesis/signaling inhibition in patients with PAH. In this chapter, the effects of sex, sex hormones, and estradiol metabolism on the healthy pulmonary circulation and vascular pathobiology are discussed in the light of estradiol metabolism as potential pharmacological target in PAH. The effects of estrogens and their metabolites on vascular pathobiology and disease progression, their involvement in PAH-associated diseases, and the pros and cons for interventions at different levels of estradiol metabolism are discussed. Finally, we propose that 2-methoxyestradiol (2ME), a major non-estrogenic metabolite of estradiol, mediates at least in part the beneficial effects of estradiol and that 2ME exhibits opposing effects to estradiol on several processes relevant to the underlying pathophysiology of PAH, including angiogenesis, metabolic reprograming, inflammation, and immunity. Based on cellular and in vivo effects, 2ME should be viewed as a disease modifier in women with PAH.",signatures:"Stevan P. Tofovic and Edwin K. Jackson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67708",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67708",authors:[{id:"294878",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Stevan",surname:"Tofovic",slug:"stevan-tofovic",fullName:"Stevan Tofovic"},{id:"304734",title:"Prof.",name:"Edwin",surname:"Jackson",slug:"edwin-jackson",fullName:"Edwin Jackson"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8091",title:"Autonomic Nervous System Monitoring",subtitle:"Heart Rate Variability",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"98067dd53efd76b17cf31d1664f88982",slug:"autonomic-nervous-system-monitoring-heart-rate-variability",bookSignature:"Theodoros Aslanidis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8091.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"200252",title:"Dr.",name:"Theodoros",surname:"Aslanidis",slug:"theodoros-aslanidis",fullName:"Theodoros Aslanidis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7290",title:"Special Topics in Resuscitation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5cc25d9b8a8bec2e374939f147f4e007",slug:"special-topics-in-resuscitation",bookSignature:"Theodoros K. 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Mahboub",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3309.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"148941",title:"Dr.",name:"Mayank",surname:"Vats",slug:"mayank-vats",fullName:"Mayank Vats"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"76873",slug:"corrigendum-satellite-control-system-part-i-architecture-and-main-components",title:"Corrigendum: Satellite Control System: Part I - Architecture and Main Components",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/76873.pdf\r\n",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76873",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76873",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/76873",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/76873",chapter:{id:"72485",slug:"satellite-control-system-part-i-architecture-and-main-components",signatures:"Yuri V. Kim",dateSubmitted:"February 17th 2020",dateReviewed:"April 16th 2020",datePrePublished:"June 15th 2020",datePublished:"April 14th 2021",book:{id:"7030",title:"Satellite Systems",subtitle:"Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",fullTitle:"Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",slug:"satellite-systems-design-modeling-simulation-and-analysis",publishedDate:"April 14th 2021",bookSignature:"Tien Nguyen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7030.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tien M.",middleName:"Manh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tien-m.-nguyen",fullName:"Tien M. 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Esterhuyse",authors:[{id:"32112",title:"Prof.",name:"Oluwafemi",middleName:"Omoniyi",surname:"Oguntibeju",fullName:"Oluwafemi Oguntibeju",slug:"oluwafemi-oguntibeju"}]},{id:"42090",title:"Diabetes Mellitus in Developing Countries and Case Series",slug:"diabetes-mellitus-in-developing-countries-and-case-series",signatures:"Omiepirisa Yvonne Buowari",authors:[{id:"151696",title:"Dr.",name:"Dabota Yvonne",middleName:"Yvonne",surname:"Buowari",fullName:"Dabota Yvonne Buowari",slug:"dabota-yvonne-buowari"}]},{id:"42081",title:"Principles of Exercise and Its Role in the Management of Diabetes Mellitus",slug:"principles-of-exercise-and-its-role-in-the-management-of-diabetes-mellitus",signatures:"Yıldırım Çınar, Hakan Demirci and Ilhan Satman",authors:[{id:"146690",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Dr. Hakan",middleName:null,surname:"Demirci",fullName:"Dr. Hakan Demirci",slug:"dr.