\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5789",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Nanoscaled Films and Layers",title:"Nanoscaled Films and Layers",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"In recent years, scientific investigations and technological developments have resulted in many new results. Direct applications of quantum mechanical laws to system with length scales lower than 100 nm (nano) had opened a way to construction of new equipment in the field f.e. of nano- and optoelectronics. This book fits into this trend summarizing the results related to discoveries and technological applications of nanolayer in different fields of material science and even life science. The chapters are organized into three subfields:\n
Theoretically, for phosphorus, there is no substitute, there is no element that can replace it [1]. Alfalfa can germinate and grow in agricultural soil containing 0.1% phosphorus, while the plant only contains 0.7% phosphorus in its structure. The structure/activity ratio of phosphorus makes it an important and irreplaceable element for plant growth. To date, there is no known way—natural or synthetic—that can carry out the functions that phosphorus performs. Curiously, in breast-fed infants, the phosphorus such as iron intake is very low [2].
Few centuries ago, phosphorus was chemically identified; however, throughout history, phosphorus has been used in the form of crop residues and manure that were dispersed in agricultural fields. This ancient practice continues so far, but an increase in phosphorus mining throughout the twentieth century contributed, at least initially, to steadily rising agricultural yields, but in the long term, the fertility of agricultural soil is adversely affected. Fertilizers manufactured with high proportions of phosphorus, nitrogen, and potassium boost the plant growth to unprecedented levels, especially in tropical soils that are poor in these constituents [3] although for some reason, nature so provides, and the proof is that these fertilizers, in the long run, contribute to impoverish yields.
In the 1960s, manufactured fertilizer was gearing up farmers to feed more people than the world had ever known; thus, harvests were ahead of a growing population. and although the number of people with malnutrition has decreased, the current figure of 925 million remains worrying [4].
Global production of phosphate rock is now nearly 13 times what it was in 1930s [5]. It has virtues as a key elemental the biochemical of life, but also phosphorus has also earned a well-deserved reputation as a persistent pollutant. In rural areas, unfortunately, phosphates regularly flow into receiving water as runoff from “fertilized” agricultural fields, [6] and in urban areas from sewage sources as a major constituent of human excreta flushed down toilets, as a result of indiscriminate use of phosphates as additives in industrialized food and drinks. Phosphorus can excessively boost local nutrient levels, promoting abnormal algal blooms in the lakes and rivers where it concentrates—a process called eutrophication [7].
Supposedly, this excessive algal growth can eventually lower oxygen levels in the water to the point where some fish species can no longer survive. But the reality is quite the opposite, as algal blooms are triggered precisely by low levels of dissolved oxygen caused in turn by high levels of phosphates. On the other hand, low levels of dissolved oxygen tend to affect marine species until eventually they disappear, regardless of whether there is an overpopulation of algae.
The human eye has 3–4 ml of water that is not rechanged during all the life span of the individual. To practical aims, this is stagnant water; however, this water has adequate dissolved oxygen levels and rarely goes on acidity. We found the biochemical mechanism that Mother Nature uses to maintain the physicochemical characteristics of this eye’s stagnant water in good shape for decades [8].
Melanin splits something previously thought to be unsplittable, and we’ll never look at light, water, Universe, human being, and living things in the same way. The dissociation of the water molecule has transcendent industrial applications, some of them are exemplified in Figures 1–12.
QBLOCK™, a novel material developed based on human eye’s Biology, which also dissociates the water molecules. At left, the container with the presence of QBLOCKS™ explains the abundance of bubbles. The container at right has no QBLOCK™, thereby it has no “bubbles” of oxygen. To date, 5 months later, the bubbles remain in the container with QBLOCK™.
In experiments where QBLOCK™ is applied to offshore sand, after some months, this soil can support plants to grow up. Photograph shows sprouts of a mango seed after 8 days.
After 2 weeks, the sprouts of mango seed. The QBLOCK™ was placed earlier, 14 months ago, and is deep in the offshore sand. Mango seeds were placed 2 weeks ago.
Sprouts of mango seed after 16 days. Notice the QBLOCK™ on the surface.
Mango and avocado sprouts.
Avocado sprout in a soil treated con QBLOCK™.
Mango sprouts, after 21 days. Notice the QBLOCK™ on the soil surface (and deep too).
The presence of QBLOCK™ even in offshore sand, allowed mango seeds germination (right). At center avocado, right: mango sprouts. QBLOCK™ was used in the three specimens.
Left: mango. Right: tamarindo.
The presence of larvae (yellow arrow) in water contaminated with carbon is unusual, due to formaldehyde formation (CH2O), which is toxic. But in the presence of our QBLOCK™, the history is different, beginning with the rise of dissolved oxygen levels, which support life.
In the flask with residues of grains (peanut), but with no other carbon source, only chlorophyll developed on the upper surface of QBLOCK™.
In a closed bottle, simulating a closed system, the presence of QBLOCK™ immersed in the soil sample allows the development of organic carbon. The bottle has been closed since 2016, and a moderate amount of water was added one time only: at the very beginning of the experiment. Photograph taken in January 2022.
Our finding that glucose—and thereafter meals in general—is just the building block of human being but not source of energy because light can be absorbed directly by living things, which suppose their capacity to transform light power into chemical energy in a previously unimaginable split form—like plants; means substantive advances in the fundamental understanding of light and how it behaves inside living things. Thereby, human body is not exception [9].
This is a major paradigm change of how we understand the interaction between light and living things in a way that was not believed to be possible. Not only did we find a new biochemical reaction entity, but it was one that nobody believed could exist [10].
