\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10454",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Technology in Agriculture",title:"Technology in Agriculture",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Food security is one of the primary themes of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals. In this regard, agricultural engineering is considered the backbone of agriculture, and agricultural mechanization is considered a helpful way to enhance crop yield and farmers’ profitability. Technology in Agriculture presents research in the field of agricultural engineering technologies and applications in agricultural equipment engineering, biosystem engineering, energy systems engineering, and computers in agriculture. It provides an overview of recent advancements in agricultural engineering and examines key aspects of emerging technologies and their applications. In addition, the book explores modern methodologies such as artificial intelligence and machine learning for agricultural mechanization.",isbn:"978-1-83881-922-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-921-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-923-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92469",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"technology-in-agriculture",numberOfPages:536,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"dcfc52d92f694b0848977a3c11c13d00",bookSignature:"Fiaz Ahmad and Muhammad Sultan",publishedDate:"October 13th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10454.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8203,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:19,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:32,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 25th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 23rd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 21st 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 12th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 11th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"338219",title:"Dr.",name:"Fiaz",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"fiaz-ahmad",fullName:"Fiaz Ahmad",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/338219/images/system/338219.png",biography:"Dr. Fiaz Ahmad is an assistant professor and lecturer at the Department of Agricultural Engineering, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan. He obtained his Ph.D. in Agricultural Bioenvironmental and Energy Engineering from Nanjing Agriculture University, China, in 2015, and completed his postdoctorate in Agricultural Engineering from Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China, in 2020. He was awarded a fellowship from the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan for Ph.D. studies and from the Chinese Government for post-doctoral studies. He earned a BSc and MSc (Hons) in Agricultural Engineering from the University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan, in 2004 and 2007, respectively. He is the author of more than fifty journal and conference articles. He has supervised six master’s students to date, and is currently supervising six master and two doctoral students. Dr. Ahmad has completed three research projects with his research interest focusing on the design of agricultural machinery, agricultural waste management, artificial intelligence (AI), and agricultural bioenvironment.",institutionString:"Bahauddin Zakariya University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Bahauddin Zakariya University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"199381",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sultan",slug:"muhammad-sultan",fullName:"Muhammad Sultan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199381/images/system/199381.png",biography:"Muhammad Sultan is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Agricultural\r\nEngineering, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan (Pakistan). He completed his Ph.D.\r\nand Postdoc from Kyushu University (Japan) in the field of Energy & Environmental\r\nEngineering. He was an awardee of MEXT and JASSO fellowships (from the Japanese\r\nGovernment) during Ph.D. and Postdoc studies, respectively. He also did a Postdoc as\r\na Canadian Queen Elizabeth Advance Scholar at Simon Fraser University (Canada) in\r\nthe field of Mechatronic Systems Engineering. He worked for Kyushu University\r\nInternational Institute for Carbon-Neutral Energy Research (WPI-I2CNER) for two years.\r\nCurrently, he is working on 4 research projects funded by the Higher Education\r\nCommission (HEC) of Pakistan. He has completed six projects in past in the field of\r\nagricultural engineering. He has supervised 10+ M.Eng. and Ph.D. thesis and 10+\r\nstudents are currently working under his supervision. He has published 120+ journal\r\narticles, 100+ conference articles, 13 book chapters, and 6 books. He is serving as guest\r\neditor for the journals like Sustainability (MDPI), Agriculture (MDPI), Energies (MDPI),\r\nAdvances in Mechanical Engineering (SAGE), Frontiers in Mechanical Engineering, and\r\nEvergreen Journal of Kyushu University. His research is focused on developing energy-\r\nefficient temperature and humidity control systems for agricultural storage, greenhouse,\r\nlivestock, and poultry applications. His research keywords include desiccant air-\r\nconditioning, evaporative cooling, adsorption heat pump, Maisotsenko cycle (M-cycle),\r\nenergy recovery ventilators; adsorption desalination; wastewater treatment.",institutionString:"Bahauddin Zakariya University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Bahauddin Zakariya University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"26",title:"Agricultural Engineering",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences-agricultural-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"77953",title:"Real-Time Sensory Information for Remote Supervision of Autonomous Agricultural Machines",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99496",slug:"real-time-sensory-information-for-remote-supervision-of-autonomous-agricultural-machines",totalDownloads:234,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The concept of the driverless tractor has been discussed in the scientific literature for decades and several tractor manufacturers now have prototypes being field-tested. Although farmers will not be required to be physically present on these machines, it is envisioned that they will remain a part of the human-automation system. The overall efficiency and safety to be attained by autonomous agricultural machines (AAMs) will be correlated with the effectiveness of information sharing between the AAM and the farmer through what might be aptly called an automation interface. In this supervisory scenario, the farmer would be able to both receive status information and send instructions. In essence, supervisory control of an AAM is similar to the current scenario where farmers physically present on their machines obtain status information from displays integrated into the machine and from general sensory information that is available due to their proximity to the operating machine. Therefore, there is reason to expect that real-time sensory information would be valuable to the farmer when remotely supervising an AAM through an automation interface. This chapter will provide an overview of recent research that has been conducted on the role of real-time sensory information to the task of remotely supervising an AAM.",signatures:"Daniel D. Mann, Uduak Edet, Mitchell Green, Olayinka Folorunsho, Avery Simundsson and Franklin Ogidi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77953",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77953",authors:[{id:"343656",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniel D.",surname:"Mann",slug:"daniel-d.-mann",fullName:"Daniel D. Mann"},{id:"349561",title:"Mr.",name:"Uduak",surname:"Edet",slug:"uduak-edet",fullName:"Uduak Edet"},{id:"349562",title:"Mr.",name:"Mitchell",surname:"Green",slug:"mitchell-green",fullName:"Mitchell Green"},{id:"349563",title:"Dr.",name:"Olayinka",surname:"Folorunsho",slug:"olayinka-folorunsho",fullName:"Olayinka Folorunsho"},{id:"349564",title:"MSc.",name:"Avery",surname:"Simundsson",slug:"avery-simundsson",fullName:"Avery Simundsson"},{id:"349565",title:"BSc.",name:"Franklin",surname:"Ogidi",slug:"franklin-ogidi",fullName:"Franklin Ogidi"}],corrections:null},{id:"77112",title:"Advancements of Spraying Technology in Agriculture",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98500",slug:"advancements-of-spraying-technology-in-agriculture",totalDownloads:664,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Plant protection activities are most important practices during crop production. Application of maximum pesticide products with the sprayer. The application of fungicides, herbicides, and insecticides is one of the most recurrent and significant tasks in agriculture. Conventional agricultural spraying techniques have made the inconsistency between economic growth and environmental protection in agricultural production. Spraying techniques continuously developed in recent decades. For pesticide application, it is not the only sprayer that is essential, but all the parameters like the type and area of the plant canopy, area of a plant leaf, height of the crop, and volume of plants related to plant protection product applications are very important for obtaining better results. From this point of view, the advancement in agriculture sprayer has been started in last few decades. Robotics and automatic spraying technologies like variable rate sprayers, UAV sprayers, and electrostatic sprayers are growing to Increase the utilization rate of pesticides, reduce pesticide residues, real-time, cost-saving, high compatibility of plant protection products application. These technologies are under the “umbrella” of precision agriculture. The mechanized spraying system, usually implemented by highly precise equipment or mobile robots, which, makes possible the selective targeting of pesticide application on desire time and place. These advanced spraying technologies not only reduces the labour cost but also effective in environmental protection. Researchers are conducting experimental studies on the design, development and testing of precision spraying technologies for crops and orchards.",signatures:"Fiaz Ahmad, Aftab Khaliq, Baijing Qiu, Muhammad Sultan and Jing Ma",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77112",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77112",authors:[{id:"338219",title:"Dr.",name:"Fiaz",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"fiaz-ahmad",fullName:"Fiaz Ahmad"},{id:"199381",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Sultan",slug:"muhammad-sultan",fullName:"Muhammad Sultan"},{id:"346652",title:"MSc.",name:"Aftab",surname:"Khaliq",slug:"aftab-khaliq",fullName:"Aftab Khaliq"},{id:"349757",title:"Prof.",name:"Qiu",surname:"Baijing",slug:"qiu-baijing",fullName:"Qiu Baijing"},{id:"349778",title:"Dr.",name:"Jing",surname:"Ma",slug:"jing-ma",fullName:"Jing Ma"}],corrections:null},{id:"77611",title:"A New Paradigm in the Delivery of Modernizing Agricultural Technologies across Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98940",slug:"a-new-paradigm-in-the-delivery-of-modernizing-agricultural-technologies-across-africa",totalDownloads:206,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This Chapter describes the approach and impacts of the Technologies for African Agricultural Transformation (TAAT) Program. TAAT is an operational framework based upon collaboration between the African Development Bank, the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, and many other partners. This Program is designed to deliver modernizing agricultural technologies as a means of achieving food and nutritional security, and to boost employment and agricultural exports across Africa. TAAT consists of nine Commodity Compacts that have assembled technology toolkits for use in development programs and six specialized Enablers that help them to do so. These commodities are rice, maize, wheat, sorghum, millet, cassava, sweet potato, common beans, fish, and small livestock. The Enablers provide policy support, youth empowerment, capacity development, irrigation and soil fertility expertise, and control of invasive pests. Together these Compacts and Enablers design and conduct collaborative agricultural development projects in partnership with national counterparts. To date, TAAT has staged 88 interventions in 31 African countries, including the incorporation of customized technology toolkits within country loan projects of major development banks. Over three years, these efforts have reached about 10.6 million adopter households and increased food supply by 12 million tons worth over US $763 million, resulting in substantial improvements in smallholder farmer’s food supply (0.75 MT yr.−1) or income ($128 yr.−1). Environmental gains in terms of carbon offset average 0.74 MT CO2e yr.−1 per adopter household, an outcome indicative of positive combined rural development and climate actions. This Chapter describes how these technology toolkits are designed, deployed and evaluated, and how TAAT is becoming a leading mechanism for agricultural innovation delivery across Africa. This evaluation is limited to eight critical field crops and does not consider animal enterprises or the strategic roles of TAAT Enablers, two other important activities within the larger Program.",signatures:"Paul L. Woomer, Welissa M. Mulei and Rachel M. Zozo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77611",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77611",authors:[{id:"343874",title:"Dr.",name:"Paul L",surname:"Woomer",slug:"paul-l-woomer",fullName:"Paul L Woomer"},{id:"350047",title:"Dr.",name:"Welissa M.",surname:"Mulei",slug:"welissa-m.-mulei",fullName:"Welissa M. Mulei"},{id:"350048",title:"Dr.",name:"Rachel M.",surname:"Zozo",slug:"rachel-m.