-hakan-demirci"},{id:"149496",title:"Prof.",name:"Ilhan",middleName:null,surname:"Satman",fullName:"Ilhan Satman",slug:"ilhan-satman"},{id:"163077",title:"Prof.",name:"Yıldırım",middleName:null,surname:"Çınar",fullName:"Yıldırım Çınar",slug:"yildirim-cinar"}]},{id:"42085",title:"Hyperglycemia and Diabetes in Myocardial Infarction",slug:"hyperglycemia-and-diabetes-in-myocardial-infarction",signatures:"Marco A. 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Horizontal transmission of pathogens during the neonatal period is a major concern to commercial poultry producers. In a commercial setting, viable eggs are removed from hens and transported to a hatchery for artificial incubation. Eggs from multiple source flocks are frequently comingled during incubation which promotes both cross-contamination of pathogens as well as exposure to potential beneficial pioneer colonizing bacteria. At 18 days of embryogenesis (DOE), embryos are transferred from incubators to hatch cabinets with holding capacities exceeding 10,000 embryos. At approximately DOE20, or initiation of the hatching process, chicks begin to pip and break through the eggshell. As chicks pip, they are exposed to microbes on the surface of the eggshell [1]. Fecal material on the surface of the eggshell may harbor potential pathogenic microbes capable of penetrating the eggshell and membranous layers during incubation [1]. Eggshell contamination has been shown to negatively impact hatchability and hinder early performance [2]. Additionally, these contaminated embryos serve as reservoirs that horizontally transmit pathogens during the hatching phase [3]. As chicks hatch, the humidity in the hatching environment promotes replication of both apathogenic and pathogenic microbes. The composition of the microbial bloom during the hatching phase influences pioneer colonization of the neonatal gastrointestinal tract [4]. As such, cross-contamination of primary poultry pathogens readily occurs in commercial hatcheries [5]. Prior to incubation, chemical sanitizers may be used to reduce the microbial load on the surface of the eggshell to prevent cross-contamination during embryogenesis [2, 6, 7].
For over a century, formaldehyde fumigation has been utilized to control the dissemination of pathogens in some commercial hatcheries [8, 9]. Although formaldehyde eliminates microbes in the hatching environment, it has been associated with tracheal epithelial damage and mucosal sloughing in neonatal chicks [10] [11, 12]. As a biocide, formaldehyde effectively kills resistant forms of bacteria, fungi, and viruses [13], and likely eliminates airborne apathogenic and potentially beneficial microbes. Cost-effective and sustainable alternatives to formaldehyde fumigation to reduce microbial load in the hatching environment are needed. However, a multi-faceted approach will be required to control the microbial bloom in the hatching environment and promote early colonization by beneficial microbes to improve poultry health.
In commercial broiler breeder facilities, eggs are removed from the hen and transported to a commercial hatchery for artificial incubation. Hens lay their eggs in clean (or dirty) nest boxes or may lay their eggs in a contaminated environment, such as the floor. Factors including facility design and the lighting program can affect the onset and location of lay. Since floor eggs have been shown to harbor more microbiological contamination than nest eggs [14], care should be taken to avoid disrupting the hen’s laying process.
The egg collection procedure, and egg handling and storage, have been reviewed [15]. Conveyor belts or mechanical apparatuses transport the eggs post-lay to a common area for collection in modern breeder facilities. Prompt collection of eggs is ideal to avoid an increased risk of damage, contamination, and reduced hatchability [16]. The egg temperature declines post-lay and should not increase until the time of pre-heating before placement in the incubator. Fertile eggs are regularly stored in coolers (15–20C) to optimize survival until artificial incubation. Demand for broiler chicks will dictate how quickly the incubation process will begin for fresh or stored fertile eggs. Single-stage and multi-stage incubators have been used in commercial broiler hatcheries, although multi-stage incubators tend to be the most common. During multi-stage incubation, different embryonic stages are co-incubated to equilibrate the temperature. The multi-stage incubators can be more economically feasible, but regular sanitation is difficult. Single-stage incubators are becoming more popular. Although temperature management can be more tedious for multi-stage incubators, the single-stage incubators can be sanitized after each 18-day embryonic cycle. At DOE18, embryonated eggs are transferred to hatch cabinets. Disinfectants are applied during the hatching phase to reduce the microbial load in the hatch cabinet. Hatchery sanitation practices, and the impact of hatchery contamination, will be discussed below.