Phosphorus, a 5A element with atomic weight of 31, comprises just over 0.6% of the composition by weight of plants and animals [11]. A ubiquitous mineral on Earth, but not in the universe, and the second most abundant mineral in the human body, phosphorus represents ∼1% of total body weight [12]. Common chemical linkage is in the form of phosphate ester and phosphoanhydride. The element phosphorus is a key element in organic molecules overall in those involved in a wide variety of critical cellular functions. These include the biochemical temperature regulation through the hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), maintenance of genetic information with nucleotides DNA and RNA, intracellular signaling via cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), and membrane structural integrity via glycerophospholipids. But we keep in mind that energy, defined as everything that produces change, is not only needed to function, to move, reproduce, think, etc., but it is also required even to preserve the shape, the form, and in the case of the molecules and membranes, to continue as such.
The metabolism of inorganic phosphorus (Pi) is acting as a weak acid. At physiological pH of 7.4, Pi exists as both H2PO4(−) and HPO4(2−) and acts as an extracellular fluid (ECF) buffer. Pi is the form transported across tissue compartments and cells. Eighty percent of the body phosphorus is present in the form of calcium phosphate crystals (apatite) that confer hardness to the bone and teeth and function as the major phosphorus reservoir. The remainder is present in soft tissues and ECF. The phosphorus coming from meals and liquids, comprising both inorganic and organic forms, is digested in the upper gastrointestinal tract.
During growth, there is net accretion of phosphorus, and with aging, net loss of phosphorus occurs, in similar way and at the same rate that the capacity of our body to dissociate the water molecule declines. Kidney is the main regulator of ECF Pi concentration by virtue of having a tubular maximum resorptive capacity for Pi (TmPi) that is under close endocrine control that means energy expenditure. It is also the main excretory pathway for Pi surplus, which is passed in urine, thereby requiring energy coming from water dissociation. At a dietary phosphorus of 1400 mg, 1120 mg is absorbed (energy required) in the upper intestine to the ECF, 210 mg returned to the intestine by endogenous secretion, processes all that need energy, resulting in 910 mg net Pi absorption and 490 mg fecal excretion. In the bone, 180 mg is deposited by bone formation and 180 mg return to the ECF by bone resorption, and all involved processes need power. In the kidney, 5040 mg is filtered at the glomerulus and 4130 mg return to the ECF by tubular reabsorption with 910 mg excreted in the urine. In soft tissue, Pi is exchanged between ECF and cells. Let us remember that any chemical reaction, any process, no matter how small, requires energy.
Bioavailability of phosphorus also varies depending on the source. Plant protein sources generally have the lowest bioavailability, followed by animal protein sources, then inorganic phosphate additives with the highest bioavailability. Inorganic phosphates have been nearly 100% bioavailable [13]. Phosphorus from plant-based sources remains less bioavailable than animal sources and animal sources less bioavailable compared with inorganic phosphate additives.
The growing Phosphorous “paradox” (the simultaneous overabundance of P impairing water quality and the prospect of global scarcity of P for future agricultural production) has stimulated new convergence between P-security and water-quality research agenda [14]. In the Universe, phosphorous is notably scarce.
Both in agricultural and urban systems, the fragmentation of the P cycle has implications even for water-quality impairment [15]. A sufficient (adequate for the purpose) and efficient (performing with the least waste of effort) utilization of P may offer a great reduction potential in animal husbandry and crop production [16].
The management of animals plays a key role in reducing P inputs to soils and, consequently, P losses from arable lands and grasslands. Because of the regional concentration of animal husbandry, improved diets with less P content may be most urgently required and effective in regions with high stocking density.
Genes involved in pathways relevant for P utilization were differentially expressed due to variable P supply. Phosphorous fluxes through various process and ecosystems along which originally mined and processed P is diluted and distributed over increasingly large parts of the terrestrial and aquatic environments.
Animals fed with low-P diets showed attempts to maintain mineral homoeostasis via intrinsic mechanisms [17]. Pyrophosphatase, an enzyme, could completely exchange the oxygen atoms within the phosphate ion with oxygen atoms originally within water molecules [18]; however, water does not release oxygen for free, so it is necessary to dissociate the molecule (of water) first. The isotopic composition of oxygen (proportion of Oxygen 16 to Oxygen 18) within phosphate ions in plant leaves was different from that observed in the solution delivering P to the plant [19], which suggests that inside living things, atomic nucleus tends to grow, but it does not happen in a flask solution. The difference is the available energy inside the living thing can impel protons (H+) with enough and adequate force, so the atomic nucleus of oxygen and other elements increase their atomic number.
With the adequate surroundings, and a precise and enough energy, it is possible to create the main elements of periodic table contained in living things. Supposedly, only a synchrotron can impel subatomic particles with enough speed to be included in atomic nuclei. However, Nature can do it inside cells of living things.
For instance, Hydrogen has an atomic number of 1 and atomic mass of 1. Thereby Hydrogen has no neutrons. The difference between Carbon (6), Nitrogen (7), and Oxygen (8) is one and two protons, respectively.
The internal cellular environment has a relative abundance of Hydrogen and Oxygen (and energy) coming from water dissociation. Therefore, we can enlist Hydrogen, Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Sodium, Magnesium, Phosphorous, Sulfur, Chlorine, and Calcium as primary elements normally present in living things.
Now, we’ll enlist the same elements with the number of protons in their atomic nuclei. H (1), C (6), Nitrogen (7), O (8), Na (11), Mg (12), P (15), Sulfur (16), Cl (17), K (19), and Ca (20).
Notice that the difference between them is just one proton, in general terms. Thereby, the formation inside living things of Carbon con atomic mass of 14, and Oxygen con atomic mass of 18, means that atomic nuclei can grow inside living cells. After death, Carbon 14, and Oxygen 18, tends to fade gradually along thousands of years.
This is, the growth of atomic nuclei of Carbon and Oxygen can occur inside the cell, because water dissociation happens there, so protons and energy, the two key elements, are available. Furthermore, these transformations—in guarded proportions—can also occur between Na (11) and Mg (12; between P (15) and S (16); also, between Cl (17), K (19), and Ca (20).