-zozo",fullName:"Rachel M. Zozo"}],corrections:null},{id:"78129",title:"Modalities for Scaling up Implementation of Innovations and Best Practices for Resilient Agricultural Systems in Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99429",slug:"modalities-for-scaling-up-implementation-of-innovations-and-best-practices-for-resilient-agricultura",totalDownloads:165,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Climate change is already impacting negatively on Africa’s agriculture and threatens to significantly reverse the gains realized in food security as the 1.5 degC warming threshold set by the Paris Agreement fast approaches. This is happening at a time when a wide range of tested and viable technologies, innovations and best practices exist with the potential to scale up climate resilient food production across the region’s diverse agricultural systems. A framework and modalities are proposed to support stakeholders in identifying and scaling up appropriate technologies, innovations and best practices for climate-resilient food production in different farming systems. These provide a much needed solution for Africa’s policymakers who are currently grappling with options to meet their citizens’ food security today even as they ponder over how they will feed their rapidly growing populations, expected to reach 2 billion by 2030 under worsened climate conditions.",signatures:"Evans Kituyi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78129",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78129",authors:[{id:"344040",title:"Dr.",name:"Evans",surname:"Kituyi",slug:"evans-kituyi",fullName:"Evans Kituyi"}],corrections:null},{id:"77140",title:"Soil Compaction Due to Increased Machinery Intensity in Agricultural Production: Its Main Causes, Effects and Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98564",slug:"soil-compaction-due-to-increased-machinery-intensity-in-agricultural-production-its-main-causes-effe",totalDownloads:354,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In modern agriculture, most of the field operations from sowing to harvesting are done mechanically by using heavy agriculture machines. However, the loads from these heavy machines may induce stresses exceeding soil strength causing soil compaction. Nowadays, soil compaction is considered as a serious form of soil degradation, which may have serious economics and environmental consequences in world agriculture because of its effects on soil structure, plant growth and environmental events. Vehicle load, inflation pressure, number of passes, stress on the soil, and soil properties (e.g. soil water content, soil texture, soil strength, soil bulk density) play an important role on soil compaction. This chapter reviews the works related to soil compaction in agricultural areas. Also, it discusses the nature and causes of soil compaction, the effects of the compaction on soil properties, environment and plant growth, and the possible solutions suggested in the literature.",signatures:"Songül Gürsoy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77140",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77140",authors:[{id:"344527",title:"Dr.",name:"Songül",surname:"Gürsoy",slug:"songul-gursoy",fullName:"Songül Gürsoy"}],corrections:null},{id:"77105",title:"Potentials of Wood, Bamboo and Natural Fibre-Reinforced Composite Products as Substitute Materials for Fabricating Affordable Agricultural Equipment and Processing Machines in Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98265",slug:"potentials-of-wood-bamboo-and-natural-fibre-reinforced-composite-products-as-substitute-materials-fo",totalDownloads:175,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Modern agriculture depends heavily on technology. Land clearing, irrigation, drainage, crop storage and processing all require technological input. By modernising her agriculture, through wise application of science and technology, Africa can make significant headway in economic growth. However, an agricultural technology that is too sophisticated for a particular country/region is beyond its absorptive capacity. Hence, to achieve the objectives of agricultural mechanisation in Africa, it is imperative to take into account prevailing socio-economic conditions and the level of mechanisation necessary for optimal productivity. One major constraint to agricultural mechanisation in sub-Saharan Africa is the relatively high cost of imported metallic machine and equipment fabrication materials. Taking full advantage of substitute non-metallic materials may lower the cost of production and concomitantly empower rural fabricators with limited access to electricity and welding facilities to engage in local manufacturing of sundry agricultural machines and equipment. This Chapter presents illustrative examples of full and partial substitution of metallic with non-metallic materials in the fabrication of affordable machines and equipment for agricultural production, agro-processing, irrigation and drainage, crop drying and storage. Ways of addressing identified critical challenges of technology diffusion are also discussed.",signatures:"Abel Olajide Olorunnisola",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77105",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77105",authors:[{id:"260028",title:"Prof.",name:"Abel Olajide",surname:"Olorunnisola",slug:"abel-olajide-olorunnisola",fullName:"Abel Olajide Olorunnisola"}],corrections:null},{id:"78285",title:"Promoting Domestic Production of Fish Using Recirculating Aquaculture System (RAS)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99697",slug:"promoting-domestic-production-of-fish-using-recirculating-aquaculture-system-ras-",totalDownloads:297,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"With the increasing global population and its associated high demand for fish protein, engineers are under pressure to develop systems that can maximise and intensify production of fish in an environmentally friendly and sustainable manner. This demand is escalated in the face of pandemics like the novel Covid-19, which have had serious toll on global food production and availability. The increasing fish demand over the years has caused the emergence of new aquaculture technologies such as the recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS). These fishponds are constructed in a way to ensure the efficient use of water. A technology extensively researched and developed by Brazilian researchers; the RAS technology has now been widely adapted to some developing countries in the sub-Saharan African sub region. Learning from the Brazilian and Ghanaian experiences, this chapter provides valuable information on these aquaculture production technologies and offers useful guidelines on their operation and management. The chapter also gives some highlight on available opportunities to better harness the RAS technology to promote sustainable food and nutritional security whiles improving on the general livelihood of adopters.",signatures:"Shadrack Kwadwo Amponsah and Luiz Guilherme",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78285",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78285",authors:[{id:"203117",title:"Dr.",name:"Shadrack",surname:"Amponsah",slug:"shadrack-amponsah",fullName:"Shadrack Amponsah"},{id:"414769",title:"Prof.",name:"Luiz Carlos",surname:"Guilherme",slug:"luiz-carlos-guilherme",fullName:"Luiz Carlos Guilherme"}],corrections:null},{id:"76674",title:"Precision Vegetable Farming Technologies: An Update",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97805",slug:"precision-vegetable-farming-technologies-an-update",totalDownloads:348,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The efficiency of precision vegetable farming cannot deny in the current of climate change. As compared to west adoption of reliability precision agriculture approaches in developing world is a gradual procedure. The small scale of farms limits economic benefits from currently accessible precision farming technologies. Nevertheless, horticulture interventions like geographical positioning system (GPS), geographical information system (GIS), artificial intelligence (AI), robotics, sensor technologies, etc., are being utilized for precision vegetable farming to improve production and quality of vegetables. This retains excellent promise for developing vegetable crops within the present farming scenario when climate change makes the whole rethink agriculture practices. Overall, this chapter will provide useful information about precision vegetable farming technologies for vegetable growers, enthusiasts, farmers, and researchers.",signatures:"Prashant Kaushik",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76674",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76674",authors:[{id:"311935",title:"Dr.",name:"Prashant",surname:"Kaushik",slug:"prashant-kaushik",fullName:"Prashant Kaushik"}],corrections:null},{id:"78069",title:"Technological Solutions and Specific Equipment for Improving the Degraded Grasslands by Total Reseeding",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99403",slug:"technological-solutions-and-specific-equipment-for-improving-the-degraded-grasslands-by-total-reseed",totalDownloads:153,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The scientific basis and the development of research on new solutions for organic production of fodder and their conversion into animal products with high biological value, maintaining biodiversity and environmental protection, have created the premises for promoting new technologies to improve, rehabilitate and enhance the grasslands, which are in accordance with a sustainable and efficient agriculture practice. In this chapter the technological solutions and technical equipment for improving the permanent grasslands by total renovation, specific to each stationary area conditions, are presented. The basis of new technologies or technological sequences for improving the degraded grasslands is composition and utilization of complex aggregates, consisting of specific machines and equipment, using the recent research achievements in the field of grassland farming. It is also intended that the proposed technological solutions eliminate or limit the effect of external restrictive factors so as to ensure a high feed production and a high feed value, meeting the agrotechnical requirements for each agricultural component operation. For highlighting the advantages of using the specific machines, traditional technologies, within are used common farming machines and new technologies, when are used specific machinery for grassland farming, are analyzed in comparison. To improve the degraded grasslands by reseeding method, new technologies and technological sequences use different complex aggregates, which perform in a pass 2 or even 3 operations, such as: clearing of non-valuable vegetation, hillocks and liming; tillage and liming; seedbed preparation and spreading the chemical fertilizers; rolling before sowing, sowing, rolling after sowing; the destruction of the old grass carpet, seedbed preparing, sowing and rolling after sowing and fertilization with chemical fertilizers; fertilization with chemical fertilizers, rolling before sowing, sowing and rolling after sowing. Compared to traditional technologies, new technologies and technological sequences for improving the degraded grasslands, require reduced fuel consumption and labor, with a lower number of aggregate passes.",signatures:"Vasile Mocanu, Tudor Adrian Ene and Vasile Adrian Blaj",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78069",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78069",authors:[{id:"345375",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Vasile",surname:"Mocanu",slug:"vasile-mocanu",fullName:"Vasile Mocanu"},{id:"348577",title:"Dr.",name:"Tudor Adrian",surname:"Ene",slug:"tudor-adrian-ene",fullName:"Tudor Adrian Ene"},{id:"348579",title:"Dr.",name:"Vasile Adrian",surname:"Blaj",slug:"vasile-adrian-blaj",fullName:"Vasile Adrian Blaj"}],corrections:null},{id:"76918",title:"Use of Biofertilizers in Agricultural Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98264",slug:"use-of-biofertilizers-in-agricultural-production",totalDownloads:679,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Most of agricultural production in Latin America consists of smallholder farmers who need the development of sustainable technologies, with costs according to their economic condition. Biofertilizers composed of free-living bacteria promote plant’s growth, improve productivity through the strengthening of its roots, and reduce the amount of synthetic fertilizer applied to the crops. The aims of this chapter are to highlight the microorganisms commonly used in agriculture as biofertilizers and the main researches carried out in several countries of Latin America, and to describe the development of an experimental biofertilizer for maize, based on strains of Azospirillum spp. and Pseudomonas fluorescens, in the highlands (Sierra Region) of Ecuador. Seven phylum and 95 genera o microorganism used as biofertilizers or Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) are summarized, along with the benefits, challenges and future prospect of their use. The effectiveness of the experimental biofertilizer developed in Ecuador was demonstrated through several experiments at the green house and field, in which it was evident the increase of root’s size, the amount of crocket, the percentage of dry matter, and the crops´ yield. The evaluations, accomplished on farmers’ fields showed 30% of increase in yield and 21% of decrease in the cost of production per kilogram; as a consequence of the use of biofertilizer plus 50% of the recommended chemical fertilization, in comparison with standard farming techniques. Farmers can reduce the application of synthetic fertilizers and sustainably increase crop yield through the use of this technology.",signatures:"José L. Zambrano-Mendoza, Carlos A. Sangoquiza-Caiza, Diego F. Campaña-Cruz and Carlos F. Yánez-Guzmán",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76918",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76918",authors:[{id:"344984",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jose",surname:"L. Zambrano-Mendoza",slug:"jose-l.-zambrano-mendoza",fullName:"Jose L. Zambrano-Mendoza"},{id:"350870",title:"MSc.",name:"Carlos",surname:"A. Sangoquiza-Caiza",slug:"carlos-a.-sangoquiza-caiza",fullName:"Carlos A. Sangoquiza-Caiza"},{id:"350871",title:"MSc.",name:"Diego",surname:"F. Campaña-Cruz",slug:"diego-f.-campana-cruz",fullName:"Diego F. Campaña-Cruz"},{id:"350872",title:"MSc.",name:"Carlos",surname:"F. Yánez-Guzmán",slug:"carlos-f.-yanez-guzman",fullName:"Carlos F. Yánez-Guzmán"}],corrections:null},{id:"77333",title:"Nanotechnology: Past, Present and Future Prospects in Crop Protection",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98703",slug:"nanotechnology-past-present-and-future-prospects-in-crop-protection",totalDownloads:316,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nanotechnology is an advanced and evolving discipline in the field of science and technology with various applications in other fields such as the life sciences, and is increasingly important in the plant sciences as well. It is estimated that 20–40% of crops are lost each year due to plant pests and pathogens. The current plant disease management, which primarily relies on toxic pesticides that may be harmful to humans and the environment, has the benefit of utilizing nanotechnology. It has capabilities in determining the outbreak of an epidemic as well as diagnosing different types of diseases. It can also distinguish between similar microbes like bacteria, fungi, viruses, complex genomic portions, and how two versions of genes on an individual chromosome differ. This chapter will cover the plant disease management implementation of this technology.",signatures:"Kallol Das, Pijush Kanti Jhan, Srijan Chandra Das, F.M. Aminuzzaman and Benjamin Yaw Ayim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77333",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77333",authors:[{id:"342865",title:"Dr.",name:"Kallol",surname:"Das",slug:"kallol-das",fullName:"Kallol Das"},{id:"414476",title:"Mr.",name:"Pijush Kanti",surname:"Jhan",slug:"pijush-kanti-jhan",fullName:"Pijush Kanti Jhan"},{id:"414477",title:"Mr.",name:"Srijan Chandra",surname:"Das",slug:"srijan-chandra-das",fullName:"Srijan Chandra Das"},{id:"414478",title:"Prof.",name:"F. M.",surname:"Aminuzzaman",slug:"f.