Pioneer or initial colonizers of the neonatal GIT influence the diversity of the post-hatch intestinal microbiome [17, 18], promote functional development of the immune system [19], and inhibit colonization by enteropathogenic bacteria [20]. Once established, the commensal microbiota inhibits pathogen invasion and colonization by forming a microbial barrier and by competing for nutrients and attachment sites [21]. The commensal microbiota also modulates host immune development and maturation of the GIT [19]. The intestinal immune repertoire evolves to tolerate the resident microbes in the lumen of the GIT, which is critical for homeostasis [22]. Pioneer colonization of the neonatal intestinal tract occurs at birth (mammalian species) or hatch (avian species). For mammalian species, transfer of the maternal microbiota to progeny occurs during vaginal birth where the composition of the neonate’s intestinal microbiota tends to resemble the vaginal microbiota [23]. For avian species, transfer of the maternal microbiota occurs during oviposition [24] and post-hatch due to coprophagic behavior or cloacal sampling of the nest or maternal environment. Cloacal sampling and uptake by retrograde transport of environmental antigens to the bursa of Fabricius has been shown to stimulate immune development [25, 26]. Perhaps coprophagy and cloacal drinking amplify antigen exposure during the neonatal period before maternal immunity wanes. Additionally, cloacal drinking is known to transmit organisms directly to the ceca along with retrograde urine transport [27, 28, 29] and intracloacal administration of beneficial bacteria has been shown to be markedly more potent than oral administration with regard to exclusion of selected cecal pathogens [30, 31].
During incubation of eggs by hens, it has been shown that the number of pathogenic microbes on the eggshell decline during incubation, and resident microbes on the eggshell inhibit trans-shell invasion by pathogens [32, 33]. However, in commercial poultry operations, embryonated eggs immediately removed from the hen may be exposed to fecal or environmental microbes that adhere to and potentially penetrate the eggshell [1, 34]. The risk of trans-shell invasion appears to be relative to the amount of contamination in the environment at the time of oviposition. Smeltzer et al. [14] observed that floor eggs had more contamination and greater susceptibility to bacterial penetration than nested eggs. The increased contamination was likely associated with increased fecal debris on the surface of the eggshell of floor eggs. Preventing transmission of pathogens during the perinatal and postnatal periods is critical to improving poultry health and optimizing performance. For instance, early colonization by beneficial microbes during late embryonic development improved growth performance and immune system development [35, 36]. However, enteric pathogens, including
The avian egg contains both physical and chemical defense mechanisms to inhibit microbial invasion and proliferation. The eggshell has four physical defense mechanisms: (1) the cuticle, (2) the shell, (3) inner shell membrane, and (4) outer shell membrane [40]. Chemical defenses within the developing embryo include antimicrobial properties of the albumen, alkaline pH, lysozyme, and conalbumin/ovotransferrin [40]. Potential contamination of the egg occurs both before oviposition (trans-ovarian route) or after oviposition (trans-shell route; [41]). Environmental temperature and humidity are also known to impact the rate of microbial penetration of eggshells [42]. High relative humidity is considered essential for trans-shell transmission of microbes because it promotes survival, growth and transport through eggshell pores [43]. As the egg cools after lay, a relative vacuum is generated and the negative pressure facilitates microbial penetration of the eggshell [41]. Additionally, the quality and thickness of the eggshell impact a microbe’s ability to penetrate the eggshell [44]. Comprehensive reviews describing microbial contamination of the egg and penetration of the eggshell have been published [5, 40, 41].