It is possible that a certain degree of transmutation between these elements happens to adjust the requirements of the living beings, allowing them a better adaptation to their surroundings. Thereby, Life is not totally dependent on determined diet, it can hatch under diverse diet composition, because the human body can synthesize chemical elements—guarded proportions—and compensate for nutritional deficiencies in the environment at any given time.
In relation to the essential trace elements, we have Manganese (25Mn), Iron (25Fe), Cobalt (26Cu), Nickel (27Ni), Copper (29Cu), and Zinc (30Zn) as examples of chemical elements whose difference between them is a proton, that is: a hydrogen without electron, and the dissociation of water produces them—electrons—abundantly [20].
Supplements are not the answer, i.e.: the intake of calcium supplements in patients with osteoporosis makes their bones brittle.
Remarkable abundance of phosphorous on Earth and its scarcity in the Universe suggest strongly that the P could be formed by living beings overall those in soil. Phosphorus is widely distributed in the global food supply, with milk and dairy being the greatest contributors followed by meat and poultry. Notice a strong relationship with living beings. Circadian fluctuations in some bioactive components and trace elements are suggested to transfer chronobiological information from mother to child to assist the development of the biological clock [21].
For dairy cows, mineral P supplementation of the feed is generally not necessary and might be needed only when fed with high amounts of corn products. This includes more precise prediction of the dietary P requirement and a better characterization of the availability of different P sources used in animal feed [22].
About nonruminants, much attention has recently been given to the variation in plant P sources, in particular phytate-P [23]. It has been known for about two decades that the use of the enzyme phytase as a feed additive can effectively increase phytate-P availability in pigs and poultry. However, enzymes do not make possible an impossible reaction.
Sophisticated analytical techniques such as stable isotope techniques (33-P, 18-O), NMR- and synchrotron-based spectroscopies are required for quantifying P cycles, fluxes, and dynamics in the soil and other environmental systems.
Measurement of the isotopic composition of oxygen within the phosphate ion can improve our understanding of P cycling in soil and plant systems [24]. Analyzing the isotopic composition of oxygen bound to P (δ18O-P) is, however, constrained by several analytical difficulties [25].
The scientific discussion on the identification of soil organic P forms—whether soils contain simple well-identifiable organic P forms or organic P in complex macromolecular, nonidentified structures—is continuing [26]. The cycles of the biogeochemically important nutrient elements C, N, and P are closely interlinked across environmental systems.
The difference between Silicium (14) and Phosphorous (15) is just one proton, and microorganisms in soil also can dissociate the molecule of water, thereby, inside them, there are available protons and energy. Neutrons form spontaneously.
The C-, N-, P-stoichiometry of soil organic matter was primarily controlled by soil properties rather than by the elemental stoichiometry of manure or fertilizer inputs [27]. Since 1998, in Northern Germany, organic P forms in soil did not correspond with the P forms in the organic fertilizers applied to the soil [28]. It is quite possible that living organisms inside soil make the difference, given the energy, protons, and oxygen available coming from water dissociation in analogue fashion to formation of 14 C and 18 O in living beings.
Although the study of C-, N-, and P ratios is needed to understand the long-term functioning of cropped soils, it must always be tied with valuation of elemental inputs and budgets, and the capability of soils to steady, modify, and form, even a subatomic level, the C-, N-, and P-containing compounds. The soil is way beyond to be inert.
The relative importance of P fluxes arising from soil organic matter (SOM) mineralization compared with fluxes from P desorption appears to be much larger in forest and grassland than in arable soils [29], which is understandable and expected because the intensive use of agrochemicals in arable soil, and not in forest and grassland, perturbed the astonishingly accurate dissociation of the water molecule, therefore the highly ordered generation and distribution of energy, protons, and oxygen are impoverished.
Factors such as wetting and drying cycles, green manure inputs, seasonal fluctuations, amount of light, pressure, temperature, moisture, and soil parent material also clearly affect organic P mineralization [30].
The application of microbial inoculants as so-called biofertilizers has often been described as a component of sustainable nutrient management. The main efforts in this field have focused on living beings, as fungi [31].
Considering the uncertainty and the costs of microbial inoculants in practical agriculture, the activation of native soil microorganisms by agronomic measures such as organic matter management and crop rotation could be a better approach to utilize benefits of microbes [32] measures that significantly diminishing the need and use of industrialized phosphorous.
Fertilizers manufactured with high proportions of phosphorus, nitrogen, and potassium boosted plant growth to unprecedented levels, especially in tropical soils that are poor in these constituents [33]. Although phosphorus is one of the most common elements on Earth, only a small percentage is available for human use [34]. Phosphorus is seldom credited for the decline in the number of undernourished people, but such progress would have been unthinkable without its dramatically expanded use in the form of phosphate-based fertilizer.
Phosphorus plays many roles in society today—both desired and undesired [35]. Phosphorus brings about a plentiful of different functions—on immeasurably dissimilar temporal and geographical balances: transporting split-second signals to the brain in the chemical ATP, or immobile as a Ca3 (PO4)2 molecule in apatite-rich phosphate rock that took tens of millions of years to form, expecting mining, or progressively being drawn up from soil solution by plant roots via chemical dissemination, or clearing from our bodies in a momentary drop of urine before being thinned by a flood of flush water to join other domestic and industry wastewater at a distant and pestilent treatment plant, poisoning water bodies as cyanobacteria, or simply cycling naturally between land, biota, and water without being perceived by most of the society [36].
Elevated P inputs can have severe long-term effects on freshwater and marine ecosystems, and large-scale efforts are needed to reduce P inputs from land. Eutrophication is still considered to be the most serious anthropogenic threat, for instance, in the dead zone of Baltic Sea [37]. The mitigation of eutrophication in freshwater, coastal, and marine systems requires a better understanding of mobilization and release of P from soil and catchments (soil-to-water transfers), P composition and cycling in water bodies, and measures to decrease P loss.