-m.-aminuzzaman",fullName:"F. M. Aminuzzaman"},{id:"414479",title:"Mr.",name:"Benjamin Yaw",surname:"Ayim",slug:"benjamin-yaw-ayim",fullName:"Benjamin Yaw Ayim"}],corrections:null},{id:"78015",title:"Chaetomium Application in Agriculture",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99402",slug:"-em-chaetomium-em-application-in-agriculture",totalDownloads:273,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Chaetomium species for plant disease control are reported to be antagonize many plant pathogens. It is a new broad spectrum biological fungicide from Chaetomium species which firstly discovered and patented No. 6266, International Code: AO 1 N 25/12, and registered as Ketomium® mycofungicide for plant disease control in Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia and China. Chaetoimum biofungicide and biostimulants are applied to implement integrated plant disease control. It showed protective and curative effects in controlling plant disease and promoting plant growth. It has been successfully applied to the infested soils with integrated cultural control for the long-term protection against rice blast (Magnaporte oryzae), durian and black Pepper rot (Piper nigram L.) (Phytophthora palmivora), citrus rot (Phytophthora parasitica) and strawberry rot (Fragaria spp.) caused by Phytophthora cactorum, wilt of tomato (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici), basal rot of corn (Sclerotium rolfsii) and anthracnose (Colletotrichum spp.) etc. Further research is reported on the other bioactive compounds from active strains of Chaetomium spp. We have discovered various new compounds from Ch. globosum, Ch. cupreum, Ch. elatum, Ch. cochliodes, Ch. brasiliense, Ch. lucknowense, Ch. longirostre and Ch. siamense. These new compounds are not only inhibiting human pathogens (anti-malaria, anti-tuberculosis, anti-cancer cell lines and anti-C. albicans etc) but also plant pathogens as well. These active natural products from different strains of Chaetomium spp. are further developed to be biodegradable nanoparticles from active metabolites as a new discovery of scientific investigation which used to induce plant immunity, namely microbial degradable nano-elicitors for inducing immunity through phytoalexin production in plants e.g. inducing tomato to produce alpha-tomaline against Fusarium wilt of tomato, capsidiol against chili anthracnose, sakuranitin and oryzalexin B against rice blast, scopletin and anthrocyaidin against Phytophthora or Pythium rot Durian and scoparone against Phytophthora or Pythium rot of citrus. Chaetomium biofungicide can be applied instead of toxic chemical fungicides to control plant diseases.",signatures:"Kasem Soytong, Somdej Kahonokmedhakul, Jiaojiao Song and Rujira Tongon",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78015",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78015",authors:[{id:"345109",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Kasem",surname:"Soytong",slug:"kasem-soytong",fullName:"Kasem Soytong"},{id:"348055",title:"Prof.",name:"Somdej",surname:"Kanokmedhakul",slug:"somdej-kanokmedhakul",fullName:"Somdej Kanokmedhakul"},{id:"348058",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiaojiao",surname:"Song",slug:"jiaojiao-song",fullName:"Jiaojiao Song"},{id:"348059",title:"Dr.",name:"Rujira",surname:"Tongon",slug:"rujira-tongon",fullName:"Rujira Tongon"}],corrections:null},{id:"78017",title:"Synchrotron Based Techniques in Soil Analysis: A Modern Approach",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99176",slug:"synchrotron-based-techniques-in-soil-analysis-a-modern-approach",totalDownloads:178,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Soil is a highly heterogenous system where a number of physical, chemical and biological processes are taking place. The study of these processes requires analytical techniques. The electromagnetic radiations in the form spectroscopy, X-Ray diffraction, magnetic resonance etc. have been used in the field of soil analysis since decades. The study of soil nutrients, mineralogy, organic matter and complex compounds in soils use these techniques and are successful tools till date. But these come with a limitation of lesser spatial and spectral resolution, time consuming sample preparation and destructive methods of study which are mostly ex-situ. In contrast to the conventional spectroscopic techniques, the synchrotron facility is of high precision and enables non-destructive study of the samples to a nano scale. The technique uses the high intensity synchrotron radiation which is produced in a special facility, where the electrons are ejected using very high voltage and accelerated in changing magnetic field, at a speed of light resulting in a very bright radiation that enables a very précised study of the subject. For example, in studying the dynamics of P and N in soils, SR aided XAS are used to study the K-edge spectra of these nutrients, without any matrix interference, which used to be a problem in conventional SEM, IR or NMR spectroscopy. These radiations provide high energy in GeV, which imparts high sensitivity and nanoscale detection. Basically, the SR facility improves the precision of the existing spectroscopic techniques. This chapter discusses how the Synchrotron radiations aid to improve precision in various field of soil analysis such as, carbon chemistry, nutrient dynamics, heavy metal and contaminant speciation and rhizosphere study. However, the technique also come with major limitations of requirement of very high skill for preparation of samples, inadequate availability of references for studies related to absorption spectrum and control of radiation damage. Applications and limitations of the technique thoroughly reviewed in this chapter with an aim to provide a brief idea of this new dimension of soil analysis.",signatures:"Surabhi Hota",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78017",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78017",authors:[{id:"348556",title:"Dr.",name:"Surabhi",surname:"Hota",slug:"surabhi-hota",fullName:"Surabhi Hota"}],corrections:null},{id:"76161",title:"Bioinoculants in Technological Alleviation of Climatic Stress in Plants",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97340",slug:"bioinoculants-in-technological-alleviation-of-climatic-stress-in-plants",totalDownloads:257,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Global climate change is leading to a series of frequent onset of environmental stresses such as prolonged drought periods, dynamic precipitation patterns, heat stress, and cold stress on plants and commercial crops. The increasing severity of such stresses is not only making agriculture and related economic sector vulnerable but also negatively influences plant diversity patterns. The global temperature of planet Earth has risen to 1.1°C since the last 19th century. An increase in surface temperature leads to an increase in soil temperature which ultimately reduces water content in the soil, thereby, reducing crop growth and yield. Moreover, this situation is becoming more intense for agricultural practices in arid and semi-arid regions. To overcome climatically induced stresses, acclimatization of plant species via bioinoculation with Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) is becoming an effective approach. The PGPR are capable of colonizing rhizosphere (exophytes) as well as plant organs (endophytes), where they trigger an accumulation of osmolytes for osmoregulation or improving gene expression of heat or cold stress proteins, or by signaling the synthesis of phytohormones, metabolites, proteins, and antioxidants to scavenge reactive oxygen species. Thus, PGPR exhibiting multiple plant growth-promoting traits can be employed via bioinoculants to improve the plant’s tolerance against unfavorable stress conditions.",signatures:"Rafia Younas, Shiza Gul, Rehan Ahmad, Ali Raza Khan, Mumtaz Khan, Tauseef Anwar and Huma Qureshi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76161",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76161",authors:[{id:"342918",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Huma",surname:"Qureshi",slug:"huma-qureshi",fullName:"Huma Qureshi"},{id:"342923",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafia",surname:"Younas",slug:"rafia-younas",fullName:"Rafia Younas"},{id:"342924",title:"Dr.",name:"Shiza",surname:"Gul",slug:"shiza-gul",fullName:"Shiza Gul"},{id:"342925",title:"Dr.",name:"Rehan",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rehan-ahmad",fullName:"Rehan Ahmad"},{id:"342926",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali Raza",surname:"Khan",slug:"ali-raza-khan",fullName:"Ali Raza Khan"},{id:"342927",title:"Dr.",name:"Mumtaz",surname:"Khan",slug:"mumtaz-khan",fullName:"Mumtaz Khan"},{id:"342928",title:"Dr.",name:"Tauseef",surname:"Anwar",slug:"tauseef-anwar",fullName:"Tauseef Anwar"}],corrections:null},{id:"76985",title:"Strategies and Programs for Improved Nutrient Use Efficiency, Doubling Farmer’s Income, and Sustainable Agriculture: Indian Context",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98267",slug:"strategies-and-programs-for-improved-nutrient-use-efficiency-doubling-farmer-s-income-and-sustainabl",totalDownloads:268,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Since the Green Revolution era, the farming sector exploited the soils for food, fiber, fodder, etc., with high input responsive varieties that excavated vast amounts of chemical fertilizers. The burgeoning population of the country calls for a commensurate increase in food production to satisfy the demands of its inhabitants. Further, due to innovative mechanization in agriculture, specialization, and government policy programs, the productivity of food has soared. Subsequently, it ensued greater productions and minimized food prizes. Regrettably, intensive agricultural operations degraded the soil quality and now reached such a stage where without external inputs, growers unable to achieve their targeted yields. India has lost 68% innate productive capacity of agricultural soils. This plunder of land’s quality continues unabated, further resulting in low nutrient use efficiency and insufficient yields of agroecosystems. Therefore, this is high time to realize the dreadful impacts of intensive crop production on the natural ecosystem. Irrefutably, both soil and its nutrients are the wondrous gifts of nature to humankind; utilizing them sustainably is imperative. The present chapter highlights the impacts of non-judicious nutrient management on soil productivity, nutrient use efficiency, and novel technologies required to promote sustainable agriculture and achieve the target of doubling farmer’s income in India.",signatures:"Ravinder Juttu, Kamalakar Jogula, Subhashree Priyadarshini, Sharan Bhoopal Reddy, Prasanta Kumar Patra, Bairi Raju, J.D. Saritha, Princy Thakur, S. Rakesh, Jogarao Poiba, A. Krishna Chaitanya and Kiran Pilli",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76985",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76985",authors:[{id:"345491",title:"Dr.",name:"RAKESH S",surname:"S",slug:"rakesh-s-s",fullName:"RAKESH S S"},{id:"418704",title:"Dr.",name:"Jogarao",surname:"Poiba",slug:"jogarao-poiba",fullName:"Jogarao Poiba"},{id:"418705",title:"Dr.",name:"Krishna",surname:"Chaitanya A",slug:"krishna-chaitanya-a",fullName:"Krishna Chaitanya A"},{id:"418706",title:"Dr.",name:"Kiran",surname:"Pilli",slug:"kiran-pilli",fullName:"Kiran Pilli"},{id:"418707",title:"Dr.",name:"Ravinder",surname:"Juttu",slug:"ravinder-juttu",fullName:"Ravinder Juttu"},{id:"418708",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamalakar",surname:"Jogula",slug:"kamalakar-jogula",fullName:"Kamalakar Jogula"},{id:"418709",title:"Dr.",name:"Subhashree",surname:"Priyadarshini",slug:"subhashree-priyadarshini",fullName:"Subhashree Priyadarshini"},{id:"418710",title:"Dr.",name:"Sharan Bhoopal",surname:"Reddy",slug:"sharan-bhoopal-reddy",fullName:"Sharan Bhoopal Reddy"},{id:"418711",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanta Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"prasanta-kumar-patra",fullName:"Prasanta Kumar Patra"},{id:"418712",title:"Dr.",name:"Bairi",surname:"Raju",slug:"bairi-raju",fullName:"Bairi Raju"},{id:"418713",title:"Dr.",name:"J.D.",surname:"Saritha",slug:"j.d.