The composition of the neonate’s GIT microflora is thought to be predominantly influenced by fecal and environmental contaminants on the eggshell [45], but the composition may also be affected by microbes vertically transmitted from hen to offspring at oviposition. Demonstrated that the hen’s gastrointestinal tract microbiota influenced the composition of the chick’s gut microbiota at hatch and there was a shared core microbial profile between the hen, embryo, and chick. There is further evidence of a partial transfer of the maternal oviduct microbiota to the embryo (progeny) during egg formation [46]. However, introduction of environmentally-derived microbial contaminants may complicate findings when using DNA sequencing to assess microbial profiles in samples, especially when sample number is low. Nevertheless, pathogen transmission during the perinatal period, either maternal, fecal, or environmentally-derived, leads to potential horizontal transmission of pathogens at the hatchery level. If contaminated hatching eggs are not sanitized properly before incubation, these eggs serve as a primary source of contamination in commercial hatcheries [2, 6, 7]. Both culture-based methods and sequencing techniques (culture-independent methods) have been applied to evaluate microbial presence on the surface of the eggshell. Using conventional microbiological techniques or culture-based methods, it was determined that eggshell surface contained ~1 × 103 colony forming units (CFU) per egg [47]. The composition of the eggshell microbiota of hatching eggs can be altered by the breeder hen’s fecal microbiota or the environment. Buhr et al. [48] demonstrated that eggshell contamination negatively affected hatchability and surface sanitation of dirty eggs only marginally improved hatchability compared to non-sanitized dirty eggs. The eggshells of sanitized hatching eggs have been shown to harbor extensive numbers of microbes [49]. Additionally, sanitization of both clean and dirty hatching eggs increased total aerobic bacterial recovery from eggshells at the time of transfer (day 18 of embryogenesis) from incubator to hatch cabinet. However, nest-clean eggs that were not sanitized had lower total aerobic bacterial recovery at transfer compared to the time of collection. Handling after the sanitization process should be limited to prevent contamination or recontamination of the surface of the eggshell. Potential for eggshell surface contamination occurs during egg collection, transport, artificial incubation, and hatching. It is important to limit the risk of contamination at each point throughout the egg collection and artificial hatching process.
Although there are physical and chemical defense mechanisms to prohibit microbial penetration of the eggshell and endogenous replication during embryogenesis, certain microbes have developed the ability to more readily penetrate the eggshell and evade host defenses. Certain Gram-negative bacteria, such as
For decades, early exposure to probiotics or beneficial microbes has been used to inhibit colonization of pathogenic microbes by competitive exclusion [56, 57, 58]. In addition to competitive exclusion and performance benefits, beneficial bacteria may also have immunomodulatory effects on the host [35, 36, 59]. However, the site of probiotic administration (air cell, amnion, allantoic sac), probiotic strain, dose, volume, and day of administration during embryonic development, all impact colonization efficiency and chick hatchability [60]. Early application by
Migration and colonization by a non-pathogenic, bioluminescent
The effect of
The GIT is rapidly colonized by microbes present in the environment shortly after hatch and readily established 72 h post-hatch [72]. The composition of the microbiota is impacted by the individual host and age of the host [73]. The route of exposure (oral vs. environmental) to LAB at hatch influenced rate of colonization by beneficial pioneer colonizers and subsequent composition of the intestinal microbiome in broiler chickens [74]. However, Stanley et al. [75] documented significant inter-chicken variation in the composition of the cecal microbiome in broiler chickens perhaps associated with the lack of exposure to the maternal microbiota and sanitation procedures in commercial hatcheries [75]. To artificially mimic the transfer of maternal microbiota to progeny, the cecal microbiota was collected from 1, 3, 16, 28, or 42-week-old hens and orally administered at DOH to chicks followed by
Administration of beneficial bacteria has been shown to inhibit pathogen colonization and reduce horizontal transmission of pathogenic bacteria [78, 79]. Early establishment of beneficial pioneer colonizers is critical for pathogen exclusion since the GIT is rapidly colonized the initial microbes in the environment at hatch. The pioneer colonizers of the GIT influence immune and metabolic functions that regulate host resistance to pathogens and tolerance of the commensal microbiota. Since commercially-reared poultry neonates do not have any contact with the hen at hatch, microbes present in fecal material or that predominate in the environment at the time of lay or hatch dictate the composition of the pioneer colonizers of the GIT. Artificial exposure to beneficial microbes during the perinatal period may improve poultry health and wellbeing in integrated poultry production systems where prophylactics and therapeutics are more limited than ever due to multi-drug resistance and shift towards antibiotic-free production.