Despite its merits as an essential staff of life, phosphorus has also a role as quite persistent pollutant. In rural areas, with poor control of agrochemicals, it often flows into receiving water (ponds, lakes, rivers, etc.) as runoff from agricultural fields and in urban areas from dirt sources as a foremost component of human body waste flushed down toilets [38]. Phosphorus can excessively boost some type of biochemical reactions meanwhile turn down others, which finally seems as endorsing and abnormal algal blooms in the lakes, ponds, and rivers where it concentrates—eutrophication [39].
The misconception that disproportionate algal growth can in the long run lower oxygen levels in the water although first the levels of dissolved oxygen fall and then it is eutrophication, it is thought that some fish species cannot tolerate this DOL of less of 6 mg/l. Thereby, the explanation of this long-lasted mistake emerges after our discovery that both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are phototrophs [40].
It has been demonstrated that the phosphate detergents emerging from municipal wastewater streams were a major driver of Lake Erie’s problem—excessive algal growth and mortality of some fish’s species [41].
Cadmium is a well-established renal, bone, and pulmonary toxicant that occurs naturally in phosphate rock deposits. Phosphate fertilizers are considered the main source of cadmium in agricultural soils [42].
In some river basins, P export now exceeds P inputs, which may result from the net mobilization of P pools accumulated during earlier decades [43], already reached a finite P-accumulation stage. Animal studies show that high inorganic phosphate feeding resulting in high serum phosphate promoted lung, skin, bladder, and prostate cancer [44].
Leaf senescence, or the final developmental stage of the leaf, means the transition from a photosynthetically active organ to the attenuation of said function and eventual death of the leaf. During senescence, essential nutrients sequestered in the leaf, such as phosphorus (P), are recycled, this is mobilized and transported to sink tissues, particularly expanding leaves and developing seeds. Phosphorus recovery is decisive, as it helps to ensure that previously acquired P is not lost to the environment, particularly under the naturally desirable occurring condition where most unfertilized soils contain low levels of soluble orthophosphate (Pi), the only form of P that roots can directly assimilate from the soil [45].
Phosphorus (P) is a key plant macronutrient, as it is a structural component of critical biomolecules involved in both temperature regulation processes, such as ATP and PPi, and in the development of key macromolecules such as nucleic acids and phospholipids. Thus, P is central to nearly all foremost metabolic processes in plants (and humans), including photosynthesis and respiration. Soluble orthophosphate (PO43−; Pi), which is the only form of plant-available P that roots can directly assimilate from the soil, is often highly limiting in the natural environment, prompting the widespread erroneous use of Pi-containing fertilizers in agriculture [46]. And we say wrong because the living entities that live in the clay can transmute the phosphorus from the silicon, because the difference between them is just one proton.
While fertilizers are seemingly effective in boosting harvest yields, only 15–30% of applied P is on average absorbed by crops in the year of its application [47]. The resulting Pi-runoff from fertilized fields leads to nutrient overloading of aquatic ecosystems, triggering toxic algal blooms and eutrophication of the affected waterways. Furthermore, the Pi contained within these fertilizers is manufactured from nonrenewable rock-phosphate reserves, which have been projected to be depleted within the next 80 years [48].
The use of fertilizers in agricultural practices may boost efficient crop growth but could consequently inhibit efficient Pi recycling and thus the overall P-use efficiency (PUE) [49]. Nearly half of the total P present within a healthy leaf exists within nucleic acids; of that, approximately 80% is represented by ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
The possibility of microorganisms in soil can synthesize 15P arising from 14Si opens an unexpected source of phosphorous in minute quantities but at the same time sufficient for the fundamental biochemical needs of life, both in plants and animals. The difference between them (15P and 14Si) is just one proton, and water dissociation provides enough protons, energy, and high-energy electrons. As it is expected, amount of Pi resulting from this “transmutation” of elements are small, such as 14C and 18O, which also formed—in small quantities—inside living things, and coherently, the plants metabolism is so efficient to recycling minute amounts of Pi.
Therefore, the fertility of the soil depends significantly on its oxygen content, so much so that the formation of clays depends on the presence of oxygen and therefore on the presence of life that generates it, rather than phosphorus in irrational quantities. If we restore the oxygen levels that the arable soil should contain, soil fertility would improve significantly. And even more so if we irrigate the crops with water with dissolved oxygen levels above 6 mg / L.
Enzymes do not make possible an impossible reaction, thereby, neither water dissociation nor transmutation from 14Si to 15P is a biochemical reaction that depends on enzymatic activity. Thereby, Pi acquisition from the soil is not an entirely passive process due to soil’s microorganisms being systems with capacities way beyond our abstraction capacity.
Zones that were found to have high heavy metal levels should be avoided to cultivate potatoes because potatoes tend to accumulate heavy metals notably higher than other types of plants. Soils that were found to be acidic traditionally should be treated with lime so that heavy metal uptake by plants via soil–plant pathway could be slowed; however, the increase of oxygen levels in the soil and the increase of pH through QBLOCK™ improve the root plant health and thereby the crops yield. It is important to protect groundwater resources in the region from heavy metal contamination especially in acidic zones [50].
Phosphate extraction increasingly generates more pollution and waste, requires more energy per nutrient value, and costs more to mine and to process [51]. The fluxes that we generate are larger than natural fluxes. This is no easy way to run a bio-geo-chemical cycle [52].
First life originated in water, then glucose—the universal precursor—and thereafter phosphorus that plays important role in evolution of whole spectrum of life. Phosphorus constitutes integral part of nucleic acids and amino acids, which are carriers of the whole genetic information of evolution of life on this planet and building block in every form of life. Such is importance of element phosphorus. But now phosphorous is emerging hidden crisis before agricultural community and environmentalists of the world.