-saritha",fullName:"J.D. Saritha"},{id:"418714",title:"Dr.",name:"Princy",surname:"Thakur",slug:"princy-thakur",fullName:"Princy Thakur"}],corrections:null},{id:"76896",title:"Biostimulants as Plant Growth Stimulators in Modernized Agriculture and Environmental Sustainability",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98295",slug:"biostimulants-as-plant-growth-stimulators-in-modernized-agriculture-and-environmental-sustainability",totalDownloads:374,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Plant growth stimulators (growth regulators + biostimulants; PGS) are chemical substances (organic/inorganic), helpful in plant growth and development. These are not considered as the replacement of fertilizers but can help in improved crop and soil quality. Both compounds can amplify the root biomass, nutrients translocation, enzymatic activities, crop yield, physiology, and nutrient uptake. Biostimulants are rich in minerals, vitamins, plant hormones, oligosaccharides, and amino acids. These compounds have a serious role to improve soil health, fertility, sorption, and desorption of nutrients. Hence, have a vital character in nutrients cycling, abiotic stress control, heavy metals bioavailability, and greenhouse gaseous emission. This chapter focuses on the discussions about the influence of plant growth regulators and biostimulants in crop production, soil health, heavy metal cycling, greenhouse gases emission with environmental sustainability. Whereas, the impact of biostimulants on greenhouse gases is a research gap.",signatures:"Muhammad Amjad Bashir, Abdur Rehim, Qurat-Ul-Ain Raza, Hafiz Muhammad Ali Raza, Limei Zhai, Hongbin Liu and Hongyuan Wang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76896",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76896",authors:[{id:"253811",title:"Prof.",name:"Hongbin",surname:"Liu",slug:"hongbin-liu",fullName:"Hongbin Liu"},{id:"253871",title:"Dr.",name:"Limei",surname:"Zhai",slug:"limei-zhai",fullName:"Limei Zhai"},{id:"253872",title:"Dr.",name:"Hongyuan",surname:"Wang",slug:"hongyuan-wang",fullName:"Hongyuan Wang"},{id:"345126",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdur",surname:"Rehim",slug:"abdur-rehim",fullName:"Abdur Rehim"},{id:"417042",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Amjad",surname:"Bashir",slug:"muhammad-amjad-bashir",fullName:"Muhammad Amjad Bashir"},{id:"417043",title:"Ms.",name:"Qurat-Ul-Ain",surname:"Raza",slug:"qurat-ul-ain-raza",fullName:"Qurat-Ul-Ain Raza"},{id:"417044",title:"Mr.",name:"Hafiz Muhammad Ali",surname:"Raza",slug:"hafiz-muhammad-ali-raza",fullName:"Hafiz Muhammad Ali Raza"}],corrections:null},{id:"78566",title:"Role of Nanoparticles in Abiotic Stress",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99928",slug:"role-of-nanoparticles-in-abiotic-stress",totalDownloads:192,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nanotechnology is currently seeking much attention of researchers because of their wide applications in diverse sectors including agriculture. The influence of nanoparticles on physiological state of plants at the different levels of their organization, beginning from molecular, has been studied at various plants. It is known that nanoparticles in different concentrations can impact both positive and negative biological effects. Nanomaterials confer profound uses for sustainable crop production, reducing loss of nutrients, suppression of diseases and thereby enhancing the yields. Concerning the role of nanomaterials in alleviating the damage of plant abiotic stresses or in inhibiting plant growth and its toxicity, further studies are essential under different levels including plant molecular and cellular levels. A wide variety of research has been conducted to study plant responses to waterlogging stress that include various disciplines like molecular, biochemical, and physiological, anatomical and morphological examinations. Nano technological implications for curbing water-logged conditions recently came into limelight and have drawn much attention in the last few years. Nanotechnology is defined as the systems and processes which operate at a scale of 100 nm or less. Nanotechnology has many applications in the field of agriculture. There are majority of nano-materials which are known for its plant growth promoting effects. Nanoparticles have unique physiochemical properties such as high reactivity, particle morphology, and large surface area. They also boost the plant metabolism.",signatures:"Mohd. Tariq, Shipra Choudhary, Harjeet Singh, Mohd. Asif Siddiqui, Hirdesh Kumar, Asad Amir and Neelesh Kapoor",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78566",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78566",authors:[{id:"344152",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd",surname:"Tariq",slug:"mohd-tariq",fullName:"Mohd Tariq"},{id:"344153",title:"Dr.",name:"Shipra",surname:"Choudhary",slug:"shipra-choudhary",fullName:"Shipra Choudhary"},{id:"344154",title:"Dr.",name:"Harjeet",surname:"Singh",slug:"harjeet-singh",fullName:"Harjeet Singh"},{id:"344155",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Asif",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-asif-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Asif Siddiqui"},{id:"344156",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirdesh",surname:"Kumar",slug:"hirdesh-kumar",fullName:"Hirdesh Kumar"},{id:"344157",title:"Dr.",name:"Asad",surname:"Amir",slug:"asad-amir",fullName:"Asad Amir"},{id:"344158",title:"Dr.",name:"Neelesh",surname:"Kapoor",slug:"neelesh-kapoor",fullName:"Neelesh Kapoor"}],corrections:null},{id:"78111",title:"Evolution of the Soil-Based Agriculture and Food System to Biologically-Based Indoor Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99497",slug:"evolution-of-the-soil-based-agriculture-and-food-system-to-biologically-based-indoor-systems",totalDownloads:236,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"There is no area of human activity more basic to society than a sustainable agricultural, food and natural resource system. The ‘major’ question is, how will food be produced sustainably for the expected global population growth to 9.5–10 billion people by 2050? The agriculture and food system is a highly complex adaptive system, operating across the spectrum of economics, biophysics and sociopolitics. There is a need to move beyond contentious debates between many constituencies, rooted in ideological solutions, to acceptance of a broad array of different approaches. This chapter focuses on the evolution from long and traditionally soil-based systems to biologically-based indoor systems, largely independent of soil with unique characteristics. Science and technology advancements have been critical to achievements of the existing land/soil-based systems and are equally critical in development of the emerging biologically-based indoor systems of controlled environment agriculture (greenhouses and vertical farms) and plant-based food alternatives, cell-cultured foods and 3D printed foods. Thus, there is no system more in need of and more likely to benefit from a comprehensive application of convergence thinking across disciplines and stakeholders.",signatures:"Norman R. Scott",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78111",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78111",authors:[{id:"345318",title:"Dr.",name:"Norman",surname:"Scott",slug:"norman-scott",fullName:"Norman Scott"}],corrections:null},{id:"76511",title:"Adsorption-Based Atmospheric Water Harvesting: Technology Fundamentals and Energy-Efficient Adsorbents",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97301",slug:"adsorption-based-atmospheric-water-harvesting-technology-fundamentals-and-energy-efficient-adsorbent",totalDownloads:601,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nowadays, atmospheric water harvesting (AWH) became very essential to provide fresh potable water. This technique is in practice since 1900 (US661944A) by Edger S. Belden. Atmospheric water is a source of freshwater with 13000 trillion liters availability of water at any time and can be utilized in overcoming water shortage, especially in arid and rural areas. It holds up the water molecules in the form of vapors and accounts for adding 10% of all freshwater present on the earth. Mainly, the two most common methods have been used for the extraction of atmospheric water. First, the ambient air is cooled below the dew point temperature, and second in which the moisture in atmospheric air is adsorbed/absorbed using desiccant materials. Conventional vapor compression, thermoelectric cooling, dew, and fog water harvesting based systems/technologies possess some limits in terms of energy requirements, less efficiency, and high cost. However, the adsorption based AWH technology is relatively cheaper, environment friendly, and can be operated by a low-grade thermal energy source. The limited availability of commercial instruments to harvest atmospheric water using adsorbents indicates a lack of fundamental studies. The fundamental research on water adsorption, adsorption kinetics, regeneration conditions, and water collecting surface designs has not gained as much interest as required in the field of atmospheric water harvesting. In this regard, this book chapter discusses and presents the progress in the field of adsorbent materials and system designs along with the future directions to accelerate the commercialization of this technology.",signatures:"Muhammad Sultan, Muhammad Bilal, Takahiko Miyazaki, Uzair Sajjad and Fiaz Ahmad",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76511",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76511",authors:[{id:"338219",title:"Dr.",name:"Fiaz",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"fiaz-ahmad",fullName:"Fiaz Ahmad"},{id:"199381",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Sultan",slug:"muhammad-sultan",fullName:"Muhammad Sultan"},{id:"199802",title:"Prof.",name:"Takahiko",surname:"Miyazaki",slug:"takahiko-miyazaki",fullName:"Takahiko Miyazaki"},{id:"344029",title:"MSc.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Bilal",slug:"muhammad-bilal",fullName:"Muhammad Bilal"},{id:"346744",title:"Dr.",name:"Uzair",surname:"Sajjad",slug:"uzair-sajjad",fullName:"Uzair Sajjad"}],corrections:null},{id:"77058",title:"Solar Technology in Agriculture",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98266",slug:"solar-technology-in-agriculture",totalDownloads:683,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Promotion of sustainable agriculture is one of the most priority development goal set by United Nations for achieving the food security to meet the ever-increasing global population food demand. Because of extreme importance of agriculture sector, significant technological developments have been made that played pivotal role for sustainable agriculture by value addition in agricultural products and meeting energy demands for machinery and irrigation. These developments include improved cultivation practices, processing units for agricultural products and operation of machinery and irrigation systems based on solar energy. Moreover, the emergence of new technologies and climate smart solutions with reduced carbon footprints have significantly addressed the ever-increasing fuel costs and changing climate needs. PV based solar irrigation pumps and agricultural machinery is typical example of this. Because, awareness of these technological development is essential to overcome energy issues, availability of energy to perform agricultural activities for sustainable agriculture at farm level and socioeconomic uplift of farming community to meet food requirements needs in the future. Therefore, this chapter attempts at providing the introduction of technologies for direct and indirect use of solar energy in the agriculture sector. The typical examples of direct use of solar energy like greenhouses or tunnel farming for cultivation of crops and vegetables and use of solar dryers for drying agricultural products have been comprehensively discussed. Similarly, the solar powered tubewells, tractors, and lights, etc. are few important examples of indirect use of solar energy and have also been discussed in this chapter. The indirect use is made possible by converting solar energy into electrical energy with the help of photovoltaic devices, called “solar cells”. Also radio frequency (RF)-controlled seed sowing and spreading machines are discussed, which provide an eco-friendly method. Moreover, comprehensive discussion is made on solar based technologies in general as well regional context in view of their potential to scale-up and to address anticipated issues. The use of photovoltaics in agriculture is expected to be significant contribution in the near future that require urgent planning for the potential benefits and efficient use at the farm level. Therefore, the co-existence of “agrovoltaics” will be essential for the developments of agriculture and agroindustry.",signatures:"Ghulam Hasnain Tariq, Muhammad Ashraf and Umar Sohaib Hasnain",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77058",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77058",authors:[{id:"324017",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Ashraf",slug:"muhammad-ashraf",fullName:"Muhammad Ashraf"},{id:"343829",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghulam Hasnain",surname:"Tariq",slug:"ghulam-hasnain-tariq",fullName:"Ghulam Hasnain Tariq"},{id:"415545",title:"Mr.",name:"Umar Sohaib",surname:"Hasnain",slug:"umar-sohaib-hasnain",fullName:"Umar Sohaib Hasnain"}],corrections:null},{id:"77295",title:"Experimentally Investigated the Development and Performance of a Parabolic Trough Solar Water Distillation Unit Concerning Angle-Wise",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98571",slug:"experimentally-investigated-the-development-and-performance-of-a-parabolic-trough-solar-water-distil",totalDownloads:163,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The PTC performance was evaluated at four (i.e., 25o, 35o, 45o, and 55o) different adjusting Angles and it clearly showed that the adjusting Angles is highly significant, affecting the efficiency of the collector. The PTC received mean solar radiation 513 kJ.m-2.hr-1 with the absorbing temperature of the absorber in PTC was noted 123oC, 115oC, and 113oC consecutively the months of the year with the adjusting angles of 25o, 35o, and 45o respectively. Distilled water from the solar water distillation unit was found to improve the laboratory’s quality and wash equipment in the hospital. PTC’s efficiency noted 26.9%, 26.3%, and 26.1% with the distilled water up to 217, 313, and 343 ml.m-2.day-1 for the adjusting Angles of 25o, 45o, and 35o respectively. From the result, it concluded that to obtain maximum distilled water, the PTC should be set on adjusting Angles of 25o, 35o, and 45o. The average unit price of distillate from the solar still is assessed as Rs. 2.64/L-m2 with a payback period is 365 days. The unit distillate cost is seen to reduce significantly from Rs. 4.92/L to Rs. 1.57/L. It concluded from results that the distilled water of PTC relatively decent quality.",signatures:"Fahim Ullah",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77295",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77295",authors:[{id:"314047",title:"Dr.",name:"Fahim",surname:"Ullah",slug:"fahim-ullah",fullName:"Fahim Ullah"}],corrections:null},{id:"77415",title:"Precision in Agriculture Decision Making Based on Machine Learning",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98787",slug:"precision-in-agriculture-decision-making-based-on-machine-learning",totalDownloads:153,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Farming is the one of the major occupations in India. Increase in population is increasing the demand of food, whereas soil degradation causing decrease in yield. Technology is contributing in agriculture domain through software and hardware enhancement. One of the software-based contribution is for predicting the suitable crop. Same field can be suitable for one crop and not for another one, so it is better to choose the one which can lead to better yield. There are many predictive algorithms available. Algorithms which can work for suitability analysis need to test and choose the best one. Such predictive algorithms need dataset in appropriate format. Once the quality data is available correct predictions can be made. Data mining, machine learning are the branches comprise of algorithms, which can be trained based on dataset. Here we are introducing algorithms for decision making based on field data.",signatures:"Ratnmala Bhimanpallewar and M.R. Narasinga Rao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77415",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77415",authors:[{id:"343746",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Ratnmala",surname:"Bhimanpallewar",slug:"ratnmala-bhimanpallewar",fullName:"Ratnmala Bhimanpallewar"},{id:"350698",title:"Dr.",name:"M. R.",surname:"Narasinga Rao",slug:"m.-r.