In integrated poultry production systems, transfer of the maternal microbiota is limited. Commercially reared chicks are exposed to the plethora of environmental microbes in the hatchery. Cleaning and disinfection processes are implemented to control the microbial bloom in the hatchery, such as formaldehyde fumigation. Environmental contamination dictates the pioneer colonizers of the gastrointestinal tract, influences performance, and resistance to opportunistic pathogens throughout the life of the animal.
The composition of the microbial bloom can be impacted by placement of contaminated non-viable embryonated eggs in commercial hatch cabinets. As non-viable embryonated eggs incubate, the internal pressure increases within the egg and may rupture or explode. In doing so, the surface of viable embryonated eggs in proximity is contaminated with non-viable embryonated egg material, which also influences the level of environmental contamination that occurs during the hatching phase. Non-viable embryonated eggs have been shown to be predominantly contaminated with
Methods to prevent vertical transmission of APEC from breeder hens to offspring are essential to prevent horizontal transmission at the hatchery level [88]. Portals of entry of APEC include the respiratory tract or translocation from the intestinal tract during stress [89]. APEC strains cause primary and secondary extra-intestinal infections, however, successful colonization of the air sacs by APEC subsequently leads to a systemic infection. APEC strains contain virulence factors and proteins that promote adherence and colonization of that respiratory mucosa and air sacs [90] by evading host immune defenses [91]. Embryonic infection by APEC may or may not be lethal to a developing embryo. For instance, to evaluate vertical transmission of APEC, Giovanardi et al. [92] isolated APEC from two broiler breeder flocks and their progeny. The APEC strains isolated from the breeders and progeny were genetically similar, which signifies the importance of APEC control at the breeder level [92]. APEC infection has also been associated with increased 7-day mortality related to airsacculitis and colisepticemia [93]. Horizontal transmission of APEC during late embryogenesis has been replicated in small-scale hatch cabinets [94, 95]. Exposure to APEC post-lay or during embryogenesis may not always impact hatchability, but colonized chicks can serve as seeders to horizontally transmit the pathogen during the hatching process or production period.
Although
Neonatal broiler chicks are far more susceptible to
Fungal contaminants, such as
The 21-day embryonic period makes up 28% of the entire lifespan of a modern commercial 52-day-old broiler chicken. It is important to limit transmission of opportunistic pathogens during embryogenesis. Although the microbial bloom during the hatching phase has been controlled with formaldehyde, efficacious alternatives to formaldehyde are needed that favor colonization by beneficial microbes and improve poultry health.
Formaldehyde is a byproduct of cellular metabolism and detoxification has been shown to be important for metabolic processes [115]. However, exogenous formaldehyde is a colorless, irritant gas with cytotoxic activity. Due to its solubility in water and biocidal properties, formaldehyde is used as a disinfectant in commercial settings [13]. The first published report of formaldehyde application in commercial hatcheries was in 1908 [9]. For decades, formaldehyde fumigation of hatching eggs has been recommended to control the microbial load in hatching environments [116].