Phosphates are thermodynamically unstable while being kinetically stable [53]. ATP is kinetically stable under physiologic conditions [54]. Kornberg has estimated that eukaryotic cells contain on average 109 molecules of ATP [55]. Theoretically, ≈2.5 ATPs are formed for each pair of electrons sent by an NADH molecule down the respiratory chain and that ≈80 kg of ATP is turned over in a day per adult male human, thereby, about 30 kg of NADH must be generated and funneled to O2 every day. It does not make sense.
The fluidity of nucleoside triphosphates, via NMP allocation, to handle DNA replication (~2 × 108 ATP to replicate the
In cancer cells and in pluripotent stem cells (embryonic), TCA cycle is not fully active for purposes of ATP synthesis, even in the presence of ample oxygen. Thus, they do not oxidize glucose completely, and electrons do not get put into the mitochondrial respiratory chain effectively, the so-called Warburg effect [57].
Phosphorous is an inorganic element probably produced by photosynthesis in living beings. O2 by analogy is an inorganic molecule also, since nearly all the 20% of the earth’s atmosphere that is O2 has been biogenically derived via O2-producing photosynthesis.
O2: Thermodynamically Activated, Kinetically Stable Inorganic Molecule to Power Eukaryotic Metabolism. Molecular oxygen is a difficult to handle metabolite. Living things have optimized their presence, as it has been present in the equation since the beginning of time. But the valuable product of water dissociation is hydrogen, simply because it is the quintessential energy carrier in the entire universe. Therefore, the following concepts are totally theoretical: Higher eukaryotes unlock its thermodynamic potential to undergo four-electron reduction and make a good living energetically. But glucose is not a source of energy, it is only a source of biomass, even if it is combined with oxygen. They practice substrate hydroxylation chemistry judiciously, in hypoxia, in macromolecule demethylations, and in the steroid hormone maturation pathways. Of course, oxygen appears in every reaction but its “unwanted” presence is since it comes from the dissociation of water that the body carries out to obtain energy. The oxygen that the body contains does not come from the atmosphere. Yet, they still had to evolve enzymatic and nonenzymatic defenses against toxic partially reduced oxygen metabolites, emphasizing how oxygen reductive metabolism has its intrinsic dangers. The previous paragraph, also theoretical, will have to be rewritten since the best antioxidant known is hydrogen.
The amount of ATP in a 70 kg human has been estimated at ~50 g, with about 109 molecules/cell.
The most common single posttranslational modification of proteins (PTM) is phosphorylation of Ser, Thr, and Tyr side chains by ATP-dependent protein kinases, but the activation energy required by enzymes comes from the dissociation of water, the effect of ATP is minor and complementary. Supposedly tens to hundreds of thousands of phosphor variants of proteins may be formed transiently in human cells by the >500 members encoded in human kinemes; however, the energy that the body obtains through the dissociation of water is exact, amazingly accurate, and has not changed since the beginning of time, so the sequence of biochemical logic with which the body handles the compounds that conform us is strictly regulated by 4 billion years of evolution. Many proteins can be phosphorylated at multiple residues, by single or multiple kinases, but it does not happen randomly, but every kinase requires energy that comes from the dissociation of the water molecule. The fraction of a given protein subject to modification can depend on location within the cell (distinct pools) available energy that comes from water dissociation and the activity of the PTM enzymes. Hundreds to thousands of fractional molecular protein variants can be created (but not randomly) and then returned to starting pools by protein phosphatases [58], which, to function properly, require adequate energy, which undoubtedly comes from the dissociation of the water molecule. By the way, any enzyme whether related to phosphate metabolism requires the energy that always comes from water dissociation. Thereby, the turnover rate of the splitting of the water molecules is the great regulator of the functioning of the biochemical logic of life both in water and in agricultural soil.
There are at least four compounds that seem to exist in abundance on planet Earth in comparison with other planets or with known Universe: oxygen, water, clay, and phosphorous.
Them all are produced by living beings. This is: the presence of these compounds and elements requires the presence of life to be produced. Without life, they are not produced or at least are absent.
Such as the O2 present inside human body coming from water dissociation that living being has inside and not from atmosphere [59], then a significant part of phosphorous coming from the inner photosynthesis more than of diet. Phosphate esters and anhydrides dominate the living world but are seldom used as intermediates by organic chemists. Phosphoric acid is specially adapted for its role in nucleic acids because it can link two nucleotides and still ionize, something unique; the resulting negative charge serves both to stabilize the diesters against hydrolysis and to retain the molecules within a lipid membrane; but these reactions also need the power coming from water dissociation. Phosphates with multiple negative charges can react through energy expenditure, by way of the monomeric metaphosphate ion PO3- as an intermediate. No other residue appears to fulfill the multiple roles of phosphate in biochemistry; however, energy from water dissociation still is needed. Stable, negatively charged phosphates react under catalysis by enzymes—energy expenditure; organic chemists, who can only rarely use enzymatic catalysis for their reactions, need more highly reactive intermediates than phosphates.
Given our discovery of unexpected intrinsic capacity of living beings to transform sunshine power into chemical energy, through water dissociation, like plants do, we can discard the role of phosphates as energy sources [60] limiting it to temperature regulation ATP, ADP, and AMP cycle, the biology of phospho-nucleotides, and control of phosphates toxicity.
Therefore, the planetary boundary for phosphorous must be rethanked, rewritten, [61] because the abundance of phosphorous on Earth and the scarcity in Universe are not by chance. Phosphorous (15P) is produced by living things, mainly by the microorganisms of the soil; probably arising from silicium (14Si). Remember that the difference between them is just one proton, and the transformation of sunshine power into chemical energy is through the dissociation of the water molecules, a universal mechanism that places the adequate energy, protons, and oxygen inside every cell of living things.
Therefore, while the life thrives on planet Earth, Phosphorous should be produce by living things, as has been done since beginning of time. And it is important to respect the way nature has formed and used it, this is in minimal quantities. The secret of sustainable fertile soil lies in keeping oxygen levels high inside it; something that is possible to achieved with the QBLOCK™.