-narasinga-rao",fullName:"M. R. Narasinga Rao"}],corrections:null},{id:"76494",title:"Tomato Leaf Diseases Detection Using Deep Learning Technique",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97319",slug:"tomato-leaf-diseases-detection-using-deep-learning-technique",totalDownloads:708,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Plants are a major source of food for the world population. Plant diseases contribute to production loss, which can be tackled with continuous monitoring. Manual plant disease monitoring is both laborious and error-prone. Early detection of plant diseases using computer vision and artificial intelligence (AI) can help to reduce the adverse effects of diseases and also helps to overcome the shortcomings of continuous human monitoring. In this study, we have extensively studied the performance of the different state-of-the-art convolutional neural networks (CNNs) classification network architectures i.e. ResNet18, MobileNet, DenseNet201, and InceptionV3 on 18,162 plain tomato leaf images to classify tomato diseases. The comparative performance of the models for the binary classification (healthy and unhealthy leaves), six-class classification (healthy and various groups of diseased leaves), and ten-class classification (healthy and various types of unhealthy leaves) are also reported. InceptionV3 showed superior performance for the binary classification using plain leaf images with an accuracy of 99.2%. DenseNet201 also outperform for six-class classification with an accuracy of 97.99%. Finally, DenseNet201 achieved an accuracy of 98.05% for ten-class classification. It can be concluded that deep architectures performed better at classifying the diseases for the three experiments. The performance of each of the experimental studies reported in this work outperforms the existing literature.",signatures:"Muhammad E.H. Chowdhury, Tawsifur Rahman, Amith Khandakar, Nabil Ibtehaz, Aftab Ullah Khan, Muhammad Salman Khan, Nasser Al-Emadi, Mamun Bin Ibne Reaz, Mohammad Tariqul Islam and Sawal Hamid Md. Ali",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76494",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76494",authors:[{id:"129681",title:"Dr.",name:"Mamun Bin Ibne",surname:"Reaz",slug:"mamun-bin-ibne-reaz",fullName:"Mamun Bin Ibne Reaz"},{id:"244639",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad E.H.",surname:"Chowdhury",slug:"muhammad-e.h.-chowdhury",fullName:"Muhammad E.H. Chowdhury"},{id:"245398",title:"MSc.",name:"Amith M. A.",surname:"Khandakar",slug:"amith-m.-a.-khandakar",fullName:"Amith M. A. Khandakar"},{id:"279345",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad Tariqul",surname:"Islam",slug:"mohammad-tariqul-islam",fullName:"Mohammad Tariqul Islam"},{id:"344353",title:"MSc.",name:"Tawsifur",surname:"Rahman",slug:"tawsifur-rahman",fullName:"Tawsifur Rahman"},{id:"344402",title:"Dr.",name:"Sawal Hamid Md",surname:"Ali",slug:"sawal-hamid-md-ali",fullName:"Sawal Hamid Md Ali"},{id:"348282",title:"MSc.",name:"Nabil",surname:"Ibtehaz",slug:"nabil-ibtehaz",fullName:"Nabil Ibtehaz"},{id:"349735",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Salman",surname:"Khan",slug:"muhammad-salman-khan",fullName:"Muhammad Salman Khan"},{id:"349736",title:"Dr.",name:"Nasser",surname:"Al-Emadi",slug:"nasser-al-emadi",fullName:"Nasser Al-Emadi"},{id:"349738",title:"MSc.",name:"Aftab Ullah",surname:"Khan",slug:"aftab-ullah-khan",fullName:"Aftab Ullah Khan"}],corrections:null},{id:"77093",title:"A Nonlinear Fuzzy Controller Design Using Lyapunov Functions for an Intelligent Greenhouse Management in Agriculture",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98409",slug:"a-nonlinear-fuzzy-controller-design-using-lyapunov-functions-for-an-intelligent-greenhouse-managemen",totalDownloads:227,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The importance of agronomists in large-scale production of food crops under considerate environmental weather conditions cannot be overemphasized. However, emerging global warming is a threat to food security due to its effect on soil depletion and ecosystem degradation. In this work, the design of the proposed intelligent context is to observe, model and simulate greenhouse control system activity towards the management of the farm crop growth as the affected salient environmental parameters. Characteristically, temperature and humidity are the major factors that determine the crop yield in a greenhouse but the case of a dry air environment or beyond 300C−350C of high air humidity will affect crop growth and productivity. A Mamdani technique of fuzzy logic controller with non-linear consequent is used for intelligent greenhouse design in the LABVIEW virtual environment. This approach is used to mimic the human thought process in the system control by setting some logical rules that guide the greenhouse functions. For the system stabilization achievement, a direct method of Lyapunov functions was proposed. The simulation model result shows that, the average temperature of 18.50C and humidity 65% is achieved for a decent environment of crop growth and development during winter. However, the average temperature and humidity achieved during summer is 27.50C&70% respectively. For every season that is beyond 30.50Cand75% of temperature and humidity will require automation of roof opening and water spilled.",signatures:"Lukman Adewale Ajao, Emmanuel Adewale Adedokun, Joseph Ebosetale Okhaifoh and Habib Bello Salau",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77093",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77093",authors:[{id:"342795",title:"Dr.",name:"Lukman",surname:"Adewale Ajao",slug:"lukman-adewale-ajao",fullName:"Lukman Adewale Ajao"},{id:"348735",title:"Prof.",name:"Joseph Ebosetale",surname:"Okhaifon",slug:"joseph-ebosetale-okhaifon",fullName:"Joseph Ebosetale Okhaifon"},{id:"348893",title:"Dr.",name:"Emmanuel Adewale",surname:"Adedokun",slug:"emmanuel-adewale-adedokun",fullName:"Emmanuel Adewale Adedokun"},{id:"348895",title:"Dr.",name:"Habib",surname:"Bello-Salau",slug:"habib-bello-salau",fullName:"Habib Bello-Salau"}],corrections:null},{id:"77277",title:"An Overview of CAN-BUS Development, Utilization, and Future Potential in Serial Network Messaging for Off-Road Mobile Equipment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98444",slug:"an-overview-of-can-bus-development-utilization-and-future-potential-in-serial-network-messaging-for-",totalDownloads:301,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A Controller Area Network (CAN) is a serial network information technology that facilitates the passing of information between Electronic Control Units (ECUs, also known as nodes). Developed by BOSCH in 1986 to circumvent challenges in harness-connected systems and provide improved message handling in automobiles, the CAN interface allows broadcast communication between all connected ECUs within a vehicle’s integrated electronic system through distributed control and decentralized measuring equipment. Since the early uses of CAN in car engine management, improvements in bitrate, bandwidth, and standardization protocols (such as ISO 11898 and SAE J1939) have led to CAN utilization in various industry applications, such as factory automation, aviation, off-highway vehicles, and telematics. Alternative wired and wireless technologies have been used to connect and network with CAN-BUS (such as Ethernet, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, ZigBee, etc.), further expanding the diversity of applications in which the serial network is employed. In this chapter, the past, present, and prospective future developments of CAN technology, with focused attention on applications in the agricultural and off-road sectors are broadly examined. CAN technology fundamentals, standards creation, modern day uses, and potential functionalities and challenges specific to CAN in the wake of precision agriculture and smart farming are discussed in detail.",signatures:"Hannah M. Boland, Morgan I. Burgett, Aaron J. Etienne and Robert M. Stwalley III",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77277",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77277",authors:[{id:"344450",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert M.",surname:"Stwalley III",slug:"robert-m.-stwalley-iii",fullName:"Robert M. Stwalley III"},{id:"347362",title:"Ms.",name:"Hannah M.",surname:"Boland",slug:"hannah-m.-boland",fullName:"Hannah M. Boland"},{id:"347363",title:"Ms.",name:"Morgan I.",surname:"Burgett",slug:"morgan-i.-burgett",fullName:"Morgan I. Burgett"},{id:"347364",title:"Mr.",name:"Aaron J.",surname:"Etienne",slug:"aaron-j.-etienne",fullName:"Aaron J. Etienne"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6265",title:"Automation in Agriculture",subtitle:"Securing Food Supplies for Future Generations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"397d9aa9d63ecac6048c1c2274f35704",slug:"automation-in-agriculture-securing-food-supplies-for-future-generations",bookSignature:"Stephan Hussmann",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6265.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6250",title:"Prof. Dr.-Ing.",name:"Stephan",surname:"Hussmann",slug:"stephan-hussmann",fullName:"Stephan Hussmann"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Kim",dateSubmitted:"February 17th 2020",dateReviewed:"April 16th 2020",datePrePublished:"June 15th 2020",datePublished:"April 14th 2021",book:{id:"7030",title:"Satellite Systems",subtitle:"Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",fullTitle:"Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",slug:"satellite-systems-design-modeling-simulation-and-analysis",publishedDate:"April 14th 2021",bookSignature:"Tien Nguyen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7030.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tien M.",middleName:"Manh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tien-m.-nguyen",fullName:"Tien M. Nguyen"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"316140",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuri",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",fullName:"Yuri Kim",slug:"yuri-kim",email:"yurikim@hotmail.ca",position:null,institution:{name:"Canadian Space Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"72485",slug:"satellite-control-system-part-i-architecture-and-main-components",signatures:"Yuri V. Kim",dateSubmitted:"February 17th 2020",dateReviewed:"April 16th 2020",datePrePublished:"June 15th 2020",datePublished:"April 14th 2021",book:{id:"7030",title:"Satellite Systems",subtitle:"Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",fullTitle:"Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",slug:"satellite-systems-design-modeling-simulation-and-analysis",publishedDate:"April 14th 2021",bookSignature:"Tien Nguyen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7030.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tien M.",middleName:"Manh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tien-m.-nguyen",fullName:"Tien M. Nguyen"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"316140",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuri",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",fullName:"Yuri Kim",slug:"yuri-kim",email:"yurikim@hotmail.ca",position:null,institution:{name:"Canadian Space Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]},book:{id:"7030",title:"Satellite Systems",subtitle:"Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",fullTitle:"Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",slug:"satellite-systems-design-modeling-simulation-and-analysis",publishedDate:"April 14th 2021",bookSignature:"Tien Nguyen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7030.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tien M.",middleName:"Manh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tien-m.-nguyen",fullName:"Tien M. Nguyen"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"12009",leadTitle:null,title:"Soil Moisture",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tSoil moisture plays a key role in the soil hydrologic cycle, as it determines the amount of water that percolates into the soil. Soil moisture level serves as a significant indication of irrigation water management because it can effectively estimate the extreme levels of irrigation demand. In farming, soil moisture content plays an important role in soil water management, drought, flood forecasting, and supporting ecosystem managing. So, soil moisture monitoring has become increasingly important to managing and optimizing natural ecosystems regarding global climate change. The book is intended to be organized into three-part. The first part describes the basic soil water system: water cycle, Plant water uptake, water energy balance, and groundwater drainage. The second part will focus on the use of Remote sensing and GIS in mapping soil moisture, and the last section will aim to discuss soil moisture conservation. This book aims to be helpful to teachers, researchers, policymakers, undergrads, and graduates in soil science, soil microbiology, agronomy, ecology, and environmental sciences.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-111-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-110-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-112-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"9d683c1c4b137c5de03d7e6f141256f1",bookSignature:"Dr. Rahul Datta, Dr. Mohammad Javed Ansari, Dr. Shah Fahad and Dr. Subhan Danish",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12009.jpg",keywords:"Field Water Cycle, Plant Water Uptake, Water Energy Balance, Groundwater Drainage, GNSS-R, Optical Remote Sensing, Geoinformation, Spatial Interpolation, Synthetic Aperture Radar, Active Microwave, Passive Microwave, Retaining Soil Moisture",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 19th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 21st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 19th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 8th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 6th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"25 days",secondStepPassed:!1,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Rahul Datta is an academic researcher in the field of Soil Science. 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However, an important limiting factor is their high reactivity and thus, their susceptibility to corrosion [2]. The main objective of the research area has always been to increase the corrosion resistance of metallic substrates [3]. One method to reduce the effect of corrosion is to deposit a protective coating on a metallic substrate. Among the coating techniques, sol-gel process is considered a very efficient and economically viable solution for developing anticorrosion coatings on magnesium alloys. According to Segal [4], the sol-gel process can be defined as the production of inorganic oxides in the form of colloidal dispersion or metal alkoxides.