Formaldehyde fumigation has been shown to reduce the bacterial load on the surface of eggshells by 99% [117] and has been used to fog hatching eggs prior to incubation or applied into the hatch cabinet environment during late embryogenesis to control the microbial bloom [6]. The fumigant is typically applied by diffusion of 37% formalin alone or in combination with potassium permanganate inside the cabinet at a single time point or by controlled infusion [118]. Steinlage et al. [118] evaluated the application of 37% formalin applied as a constant rate infusion (CRI, 1 mL/hour over 12 h period) as compared to the traditional method of a single dose application of formaldehyde (12 mL administered at one time point every 12 h). The maximum concentration of formaldehyde in the environment was lower with CRI at 20 ppm versus 102 ppm with the single application of formaldehyde. The effects of each fumigation method on circulating aerobic bacteria in the hatch cabinet, hatchability, and early performance were evaluated and compared to a non-treated control, which received water in lieu of the fumigant In this study, both formaldehyde fumigation methods reduced circulating aerobic bacteria in the hatching environment at DOE20 compared to treatment with water, but the single application of formaldehyde markedly reduced aerobic bacteria in the hatching environment compared to the non-treated and CRI hatchers, and hatchability was improved as a result of formaldehyde fumigation [118]. Although contamination increased because of
Formaldehyde fumigation reduced circulating coliforms in the hatching environment, which reduced horizontal transmission and enteric colonization at hatch [120, 121]. However, formaldehyde fumigation has been associated with tracheal epithelial damage and mucosal sloughing in neonatal chicks [10, 11, 12, 122]. At hatch, neonatal chicks are highly susceptible to colonization by respiratory pathogens due to the inherent architecture of the avian respiratory system because the bronchial-associated lymphoid tissue and the immune system do not functionally mature until at least 6 weeks-of-age [123]. The avian respiratory tract has been suspected to be a portal of entry for enteric pathogens, including
In 2011, formaldehyde was listed as a known carcinogen by the National Institute of Environmental Health and Safety. In addition to the potential carcinogenic properties of formaldehyde, other negative aspects have been identified [12, 122, 124]. Although the application of formaldehyde during the hatching period effectively reduced aerobic bacterial contamination in commercial hatch cabinets [119, 121], it has been shown that the efficacy of formaldehyde fumigation decreases as contamination increases [125]. Additionally, formaldehyde is not selective and eliminates both beneficial and pathogenic organisms. During late embryogenesis, the fumigant has a limited effect on endogenous microbes inside the egg [117, 120]. The impact of formaldehyde fumigation during late embryogenesis on performance has also been investigated. Zulkifli et al. [122] demonstrated that feed conversion was negatively affected due to formaldehyde exposure. Alternatively, CRI of formaldehyde or a single administration of formaldehyde every 12 h marginally improved feed conversion ratio (FCR) but did not significantly affect body weight gain (BWG) from DOH to day 14 [118]. Mahajan et al. [11] also reported no effects of CRI of formaldehyde on early performance. Contradictory to previous reports, CRI of formaldehyde during late embryogenesis markedly reduced BWG from DOH to day 10 compared to the non-treated control group [124].
Although formaldehyde effectively controls the circulating microbes in the hatching environment, there are no benefits for beneficial pioneer colonization. With the removal of antibiotic growth promoters and the rising concerns regarding antimicrobial resistance, a multifactorial approach to promote early colonization by beneficial microbes and control the microbial bloom in the hatching environment without the use of carcinogenic formaldehyde will be essential.
Controlling pathogens at the hatchery level is critical. Evidence of contamination at the farm level suggests that the hatchery could serve as a primary source of contamination [126]. During the hatching phase, bioaerosols and dust are generated and dispersed by the ventilation system in the hatch cabinet [127]. These bioaerosols circulate in the hatch cabinet, contaminating the environment, equipment surfaces, and fluff, as well as having the potential to affect late embryonic development and neonatal health. To prevent disease transmission and guarantee that disinfection measures are correctly conducted, routine hatchery hygiene monitoring must be implemented. Employee compliance can be improved by using simple microbiological techniques, such as fluff sampling and swabbing of equipment surfaces.
Since the late 1950s, fluff samples have been collected from hatch cabinets to assess the efficacy of sanitization procedures in commercial hatcheries [128]. During the hatching phase, fluff and dander accumulates in the hatching environment and have been shown to contain 4–8 logs of bacteria/g of fluff [81]. Based on the microbial recovery from fluff samples, a rating system was developed to assess the quality of disinfection and fumigation procedures for a particular commercial hatchery [128]. Magwood [129] plated hatcher fluff samples in duplicates both pre and post-formaldehyde fumigation and applied Wright’s rating system. Duplicates were plated to assess the level of variability within a single fluff sample and bacterial and fungal recovery from fluff samples were lower after formaldehyde fumigation. However, both pre- and post-fumigation, the microbial load in the hatcheries with unsatisfactory ratings remained significant [129]. The rating system developed by Wright [128] to assess hatching sanitation practices has been utilized in other investigations [129, 130]. Other investigators also confirmed that fumigation of hatching eggs reduced microbial recovery from fluff collected from the hatch cabinet [131].