Once the knowledge about the unsuspected ability to dissociate water from living beings, to transform sunlight into chemical energy, is known and disseminated sufficiently, the use of nitrogen fertilizers can be reduced to a minimum and even stop using them completely, because the damage it causes to the environment, even from their manufacture and subsequent use, they are huge and long-lasting.
We can maintain the fertility of agricultural soil by raising the levels of oxygen it contains and irrigating crops with water with adequate levels of dissolved oxygen, this is above 6 mg/L. This would substantially reduce the need for artificial fertilizers whose synthesis alone is remarkably polluting, not to mention the amounts of phosphates that are thrown into crops and end up flowing in rivers and seas forming dead zones, as in the Gulf of Mexico, in the Gulf of Aden, the Baltic Sea, which continue to spread.
The use of QBLOCK™ or some similar method that raises the levels of dissolved oxygen in both water and agricultural soil will allow us a more rational agriculture, even regenerative, because we will be able to prevent the damage inflicted by current agrochemicals, and even reverse it.
This work was supported by Human Photosynthesis™ Study Centre. Aguascalientes 20000, México.
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Torres",authors:[{id:"94062",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",middleName:"LucÃa",surname:"De Paul",slug:"ana-de-paul",fullName:"Ana De Paul"},{id:"107542",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Mukdsi",slug:"jorge-mukdsi",fullName:"Jorge Mukdsi"},{id:"107544",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Petiti",slug:"juan-pablo-petiti",fullName:"Juan Pablo Petiti"},{id:"107545",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvina",middleName:null,surname:"Gutiérrez",slug:"silvina-gutierrez",fullName:"Silvina Gutiérrez"},{id:"107546",title:"Dr.",name:"Amado",middleName:null,surname:"Quintar",slug:"amado-quintar",fullName:"Amado Quintar"},{id:"107548",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Maldonado",slug:"cristina-maldonado",fullName:"Cristina Maldonado"},{id:"107551",title:"Dr.",name:"Alicia",middleName:null,surname:"Torres",slug:"alicia-torres",fullName:"Alicia Torres"}]},{id:"62204",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78804",title:"Highlighting the Role of DC-NK Cell Interplay in Immunobiology and Immunotherapy",slug:"highlighting-the-role-of-dc-nk-cell-interplay-in-immunobiology-and-immunotherapy",totalDownloads:1855,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Dendritic cells (DCs) and natural killer (NK) cells are both part of the innate immune system, also playing crucial functions in the regulation of adaptive immune responses. In recent years, numerous works have demonstrated that DCs and NK cells mutually influence each other with major consequences in the type and effectiveness of elicited immune responses. Among other effects, DC-NK crosstalk can result in NK cell activation and DC maturation or deletion, depending on its activation status. In this chapter and after a brief overview of DCs and NK immunobiology, we focus on the process of DC-NK crosstalk, highlighting the relevance of rationally exploring this interplay in the development of more effective cancer immunotherapies.",book:{id:"7248",slug:"dendritic-cells",title:"Dendritic Cells",fullTitle:"Dendritic Cells"},signatures:"João Calmeiro, Mylene Carrascal, Célia Gomes, Amílcar Falcão,\nMaria Teresa Cruz and Bruno Miguel Neves",authors:[{id:"114266",title:"Prof.",name:"Bruno",middleName:"Miguel",surname:"Neves",slug:"bruno-neves",fullName:"Bruno Neves"},{id:"115592",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Teresa",middleName:null,surname:"Cruz",slug:"maria-teresa-cruz",fullName:"Maria Teresa Cruz"},{id:"233883",title:"Prof.",name:"Amílcar",middleName:null,surname:"Falcão",slug:"amilcar-falcao",fullName:"Amílcar Falcão"},{id:"243998",title:"MSc.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Calmeiro",slug:"joao-calmeiro",fullName:"João Calmeiro"},{id:"244001",title:"Dr.",name:"Mylene",middleName:null,surname:"Carrascal",slug:"mylene-carrascal",fullName:"Mylene Carrascal"},{id:"244004",title:"Dr.",name:"Célia",middleName:null,surname:"Gomes",slug:"celia-gomes",fullName:"Célia Gomes"}]},{id:"62945",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79926",title:"Dendritic Cell Subsets, Maturation and Function",slug:"dendritic-cell-subsets-maturation-and-function",totalDownloads:2288,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Dendritic cells (DCs) are the most efficient and professional antigen-presenting cells of the immune system required for induction and dispersion of immune responses. DCs also have an important role in the induction and maintenance of tolerance. In response to infections, DCs drive the production of effector CD4+ T helper 1 (Th1) and CD8+ T cell-dominated immune responses. DCs can be designated to become tolerogenic and enhance regulatory T cells (Tregs) that regulate effector T cell responses, a process that is essential for the maintenance of immune homeostasis and control of autoimmune diseases and hypersensitivities. DCs can exist in three states: immature, semi-mature, and mature DCs. The difference between immature and mature DCs is distinctly based on variations occurring on a phenotypic level and functional level. Immature dendritic cells manifested characteristics of primitive cells, defined by expression of classical dendritic cell surface markers CD11c, CD11b and major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC-II). Phenotypic maturation is accomplished when DCs upregulate surface maturation markers such as CD80, CD83, and CD86.",book:{id:"7248",slug:"dendritic-cells",title:"Dendritic Cells",fullTitle:"Dendritic Cells"},signatures:"Ghada Mohammad Zaki Al-Ashmawy",authors:[{id:"255240",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghada",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Ashmawy",slug:"ghada-al-ashmawy",fullName:"Ghada Al-Ashmawy"}]},{id:"63198",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79273",title:"Dendritic Cells: The Tools for Cancer Treatment",slug:"dendritic-cells-the-tools-for-cancer-treatment",totalDownloads:1196,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"During cancer immune editing, the immune system shapes tumor fate in three phases through the activation of innate and adaptive immune mechanisms. After the elimination and equilibrium phase, the escape phase represents the final phase in which immunologically sculpted tumors begin to grow progressively. In this chapter, we will discuss which efforts are made to restore the balance in favor of the immune system making use of dendritic cells (DCs). The first approach is adoptive cell transfer, in