The sol-gel process was initially developed for producing pure inorganic materials, ceramic, and glass materials. However, pure inorganic sol-gel coatings do not provide enough corrosion protection due to the presence of micro-cracks or defects [5]. The ability to process organic-inorganic hybrid composites at low temperature opened new opportunities in the design of free-crack sol-gel coatings that enhances the corrosion resistance of metals [6]. The research focused on the polymerization of organic-inorganic hybrid materials by sol-gel process increased significantly near the end of the twentieth century [7]. Thus, sol-gel process has got a strong technological impact on research related to protective and functional coatings because this method allows the surface modification of different materials without changing the substrate properties.
The citation report of the “Web of Science Core Collection” database reveals that the amount of literature containing “sol gel” and “Mg alloys” as keywords was 421 between 2000 and 2021; the research in this field is annually growing because of the new alkoxysilane precursors and functional species now available to obtain silica coatings with novel physicochemical properties.
The sol-gel technology is a wet-chemical process where the principal chemical aspect is the transformation of compounds, known as precursors, that contain Si-OR and Si-OH to form stable colloidal particle suspensions known as sol [8]. The sol can be applied on the substrates by different deposition techniques and then sintered to obtain a coating. During the aging step, a chemical transformation of the sol occurs leading to a rigid network, resulting in a gel [9]. Generally, inorganic or organic-inorganic sols are obtained via hydrolysis and polycondensation reactions between silicon alkoxides (Si(OR)4) such as: tetramethoxysilane (TMOS) or tetraethoxysilane (TEOS) and organoalkoxysilanes R′-Si (OR)n-1; where R′ is the organic functional group linked to Si through a nonhydrolyzable covalent bond. During the hydrolysis stage, alkoxide groups are replaced with hydroxyl groups. Once the hydrolysis reaction has initiated, the condensation reaction occurs simultaneously. In this stage, the hydroxyl group and residual alkoxyl group react to form a three-dimensional Si▬O▬Si network [10]. From the reaction pathway point of view, two different Si▬O▬Si formation mechanisms can take place regarding if the reaction is performed under acidic or basic conditions. Therefore, the morphology and the structure of the resulting network strongly depend on the pH of the reaction.
Under acidic conditions [11], the oxygen atom of Si▬O▬R group is protonated in the first step to form a good leaving group. The central silicon atom turns to be more electrophilic and thus more susceptible to react by water to form Si▬OH group (Figure 1(1)). An equilibrium condition is established between silanol groups and H+ ions, resulting in positively charged species Si▬OH2+ that interact with a silanol group to form Si▬O▬Si bonds (Figure 1(2)). In this case, the polymerization rate is directly proportional to the H+ concentration. Therefore, a large number of monomers or small oligomers with reactive Si▬OH groups are simultaneously obtained. The hydrolysis step reaction is favored, and the condensation step reaction is the rate-determining step. It was reported that the positively charged species, Si▬OH2+, react preferentially with the less acidic silanols (silanols attached to the least condensed (Si▬O▬Si) end groups), giving to chain-like networks [13].
Mechanism of acid-catalyzed sol-gel process. (1) Hydrolysis mechanism and (2) Condensation mechanism reactions. Image adapted from reference [
Under basic conditions [14], the hydrolysis reaction occurs directly by nucleophilic attack of OH− to the silicon atom to form Si▬OH bonds. In this case, deprotonated silanol (Si▬O−) anion is formed and then it gets condensed with a silanol group. The condensation reaction is favored, and the hydrolysis reaction is the rate-determining step. The hydrolyzed species are immediately consumed because of the fast condensation. Due to the nucleophilic nature of the deprotonated silanol, the Si▬O− preferentially attacks the more acidic silanol (silanols attached to the highest condensed (Si▬O▬Si) end groups), leading to the formation of branched and highly condensed clusters.
A typical route of formation of silane sol-gel coating is described as the following process: synthesis of sol-gel > deposition > heat treatment. A sol-gel coating can be applied to Mg metallic substrates through various techniques, such as dip-coating, spin-coating, spraying, and electrodeposition, among others. However, dipping and spinning techniques are the two most used ones, especially for flat surfaces [10]. In the case of complex shapes, uniform coating can be obtained by electro-phoretic deposition method (EPD) [15].
By dip-coating, the surface treatment is attained by immersing the substrate into the sol-gel solution. The silanol groups Si▬OH interact spontaneously with the Mg▬OH groups that existed on the alloy surface via Van der Waals interactions. Upon the heat treatment, the Si▬OH and Mg▬OH bonds are attached firmly via a condensation reaction producing metallo-siloxane (Mg▬O▬Si) covalent bonds (Figure 2), and the remaining Si▬OH groups of the deposited sol condense and form Si▬O▬Si bonds [16].
Schematic representation of metallo-siloxane covalent bond formation.
By controlling the curing temperature, the control of pore volume and size and mechanical strength can be achieved. High temperatures (more than 200°C) are normally used to cure inorganic sol-gel coatings and lower temperatures (less than 200°C) for drying/curing organic-inorganic sol-gel coatings [10]. Depending on the sol-gel precursors used, an optimal curing temperature should be defined since an inaccurate temperature could result in a decrement of the corrosion resistance properties of the coating and/or on the mechanical properties of the substrates. For instance, room temperature cured sol-gel coatings exhibit crack-free morphology, but a higher water sensitivity compared to coatings cured at a higher temperature. On the other hand, an increment of the curing temperature can lead to cracked coatings due to the stresses that appear during the sintering process [12]. A relatively new approach to densify sol-gel coatings is to use UV radiation [17]. Sol-gel films treated by UV radiation at room temperature can form denser sol-gel coatings able to improve the corrosion resistance of alloys.
The poor corrosion resistance of Mg alloys can be mainly attributed to its high electronegative potential and the poorly protective properties of the quasi-passive oxide/hydroxide layer formed upon Mg. Generally, when the Mg alloys corrode in aqueous electrolyte, the metal changes its oxidation state, forms ionic species, and releases electrons. To maintain electroneutrality, the generated electrons must be consumed by other species. Therefore, the anodic reaction must be accompanied by a reduction reaction, where a molecule, ion, or atom gains electrons. In aqueous solution, water reduction is the dominant cathodic reaction. Figure 3(1) illustrates the anodic and cathodic reactions and the overall reaction that takes place during the corrosion of Mg in aqueous environment. The presence of chloride ions in the aqueous solution typically leads to accelerated corrosion processes (Figure 3(1)). Mg(OH)2 can convert to MgCl2, with higher solubility, promoting the dissolution of the Mg alloy [18].
Schematic representation of reactions that take place between Mg alloy surface and (1) NaCl aqueous solution and (2) biological environment (reprinted from Ref. [
On the other hand, the corrosive environment in the human body has a solution consisting of 0.14 M NaCl and other inorganic species, such as Ca2+, PO43−, and HCO3−. In this case, the presence of phosphates and carbonates promotes the formation of partially protective corrosion product layers [19]. It is clear that corrosion products depend on the type of the electrolyte. These corrosion products not only affect the corrosion rate but can also provide different protection properties to the substrate. Figure 3(2) shows a schematic representation of possible interactions between corrosion products of Mg alloy surface on a biological environment.
The deposition of a silane coating could control the corrosion of Mg alloys, although it could dissolve in contact with water due to the hydrolysis of the polysiloxane (Si▬O▬Si) network [20] that results in the release of silicic acid (Si(OH)4), which can be expressed as follows [21]:
It is important to determine the corrosion rate to explain the corrosion behavior and provide models that predict the kinetics of the corrosion in an engineering context. The most widely used technique for exploring the corrosion behavior of a coated Mg alloy involves immersing the samples in a corrosive solution, since the corrosion performance is faster than atmospheric corrosion tests [19]. To study the corrosion performance of coated Mg alloys in aqueous solution, a wide range of tests are used [2]. These tests are divided into two large groups: electrochemical and nonelectrochemical tests [22]. The most common electrochemical and nonelectrochemical methods used are mentioned below.
These methods are important and rapid tools for assessing the corrosion of coated Mg alloys. Between the electrochemical techniques, the most used are Potentiodynamic polarization (PDP) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS).
The most common nonelectrochemical methods used for Mg corrosion research are weight loss measurements, hydrogen collection, and pH measurements.
The electrochemical techniques for exploring the corrosion behavior of coated Mg alloys can be used independently or simultaneously with the nonelectrochemical techniques. The principles of each technique and an overview of the main advantages and limitations of different techniques were provided by Durán et al. [5]. A recent review by Kirkland et al. [23] considers the methodologies used to study the corrosion of biodegradable Mg implant materials.
One of the key techniques to reduce fuel consumption and subsequently greenhouse gas emission is to shift to lightweight vehicles. Magnesium alloys with their low density, easy recyclability, and high strength-to-weight ratio are exceptional candidates in the automotive and aerospace sectors [24]. However, the high chemical reactivity and the low standard corrosion potential (~−1.65 V.SCE), which is less electropositive than aluminum alloys (~ (−0.73 V.SCE)), make them highly susceptible to corrosion, limiting their use in such areas [25]. In order to prevent corrosion of Mg alloys, surface modification techniques such as sol-gel technology have attracted increasing interest for many researchers.
The application of single sol-gel coatings on the surface of Mg alloys has been considered as a good initial approach to provide a protective behavior to the alloy, since the deposition of an inert silane coating avoids the direct contact between substrate and corrosive environment [26]. From the point of view of synthesis, the sol-gel route offers a versatile way to synthesize effective and denser coatings with specific properties.
Pure inorganic sol-gel coatings have been studied as an inert physical barrier to provide protection against corrosion. However, inorganic sol-gel coatings have some limitations such as: (i) brittleness, shrinkage, and internal stress after heat treatment process, and (ii) the high temperature required to sinter the coating that mismatches with the thermal expansion coefficient of Mg substrate [27]. A great effort has been made to incorporate organo-alkoxysilanes into the sol-gel synthesis to obtain crack-free hybrid coatings able to be sintered at lower temperatures (below 200°C, depending on Mg alloys) close to the thermal expansion coefficient of Mg substrate [28]. Due to the wide variety of organic-inorganic precursors, there is growing attention on producing hybrid-inorganic sol-gel coatings with different cross-linked structures and compositions. The final hybrid sol-gel coatings could reach fascinating mechanical and physical properties such as flexibility, hydrophobicity, exceptional dielectric properties, strength, ductility, hardness, and good thermal stability. Zucchi et al. [29] studied the protective performance of coatings obtained using organo-silanes with a long alkyl chain (octadecyl-trimethoxysilane) on AZ31 magnesium alloy. An improvement of the corrosion resistance properties of Mg alloy was observed, confirming that the modification of the siloxane network using a long aliphatic chain provides a positive effect regarding corrosion performance.
The corrosion protection of organic-inorganic hybrid thin films prepared with other organoalkoxysilane precursors such as methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane (MAPTMS) and tetramethoxysilane (TMOS) on AZ31 and AZ61 Mg alloys has been also studied by El-Hadaba [30]. The results showed an enhancement of the corrosion protection properties at the initial immersion time, but a quick degradation of the coated AZ31 Mg alloy after 1 day of immersion in 0.6 M NaCl aqueous solution. This behavior was attributed to microscopic pores defects in the sol-gel layer. The low pH of the sol-gel solution promoted the Mg dissolution during the deposition process together with the hydrogen evolution during the curing sol-gel coating.
As observed, although sol-gel technology allows the preparation of different hybrid organic-inorganic sol-gel coating compositions, the obtention of effective coatings for Mg-based alloys still is a huge challenge. One of the main aspects, related to the synthesis of the sol-gel coatings on Mg alloys, is the pH of the hydrolyzed sol-gel solution. Indeed, magnesium is not stable and spontaneously degrades during sol-gel deposition step when using acidic conditions. Hernández-Barrios et al. [31] evaluated the corrosion behavior of AZ31 Mg alloy pretreated with a hybrid silica sol-gel coating prepared using acetic acid as acid-catalyst, and 3-glycidyloxypropyl-trimethoxysilane (GPTMS) and TEOS as silica precursors. The results revealed that the sol synthesized with the highest acid concentration reached more stable gelation kinetics, but with the worst corrosion resistance performance (icorr: 1.3 × 10−6 A/cm2) compared with the sol synthesized with the slower acid concentration (icorr: 2.4 × 10−7 A/cm2). The decay of the corrosion resistance of the sample coated with the more acidic sol is attributed to defects on the coating’s morphology and to the corrosion process advancing in the substrate. Indeed, during the sol-gel deposition, corrosion products are generated together with hydrogen evolution.