The open-agar plate method [119, 121, 132] as well as air sampling machines [133] have been used to evaluate airborne contamination in the commercial hatcheries. For the open-agar plate method, the lid of the petri dish is simply removed, and the agar is exposed to the hatch cabinet environment for a short duration which differs based on the selective nature of the agar media used. Aerosol sampling machines have been investigated as alternatives to the conventional open agar plate method to assess the quality of hatcher sanitation procedures [134, 135]. Gentry [135] sampled various locations in a commercial hatchery using the open-agar plate method and the Anderson air sampler [133] to compare the level of sensitivity for both bacterial and fungal recovery. For a 30 second period, the select environment was sampled using the Anderson air sampler (equated to 0.5 cubic ft) or open agar plates [135]. The Anderson air sampler proved to be the more sensitive method based on overall microbial recovery, specifically using non-selective agar. However, the increased volume of air was sampled with the Anderson sampler versus the inert surface of the agar when using the open-agar plate method, which was reflected by microbial recovery. The volume of air sampled using air sampling machines far exceeded the amount of volume sampled by the open-agar plate method when exposed to the environment for the same duration. These differences must be considered when comparing the two methods as increased time of exposure could negate sensitivity differences.
Magwood and Marr [136] assessed the level of airborne and surface contamination in four commercial hatcheries to determine if aerosol and surface contamination was correlated in a commercial setting. The hatchery environment was sampled to determine airborne contamination, while surfaces in the hatchery, specifically the floors and tables, were swabbed and directly plated on agar media [136]. The authors suggested that direct swabs of select surfaces in the hatchery would be as equally reflective of the level of sanitation as air or fluff samples and was a simpler technique to implement.
The microbial load within the hatch cabinet has been shown to increase with the rise in humidity as chicks or turkey poults begin to hatch [125]. In this study, it was determined that airborne contamination was reflected by eggshell and hatcher surface contamination. Furthermore, it was shown that microbial recovery was lower for hatcheries with adequate sanitation practices while highly contaminated hatcheries had higher microbial loads from hatching cabinet sampling, [125]. These results indicate that horizontal surfaces could be sampled to assess hatchery sanitation procedures implemented to disinfect equipment and control the microbial load in the hatching cabinet. Berrang et al. [132] reported that more salmonellae were recovered from commercial broiler chick hatch cabinets with the open agar plate enrichment method compared to the air sampling machine. However, recovery of Enterobacteriaceae, an indicator of fecal contamination, was increased in samples collected with the air sampling machine compared to the direct open-agar plate method without further enrichment [132]. Thus, sampling method, duration of sampling, sample port location, ventilation system, and type of media used for sampling influence microbial recovery from the hatching environment.
In one study,
The incidence of
If hatchery disinfection and sanitation practices are not effective, it will be reflected by hatchability and overall chick quality. Extensive contamination at the hatchery level promotes cross-contamination of strict and opportunistic pathogens during the hatching phase and at the farm. Transmission at the hatchery level can be costly to poultry producers due to reduced performance and potential transmission of foodborne pathogens to consumers. Thus, sampling of the hatching environment (agar plates, aerosol sampling machines, equipment surfaces) and waste generated during the hatching process (fluff, eggshell fragments, post-mortem chick rinses) can provide insight regarding sanitation procedures. These techniques can be utilized to evaluated potential alternatives to formaldehyde fumigation to control the microbial load in the hatching environment.