which autologous DCs are generated and activated ex vivo. Secondly, we will discuss attempts in which pro-inflammatory or pro-migratory factors are delivered to attract and activate DCs in situ. Both strategies have the general goal to activate and mature DCs able to induce a robust tumor-specific T cell response. In addition, this chapter will discuss the clinical impact of DC-based therapies in cancer treatment focusing on the safety, feasibility, immunological responses, and clinical outcome.",book:{id:"7248",slug:"dendritic-cells",title:"Dendritic Cells",fullTitle:"Dendritic Cells"},signatures:"Hanne Locy, Sarah Melhaoui, Sarah K. Maenhout and Kris\nThielemans",authors:[{id:"253469",title:"Prof.",name:"Kris",middleName:null,surname:"Thielemans",slug:"kris-thielemans",fullName:"Kris Thielemans"},{id:"260847",title:"Mrs.",name:"Hanne",middleName:null,surname:"Locy",slug:"hanne-locy",fullName:"Hanne Locy"},{id:"260848",title:"MSc.",name:"Sarah",middleName:null,surname:"Melhaoui",slug:"sarah-melhaoui",fullName:"Sarah Melhaoui"},{id:"260849",title:"Dr.",name:"Sarah Karen",middleName:null,surname:"Maenhout",slug:"sarah-karen-maenhout",fullName:"Sarah Karen Maenhout"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"59914",title:"Cytokines and Interferons: Types and Functions",slug:"cytokines-and-interferons-types-and-functions",totalDownloads:5541,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:29,abstract:"This chapter aims to describe and review the main important cytokines types (notably interferons), including their biological activities, functions and structures. As a high number of molecules are available, synthesis of the most important cytokines, including tumor factor necrosis, interferons and interleukins will be presented. Here we also describe the relationships between those cytokines with some autoimmune diseases that are promoted by them.",book:{id:"6243",slug:"autoantibodies-and-cytokines",title:"Autoantibodies and Cytokines",fullTitle:"Autoantibodies and Cytokines"},signatures:"Vinicius L. Ferreira, Helena H.L. Borba, Aline de F. Bonetti, Leticia P.\nLeonart and Roberto Pontarolo",authors:null},{id:"62945",title:"Dendritic Cell Subsets, Maturation and Function",slug:"dendritic-cell-subsets-maturation-and-function",totalDownloads:2288,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Dendritic cells (DCs) are the most efficient and professional antigen-presenting cells of the immune system required for induction and dispersion of immune responses. DCs also have an important role in the induction and maintenance of tolerance. In response to infections, DCs drive the production of effector CD4+ T helper 1 (Th1) and CD8+ T cell-dominated immune responses. DCs can be designated to become tolerogenic and enhance regulatory T cells (Tregs) that regulate effector T cell responses, a process that is essential for the maintenance of immune homeostasis and control of autoimmune diseases and hypersensitivities. DCs can exist in three states: immature, semi-mature, and mature DCs. The difference between immature and mature DCs is distinctly based on variations occurring on a phenotypic level and functional level. Immature dendritic cells manifested characteristics of primitive cells, defined by expression of classical dendritic cell surface markers CD11c, CD11b and major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC-II). Phenotypic maturation is accomplished when DCs upregulate surface maturation markers such as CD80, CD83, and CD86.",book:{id:"7248",slug:"dendritic-cells",title:"Dendritic Cells",fullTitle:"Dendritic Cells"},signatures:"Ghada Mohammad Zaki Al-Ashmawy",authors:[{id:"255240",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghada",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Ashmawy",slug:"ghada-al-ashmawy",fullName:"Ghada Al-Ashmawy"}]},{id:"64077",title:"Role of Dendritic Cells in Parasitic Infections",slug:"role-of-dendritic-cells-in-parasitic-infections",totalDownloads:1443,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Dendritic cells comprise a complex array of cell populations that play a leading role in immune defense. In an immature state, they have the capacity to sense and uptake different antigens. Upon capturing antigens, they become activated, mature, and migrate to lymph nodes where they present antigen-derived peptides to naïve T cells. Due to these excellent surveillance properties, dendritic cells play an important role against parasitic infections. Also, dendritic cells are an important source of IL-12, which is a fundamental proinflammatory cytokine in the control of intracellular parasites. The aim of this chapter is to review the most important characteristics and functions of dendritic cells and their role in the control of infection by parasites.",book:{id:"7248",slug:"dendritic-cells",title:"Dendritic Cells",fullTitle:"Dendritic Cells"},signatures:"Laila Gutiérrez-Kobeh, Jorge Rodríguez-González, Jesús Argueta-\nDonohué, Rosalino Vázquez-López and Arturo A. Wilkins-\nRodríguez",authors:[{id:"233494",title:"Dr.",name:"Laila",middleName:null,surname:"Gutiérrez-Kobeh",slug:"laila-gutierrez-kobeh",fullName:"Laila Gutiérrez-Kobeh"},{id:"239829",title:"BSc.",name:"Arturo Alfredo",middleName:null,surname:"Wilkins-Rodriguez",slug:"arturo-alfredo-wilkins-rodriguez",fullName:"Arturo Alfredo Wilkins-Rodriguez"},{id:"241093",title:"MSc.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Rodríguez-González",slug:"jorge-rodriguez-gonzalez",fullName:"Jorge Rodríguez-González"},{id:"241094",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosalino",middleName:null,surname:"Vázquez-López",slug:"rosalino-vazquez-lopez",fullName:"Rosalino Vázquez-López"},{id:"259995",title:"MSc.",name:"Jesús",middleName:null,surname:"Argueta-Donohué",slug:"jesus-argueta-donohue",fullName:"Jesús Argueta-Donohué"}]},{id:"60035",title:"Autoantibody-Based Diagnostic Biomarkers: Technological Approaches to Discovery and Validation",slug:"autoantibody-based-diagnostic-biomarkers-technological-approaches-to-discovery-and-validation",totalDownloads:1475,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Autoantibodies produced against self-antigens, or ‘autoantigens’, result from a loss of self-tolerance triggered by genetic and/or environmental factors which induce the immune system to attack the host’s own cells, resulting in a condition referred to as autoimmunity. In classic autoimmune diseases, it is well established that the pathology relates directly to the autoantibodies. However, it is increasingly recognised that autoantibodies are also found in many other disease areas, including cancers, cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases, as well infectious diseases such as malaria, albeit in such diseases it is unclear whether the autoantibodies play a direct role in the pathology or whether