In this sense, pH of the sol is a critical parameter and should be considered to get a nondefective SiO2 coating not affecting the metallic substrate, and thus to provide a suitable corrosion resistance performance.
Another aspect to consider is related to the promotion of insulating coatings with high-density structures for blocking the penetration of electrolytes. In this case, complexing agents are added during the synthesis of the sol to react with the organic group of some organo-alkoxysilanes and therefore stimulate the organic polymerization. For instance, Qian et al. [32] prepared a hybrid sol-gel through hydrolysis and condensation reactions of TEOS and GPTMS. The opening of the epoxy group of GPTMS results in coatings with novel physical and chemical properties. The authors further incorporated triethylenetetramine (TETA) as an organic crosslinking agent to bond with the open epoxy groups. The corrosion behaviors of the coatings deposited on AZ31B magnesium alloy were evaluated by polarization curves measurements in the 3.5% NaCl solution. The results revealed that a compact and smooth silane film was formed on the substrate’s surface, which provided good barrier protection, improving the corrosion resistance ability (icorr: 3.7 × 10−9 A/cm2) in comparison to untreated magnesium alloy substrate (icorr: 4.1 × 10−6 A/cm2) (Figure 4).
Potentiodynamic polarization curves of bare alloy and the hybrid coating in 3.5 wt.% NaCl (reprinted from Ref. [
Furthermore, the corrosion resistance properties of silane films can be significantly improved by the incorporation of some nanoparticles into the sol-gel film. The beneficial effects of the addition of different nanoparticles on the corrosion resistance for Mg alloys have been reported by different researchers. For instance, the effect of incorporating SiO2 nanoparticles [33], graphene oxide [34, 35], carbon nanotubes [36], alumina, titania, zirconia [37], and Montmorillonite (MMT) [38] on the sol-gel synthesis has been evaluated.
For example, the addition of a colloidal silica nanoparticles suspension into the sol-gel coating is considered a good approach to increase the hardness, density, and wear resistance, and thus the corrosion resistance properties of hybrid silane coatings. Peres et al. [33] investigated the effect of adding different amounts of SiO2 nanoparticles into a hybrid silica sol based on TEOS and GPTMS on the corrosion resistance of AZ31 magnesium alloy. The results showed that the incorporation of nanoparticles improved the corrosion resistance of Mg alloy. However, the maximum amount of SiO2 recommended to obtain a coating with the best anticorrosive performance was between 100 and 300 mg l−1; coatings doped with a higher amount of SiO2 showed nanoparticles agglomeration and consequent defects and cracks. Thus, two critical issues should be considered to avoid a detrimental effect on the anticorrosion behavior of the film: (i) the dispersion of nanoparticles into the film, and (ii) the amount of loaded nanoparticles.
On the other hand, graphene oxide (GO), which is a two-dimensional sp2 carbon material, with many inherent characteristics such as good mechanical strength, chemical inertness, and good thermal stability, has also been considered to reinforce organofunctional silane coatings for corrosion protection of Mg alloys [34]. However, the high specific surface area of graphene and the strong Van der Waals force (−stacking) between graphene layers made it to agglomerate easily, resulting in hybrid coatings with a decrease in corrosion performance and microhardness properties. As graphene-based compound [39], oxidized fullerene [40], and carbon nanotube [36] have also been considered as a novel promising reinforcement for hybrid composite silane coatings for Mg alloys due to their properties including high strength, lightweight, thermal and mechanical stability, hydrophobicity, corrosion resistance, and high specific surface area. The anticorrosion and protective action of a zeolite-filled silane sol-gel coating on AZ31 magnesium substrate was studied by Calabrese et al. [41]. The zeolite composite coating evidenced very high hydrophobicity behavior (contact angle up to 140° showed good adhesion and good barrier properties during immersion in 3.5 wt.% NaCl solution.
Although significant advances have been made regarding modified sol-gel coatings composition, there is still a large gap in this research since most of the studies only provide information about the instantaneous corrosion rate, but not about the kinetic of the sol-gel film degradation in standard aqueous solution of 3.5 wt.% NaCl, which is helpful for a comprehensive choice of anticorrosion strategies and a systematic control of the degradation of sol-gel films.
Up to now, conventional physical barrier coatings with suitable composition designs have been considered to improve the corrosion resistance of Mg alloys; however, in very harsh environments when the aggressive agent and water reach the metal surface, the silane coatings are not capable to stop the corrosion process, reducing the lifetime of the coating protection. For this reason, smart self-healing protective coatings should be considered to provide long-term protection to the material. The smart self-healing effectiveness relies on a dissolving-reprecipitation interaction in the local defect, able to repair the defects entirely or partially, restoring the functionality of the coatings. The incorporation of corrosion inhibitors into the silane sol-gel coatings is the most studied strategy to obtain a self-healing ability of the silane coating thus enhancing the corrosion resistance of the metal.
Inorganic corrosion inhibitors such as rare earth inhibitors (cerium and lanthanum) have been demonstrated to be effective in the protection of magnesium alloy. For example, the rapid formation of oxygen vacancies in ceria lattice plays a crucial role in self-healing coating formulation since cerium cations interact with the OH− ion released during the corrosion process, forming stable and insoluble cerium oxide/hydroxide species that precipitate in the surface and prevent further corrosion process. Prolonging the corrosion time, the deposited film gradually grows reducing the oxygen and electron transfer [42].
The effect of adding Ce and La salts as inhibitors as well as nanoparticles in silane solution has been explored as an opportunity and a challenge for researchers. Zanotto et al. [43] studied the corrosion resistance efficiency of 3-mercapto-propyl-trimethoxysilane (PropS-SH) coatings modified with cerium nitrate (Ce(NO3)36H2O) deposited on AZ31 magnesium alloy. Moreover, Qiao et al. [44] studied the corrosion resistance behavior of 3-methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane coatings modified by lanthanum nitrate (La(NO3)3·6H2O) deposited on AZ31 Mg alloy. Both studies demonstrated that either cerium or lanthanum ions can be added as inhibitors to the silane solutions to enhance the corrosion of the pretreatments for magnesium alloy. However, they reported that silane coatings doped with cerium nitrate salt showed poorer corrosion behavior than those doped with cerium nanoparticles, CeO2NPs. Coatings doped with CeO2NPs were more “compact,” avoiding the electrolyte penetration, and therefore providing improved corrosion protection [45]. Under this perspective, Calado et al. [46] modified a hybrid epoxy-silane coating with ceria nanoparticles to improve the barrier protection of AZ31 Mg alloys. EIS results showed an improvement in corrosion resistance because the modified ceria-coating was capable to provide active corrosion protection. The ceria nanoparticles react with water and/or hydroxyl ions, producing a cerium (IV) oxide or hydroxide layer onto the AZ31 surface. Electrolyte diffusion pathways are blocked; thus, the localized corrosion activity is reduced.
The use of organic compounds with heteroatoms such as N, S, and O can provide inhibitory effects to silane coatings. The major role of heteroatoms in corrosion protection is the formation of a complex chelate with Mg2+ ions which create insoluble deposits on the metallic surface, blocking the active sites and preventing the local pH increases, which is responsible for the intensification of intermetallic dealloying [47]. Toorani et al. [48] proposed a silane coating with active corrosion properties using γ-amino propyltriethoxysilane (APS) and TEOS as silica precursors, and adding different organic inhibitors: 8-hydroxyquinoline (8-HQ), indole-3-carbadehyde (I3C), 2-mercaptobenzoxazole (MBO), and sodium diethyldithiocarbamate (DDTC) to silane precursors. The results showed that organic inhibitors provide better active corrosion protection properties to the silane coating compared to the bare AZ91D magnesium alloy, especially when the 8-HQ inhibitor was added. In search of new organic inhibitors for corrosion protection of Mg alloys, Ashassi-Sorkhabi et al. [49] reported the effect of adding amino acids (l-alanine, l-glutamine, l-methionine, and l-aspartic amino acids) as eco-friendly inhibitors into sol-gel coating matrix. The corrosion ability of amino acids was associated with their tendency to form hydrogen bonds with the oxide or hydroxide groups on the metal surface and to the lone pair electrons present in their heteroatoms that can complex Mg cation. The paper described that all amino acids improved the anticorrosion performance of the silane coating, but l-aspartic exhibited the best enhancement effect.
Even though silica sol-gel coatings have shown to be successful as a physical and active barrier, it is sometimes not enough for a long-term protection system in harsh environment. Some micro-defects or micro-cracks appear, allowing the penetration of corrosive agents and producing oxide-hydroxide-carbonate deposits beneath the coating, causing its rapid delamination. Thereby, the application of single-layer coating does not provide a full protection of Mg alloys. For this reason, great effort is underway to identify efficient alternative systems with desirable surface properties. In this context, the combination of different systems has been suggested, based on the deposition of a first oxide layer using conventional anodization or plasma electrolyte oxidation (PEO) processes followed by the deposition of silica sol-gel coating seems to be a good alternative.
PEO is an electrochemical process that has increasingly been employed to improve the surface properties of Mg alloys. This process produces an adhesive micro-porous oxide layer on the surface that provides a moderate protection on the metal and alloys. The ceramic-like film can be sealed with a silane coating to reduce the infiltration of the aggressive medium through the micro-pores, providing a long-term corrosion protection. Tan et al. [50] reported the preparation of a multilayer system obtained by anodizing the AZ91D Mg alloy and post-sol-gel treatment using MEMO (3-methacryloxypropyl trimethoxysilane), TPTMS (3-mercaptopropyl trimethoxysilane), and silica nanoparticles as reinforcement. The preliminary results showed that after the deposition of various silane layers by spray method, the silane coatings seal the pores of the anodized coating providing a physical corrosion protection in 3.0 wt.% NaCl.
Recently, Merino et al. [51] studied the corrosion resistant of an integrated system for AZ31B Mg alloys combining PEO and sol-gel process. In this case, the sol was prepared by using TEOS, GPTMS, colloidal SiO2 nanoparticles, and 1-methylimidazole (MI), and then deposited onto optimized oxide coating. The results revealed that the multilayer system exhibits a good corrosion performance in 3.5 wt.% NaCl, since the polarization resistance (Rp) for the integrated system samples showed a quite high value (31546.8 Ω cm2) compared to Mg alloy (207.3 Ω cm2) (Figure 5).
Bode plot and phase angle plot for bare AZ31B Mg alloy, anodized sample and multilayer system tested in 3.5 wt.% NaCl (reprinted with permission from Ref. [
This is an interesting alternative to significantly improve the corrosion resistance of Mg alloys. However, only a few papers present complete and decisive results. Additionally, different factors need to be considered to reach a good compromise between stacking and anticorrosion properties, such as sealing pore effectiveness and micro-cracks formation during the deposition of multiple silane layers [52].
Mg alloys are considered as suitable candidate materials for biomedical applications due to their mechanical properties and their confirmed biocompatibility. In biological environments, magnesium alloys biodegrade with kinetics that depend on the surrounding tissue, eliminating secondary surgical procedure of implant removal [53]. The desirable Young’s modulus of Mg alloys (41–45 GPa), which is close to the cortical bone (3–20 GPa), and the excellent ability of the Mg ions to promote bone regeneration make them attractive as orthopedic implants [54]. Currently, researchers are underway to improve bioresorbable cardiovascular stents based on Mg alloys, which are designed to provide short-term supporting structures and to combat coronary heart and peripheral artery diseases [55].
Soluble magnesium ions (Mg2+), hydroxide ions (OH−), and hydrogen gas (H2) are well known for being the primary magnesium corrosion products. Many studies have confirmed that Mg2+ ions are essential for living cells and the excess can be excreted in the urine without causing damage to excretory organs such as the liver or the kidney. However, the rapid corrosion rate of Mg-based alloys in physiological conditions promotes an intense hydrogen evolution [56]. Hydrogen gas is nontoxic and is easily diffusible, but excessive corrosion leads to the formation of undesirable gas bubbles (emphysema) in surrounding soft tissue. The rapid evolution of H2 bubbles can get accumulated and form gas pockets, leading to intensifying necrosis and inflammation within the living tissues [57]. On the other hand, depending on the type of the implant, the excessive corrosion leads to secondary problems. In the case of orthopedic implants, an excessive corrosion can produce early losing mechanical strength properties avoiding the implant assist the fracture of the bone firmly at least in the early healing stages (typically 12 weeks) [58]. Moreover, the uncontrollable and uneven degradation behavior for a vascular implant will produce huge amounts of hydrogen within a short time disfavoring the healing of neovascularization tissues which easily result in restenosis. Studies have shown that the critical period of vascular healing normally ends 3 months after implantation [58].