Research efforts to identify alternatives to formaldehyde to mitigate pathogen transmission of pathogens in poultry hatcheries have been reviewed [141]. Alternatives to formaldehyde fogging or fumigation of hatch cabinets should have minimal effects on eggshell integrity and hatchability and also inhibit penetration or replication of microbes on the eggshell or within the hatching environment. Eggshell surface contaminants obtained at the breeder facility or during transport should be eliminated prior to incubation to prevent cross-contamination in the hatchery. Whistler and Sheldon [142] demonstrated that ozone fumigation reduced bacterial growth similar to formaldehyde fumigation when applied for 2 minutes in a prototype setter. Another potential sanitizer, hydrogen peroxide, reduced the microbial load on the surface of the eggshell with minimal effects on structural integrity of the eggshell [2, 143]. Bailey et al. [144] showed that a hydrogen peroxide mist at a concentration of 2.5% limited cross-contamination of
Eggshell surface contamination was reduced after application of hydrogen peroxide in conjunction with UV light exposure, referred to as an Advanced Oxidation Process [147, 148]. The combined treatment only reduced the incidence of
Some additional naturally-derived candidates have also been evaluated. Eggshells were treated by spray application of grain alcohol, clove essential oil, or an ethanolic extract of propolis, a component of bee hives, and compared to sanitizing eggshell with paraformaldehyde prior to incubation [151]. In this study, application of the ethanolic extract of propolis negatively impacted hatchability of fertile eggs and significantly increased late embryonic mortality compared to the other treatment groups, which was likely associated with impaired gas exchange and moisture loss during incubation. Similar to paraformaldehyde fumigation, spray application of clove essential oil eliminated Enterobacteriaceae on the eggshell surface and had no apparent effect on integrity of the eggshell [151, 152]. Pyrazines are naturally-occurring organic nitrogen-containing ring structures which can be chemically synthesized or obtained by microbial fermentation [153]. Alkyl pyrazines are typically used as flavoring agents or as fragrances) and have been shown to have antimicrobial activity [154]. Application of a volatile organic compound, an alkylated pyrazine (5-isobutyl-2,3-dimethylpyrazine), reduced viable microbes on the surface of the eggshell [155]. However, since overall eggshell contamination was low and the effects of the treatment on eggshell quality and chick viability were not assessed, future studies are required to validate efficacy and feasibility of alkylated pyrazine.
The effect of spray application of probiotics into commercial hatch cabinets as a potential replacement for formaldehyde fumigation has also been preliminarily investigated. Although the Gram-negative bacterial bloom was elevated in probiotic-treated hatchers, probiotic application effectively reduced GIT coliforms of neonatal chicks compared to chicks placed in formaldehyde fumigated hatch cabinets [121]. Compared to formaldehyde fumigation, probiotic-application would not be expected to inhibit the microbial bloom in the hatching environment, but the beneficial microbes could perhaps displace the opportunistic pathogens in the hatching environment thereby promoting colonization by beneficial microbes.
In future studies, the ability of candidate alternatives should be evaluated under artificial challenged conditions to assess the impact on microbial load in the hatching environment and enteric colonization at hatch. Sampling the environment in the hatch cabinet during the hatching phase would provide insight on the microbial load compared to traditional formaldehyde fumigation. Furthermore, eggshell quality may be compromised due to treatment and have detrimental effects on embryonic development and should be evaluated. Although chemically and naturally-derived sanitizers reduced the microbial load on the eggshell and potentially limited horizontal transmission of pathogens in the hatchery setting, these compounds lack the ability to competitively exclude pathogens. Since formaldehyde non-selectively acts on microorganisms on surfaces or in the environment eliminating both beneficial and pathogenic microbes, artificial introduction of probiotic candidates during the hatching phase may be a promising method to enhance enteric colonization by beneficial microbes.
Formaldehyde effectively controls the microbial load on the surface of eggshells and in the environment, but identification of alternatives to formaldehyde represent an opportunity for improving the health and performance of postnatal chicks. Exposure to opportunistic pathogens during the neonatal period can be costly to poultry producers and reduction of infection and impact remains a worthy goal. Since the level of natural contamination is inherently variable, reproducible laboratory challenge models are essential for development and validation of alternatives to formaldehyde fumigation to control the microbial load in commercial hatch cabinets. Artificial challenge models to simulate exposure to hatchery-relevant pathogens during the neonatal period have been employed, including direct application of the challenge to eggshells (spray, immersion, etc.),
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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). 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Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. 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