they are merely symptomatic of disease. Irrespective of whether they are causative or symptomatic of specific diseases though, there is increasing interest globally in exploring the clinical potential of circulating autoantibodies as diagnostic biomarkers. This chapter provides an overview of the diagnostic utility of autoantibody biomarkers in a range of disease areas and discusses their potential utility in disease staging, treatment monitoring and in prediction of immune-related adverse events. It also provides an overview of traditional and contemporary technological approaches to autoantibody biomarker discovery and validation, focusing on protein microarrays that are ideally suited to this important area of research.",book:{id:"6243",slug:"autoantibodies-and-cytokines",title:"Autoantibodies and Cytokines",fullTitle:"Autoantibodies and Cytokines"},signatures:"Farhanah Aziz, Muneera Smith and Jonathan M Blackburn",authors:null},{id:"62204",title:"Highlighting the Role of DC-NK Cell Interplay in Immunobiology and Immunotherapy",slug:"highlighting-the-role-of-dc-nk-cell-interplay-in-immunobiology-and-immunotherapy",totalDownloads:1855,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Dendritic cells (DCs) and natural killer (NK) cells are both part of the innate immune system, also playing crucial functions in the regulation of adaptive immune responses. In recent years, numerous works have demonstrated that DCs and NK cells mutually influence each other with major consequences in the type and effectiveness of elicited immune responses. Among other effects, DC-NK crosstalk can result in NK cell activation and DC maturation or deletion, depending on its activation status. In this chapter and after a brief overview of DCs and NK immunobiology, we focus on the process of DC-NK crosstalk, highlighting the relevance of rationally exploring this interplay in the development of more effective cancer immunotherapies.",book:{id:"7248",slug:"dendritic-cells",title:"Dendritic Cells",fullTitle:"Dendritic Cells"},signatures:"João Calmeiro, Mylene Carrascal, Célia Gomes, Amílcar Falcão,\nMaria Teresa Cruz and Bruno Miguel Neves",authors:[{id:"114266",title:"Prof.",name:"Bruno",middleName:"Miguel",surname:"Neves",slug:"bruno-neves",fullName:"Bruno Neves"},{id:"115592",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Teresa",middleName:null,surname:"Cruz",slug:"maria-teresa-cruz",fullName:"Maria Teresa Cruz"},{id:"233883",title:"Prof.",name:"Amílcar",middleName:null,surname:"Falcão",slug:"amilcar-falcao",fullName:"Amílcar Falcão"},{id:"243998",title:"MSc.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Calmeiro",slug:"joao-calmeiro",fullName:"João Calmeiro"},{id:"244001",title:"Dr.",name:"Mylene",middleName:null,surname:"Carrascal",slug:"mylene-carrascal",fullName:"Mylene Carrascal"},{id:"244004",title:"Dr.",name:"Célia",middleName:null,surname:"Gomes",slug:"celia-gomes",fullName:"Célia Gomes"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"55",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. 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He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"89",title:"Education",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/89.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:{id:"260066",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Michail",middleName:null,surname:"Kalogiannakis",slug:"michail-kalogiannakis",fullName:"Michail Kalogiannakis",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260066/images/system/260066.jpg",biography:"Michail Kalogiannakis is an Associate Professor of the Department of Preschool Education, University of Crete, and an Associate Tutor at School of Humanities at the Hellenic Open University. He graduated from the Physics Department of the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University Paris 7-Denis Diderot (D.E.A. in Didactic of Physics), University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (D.E.A. in Science Education) and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (PhD in Science Education). His research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching and learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, games simulations, and mobile learning. He has published over 120 articles in international conferences and journals and has served on the program committees of numerous international conferences.",institutionString:"University of Crete",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:{id:"422488",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Ampartzaki",slug:"maria-ampartzaki",fullName:"Maria Ampartzaki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/422488/images/system/422488.jpg",biography:"Dr Maria Ampartzaki is an Assistant Professor in Early Childhood Education in the Department of Preschool Education at the University of Crete. Her research interests include ICT in education, science education in the early years, inquiry-based and art-based learning, teachers’ professional development, action research, and the Pedagogy of Multiliteracies, among others. 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He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"38",type:"subseries",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment",scope:"\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11966,editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. Begum received her Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University in 2012. She achieved her Master of Science (M.Sc.) degree with a major in Applied Chemistry and a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Her work affiliations include Fukushima University, Japan (Visiting Research Fellow, Institute of Environmental Radioactivity: Mar 2016 to present), Southern University Bangladesh (Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering: Jan 2015 to present), and Kanazawa University, Japan (Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute of Science and Engineering: Oct 2012 to Mar 2014; Research fellow, Venture Business Laboratory, Advanced Science and Social Co-Creation Promotion Organization: Apr 2018 to Mar 2021). The research focus of Dr. Zinnat includes the effect of the relative stability of metal-chelator complexes in the environmental remediation process designs and the development of eco-friendly soil washing techniques using biodegradable chelators.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713"},editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",slug:"meng-chuan-ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",slug:"olga-anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"82135",title:"Carotenoids in Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105210",signatures:"Lovina I. 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