Both orthopedic and vascular magnesium implants look promising, but these drawbacks limit their applications. Thus, the use of Mg alloys as biodegradable implants is still in its infancy due to its high susceptibility to corrosion.
Since, silane coatings have demonstrated excellent biocompatibility, favorable cellular adhesion, and proper protein absorption, they have been employed as bio-functional coatings to control the high in-vivo degradation rate of Mg and its alloys. It has also been reported that organofunctional silane coatings do not cause adverse tissue reactions, and the degradation product (Si(OH)4) produced into the body can be easily eliminated through the renal system. For this reason, some researchers have developed different compositions of organo-inorganic silane coatings for this application. For instance, Gaur et al. [59] studied the effect of a phosphonatosilane coating, trying to improve the corrosion resistance of Mg-6Zn-Ca magnesium alloy in a physiological environment. In this study, the authors used a phosphonate (silane diethylphosphatoethyltriethoxysilane (DEPETES)) and bis sulfur silane (bis-[3-(triethoxysilyl) propyl] tetrasulfide (BTESPT)) precursors to synthetize the silane coating, considering that both precursors were found to be nontoxic. The in-vitro investigation showed that the silane coating provided significant and durable corrosion resistance. Moreover, the presence of hydrated magnesium phosphate was also identified after 216 h of immersion test in m-SBF; component reported to support osteoblast formation and tissue healing. Two years later, the same authors [60] reported the preparation of other silane coating composition obtained by using GPTMS and MTEOS to improve the in-vitro corrosion resistance and biocompatibility of the Mg6ZnCa alloy. The results demonstrated that the deposition of a silica coating obtained by combining both precursors slow down the dissolution of a biodegradable magnesium alloy in the early stages (280 h), enhancing cells growth on the coated specimen. Furthermore, the formation of magnesium/calcium phosphate on the surface of the Mg alloys after immersion time showed good bioactivity and osteo conductivity of the coating. The results suggested that the sol-gel coating developed for the Mg6ZnCa alloy is a promising solution for biomedical application such as bio-absorbable surgical skin staples (needs to be removed after 10–12 days of postsurgery), micro-clips (needs to degrade within 2 weeks), and pins used in fingers dislocation or fracture that are predicted to heal quickly.
To enhance the corrosion resistance of magnesium alloys, a modified epoxy-silane coating obtained by using GPTMS and diethylenetriamine (DETA) as organic cross-linker was also proposed by Zomorodian et al. [61]. Although hydrogen evolution, pH, and in-vitro cell culture tests were not carried out, the EIS data showed an improvement of the corrosion resistance properties in Hank’s solution associated with a dense and homogenous coating deposited on the Mg alloy. On the other hand, Castro et al. [62] also investigated the corrosion degradation rate of Mg alloys (AZ31B and AZ91D) by the deposition of two different silica sols prepared with and without colloidal silica particles for biodegradable implant materials. The results showed that the corrosion resistance behavior of Mg alloys, characterized in SBF using three different in-vitro tests: hydrogen evolution, pH variation, and potentiodynamic curves, enhanced after the deposition of the silane coating that contains nanoparticles as cross-linked network reinforcement (Figure 6).
Variation of hydrogen evolution as a function of immersion time in SBF solution for coated and uncoated AZ31B and AZ91D substrates; MTL coating corresponds to the silane coating that contains nanoparticles and TG to the silane coating without nanoparticles. (reprinted with permission from Ref. [
Recent studies consider the development of double nano-composite coatings [63], based on the first deposition of Mg(OH)2 or MgO enriched oxide layer and a subsequent deposition of a silane sol-gel coating, to achieve longer corrosion protection systems. Dou et al. [64] prepared double composite coatings using a conventional micro-arc oxidation process, and then the sol-gel technique. The in-vitro degradation performance of the composite coatings showed an improvement of the corrosion resistance properties by reducing the corrosion current density.
Different approaches have been considered to improve the biocorrosion resistance of the Mg alloys for cardiovascular stent application since it is a disease with high mortality and an increasing incidence [65]. For example, Liu et al. [66] reported the use of layer-by-layer self-assembly technique, based on the deposition of a first APTES-based silane coating followed by the deposition of a graphene oxide (GO) suspension. The results showed that the silane/GO composite coating improves the corrosion and wear resistance of Mg alloy, suggesting its use in biomedical fields as a vascular stent.
The biocompatibility of Mg alloys is determined by the toxicity of the released corrosion products and the interaction effect between metal surface and living tissues. Not all the studies mentioned in the previous section included in-vitro cell viability tests as complementary information, necessary to determine the response of the silane coatings deposited on Mg alloys.
Although AZ91D showed a better corrosion resistance performance with respect to AZ31B Mg alloys, the AZ91D shows lower biocompatibility and bioactivity due to its higher Al content. To improve the cyto-compatibility of AZ91 Mg alloys, Witecka et al. [67] studied the effect of the deposition of different silane coatings on its surface; ethyltriethoxysilane (S1), 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (S2), 3-isocyanatopyltriethoxysilane (S3), phenyltriethoxysilane (S4), and octadecyltriethoxysilane (S5). S1 was used to introduce a simple polysiloxane precursor to the substrate; S2 and S3 were selected to introduce positive and negative charges on the alloy surface, and finally, S4 and S5 were chosen to examine the π electrons and the long alkyl chain effect on the surface. Cell culture experiments showed that the cyto-compatibility was not affected by the surface modification. However, Silane S1 was the only system able to improve cell growth during 7 days of incubation. Because cyto-compatibility is a basic and important parameter in the design of silane coating to bio application, other strategies have been considered to improve the bioactivity of Mg alloys, the deposition of sol-gel derived bioactive glasses coatings being one of them. These coatings based on pure silica, SiO2-CaO-P2O5 or SiO2-CaO, have been shown the largest level of bioactivity based on their reaction rate and bone binding ability. The bone-bonding ability occurs through the development of a biological apatite layer when the materials are exposed to body fluids or simulated body fluids. In-vivo studies have shown that biological species are incorporated into the silica-rich and apatite layers. Consequently, coatings react with the physiological fluid for obtaining an adequate interfacial bonding with bone by forming hydroxyapatite layer (HA). Their main applications are focused on bone repair and regeneration in the field of tissue engineering. Regarding the synthesis, some attempts have been made to obtain bio-glass silane coatings [68, 69]. Recently, Omar et al. [70] synthesized two compositions of bioactive silica-glasses, 58S and 68S, by using tetramethyl orthosilicate (TMOS), methyltriethoxysilane (MTES) and calcium l-lactate hydrate (Figure 7).
Schematic representation of the deposition sol-gel glass-like bioactive sol for enhancing the implant performance of AZ91D magnesium alloy (reprinted with permission from [
The lactate was used to avoid the use of calcium nitrate as a precursor due to the presence of nitrate residuals in the coatings is not beneficial to the body. The results showed that both coatings showed a quick apatite formation, good corrosion resistance properties, good cell adhesion, and proliferation, representing a promising coating system for degradable AZ91D implants.
Other strategies considered in the synthesis of silane-coatings to potentially improve the biocompatibility of Mg alloys consisted of the incorporation of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles. Nikbakht et al. [71] synthetized a modified silane coating with hydroxyapatite nanoparticles to promote biocompatibility and bone healing through producing calcium phosphorus-rich corrosion products. The results showed that a correct amount of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles not only helped to optimize the barrier properties of the silane coating, but also improved cell growth, especially the MG-63 osteoblastic.
The initial interaction of biomaterials with the biological environment is based on the absorption of protein on the surface and the interaction with ions and water molecules to form various reactive interfaces. Understanding protein adsorption mechanisms, kinetics, and thermodynamics are essential to improve the design of silane biocompatible coatings [72]. Appropriate protein adsorption on the modified Mg surface alloys is essential for application in bone tissue regeneration and the effective integration of Mg implants. In relation to biomedical implants, such as cardiovascular stents, protein adsorption kinetics play a crucial role in the platelet adhesion process. Implanted biomaterials in contact with blood in vivo need to retain a low degree of platelet adhesion to prevent thrombosis, implant failure, and other complications [73]. A rapid adsorption of proteins might cause a higher number of platelet adhesion on the surface, which can trigger thrombus formation by platelet activation and ultimately result in blood coagulation. Considering that the protein adsorption can be roughly controlled through roughness and wettability, Majumder et al. [74] proposed the deposition of a hydrophobic silane-PMMA coating to improve the corrosion resistance and the hemo-compatibility nature of AE42 Mg alloys for cardiovascular stent applications. The results showed that an improvement in hydrophobicity resulted in a significant reduction of protein adsorption and hemolysis ratio, making it a favorable candidate for biodegradable stent application. Surface modification by the addition of Heparin (anticoagulant reagent) has also been considered to increase the thrombo-resistance of biomedical implants. Liu et al. [73] developed a biofunctionalized anticorrosive coating on Mg AZ31 alloy containing heparin reagent. The modified silane coating system reduced platelet adhesion on the surface, thus increasing its interest in biodegradable implant applications as cardiovascular stents.
On the other hand, bacterial infections or inflammations are one of the reasons for biomedical implants failure. Bacteria can form recalcitrant biofilms on implant surfaces, resisting conventional antibiotic treatments. As a consequence, the entire implant must be removed to allow an efficacious antibiotic treatment. Thus, it is necessary to find an effective local drug-releasing coating to simultaneously provide high anticorrosion and antibacterial ability for Mg alloys. Sol-gel coatings have attracted great attention since they offer the possibility to introduce antibiotics in the coating, and also to control the mechanism and kinetics of the drug release. Under this context, Xue et al. [75] designed a composite coating on AZ31 Mg alloy by depositing a drug-loaded coating obtained by crosslinking ciprofloxacin (CIP) (antibacterial drug) and polymethyltrimethoxysilane (PMTMS) as precursors. Cyto-compatibility and antibacterial performance of the coating were probed using in-vitro cytotoxicity tests (MTT), live/dead cell staining, and plate counting method. The results showed that the coating displayed a controllable long-term drug release ability against
This approach can be a promising alternative, but it is necessary to continue studying ways to shorten drug-release time by modifying the synthesis of the sol. The control of the sol-gel synthesis and processing parameters together with the selection of the precursors are key issues.
This chapter summarizes the advances of the silica sol-gel coating as a surface modification technique to control the corrosion of Mg and its alloys. The most important advantages of the sol-gel technique are the opportunity to introduce a wide range of alkoxysilane precursors and organic molecules in the synthesis for obtaining hybrid organic-inorganic sol-gel coatings with desirable cross-linking structure and good protective corrosion behavior. The organically modified sol-gel coatings provide the possibility to obtain thick, crack-free coatings with good corrosion performance. The hybrid films can be reinforced by doping with nanoparticles to obtain denser coatings, and with inhibitors to obtain active barrier protection. Although relevant advances have been made in recent years, some aspects related to the sol-gel technique on Mg alloys should be considered before obtaining a successful industrial application, especially for aerospace, automobile, and biomedical applications.
Since the corrosion behavior of sol-gel coatings depends on the synthesis parameters, organic-inorganic precursors, and the mechanical and chemical features of the comprising organic and inorganic networks, a variety of sol-gel coating with different compositions and cross-linked structures have been developed. However, the different protective properties and the service life between those coating on Mg alloys are still not known clearly. Therefore, systematic and long-term comparisons need to be conducted in future research to better understand the corrosion mechanism, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of each coating. Furthermore, the kinetics of hydrolysis and condensation reactions, gelation kinetics, and curing process parameter should also be studied and considered to avoid cracks coating formation during the heat post-treatment. Sol-gel films treated by UV radiation at room temperature can form a denser sol-gel coating that can improve the corrosion resistance of alloys.
Although a sol-gel coating is a promising alternative, recent works show that the deposition of a single layer of sol-gel coating faces many difficulties and does not stop the corrosion of Mg alloys. On that basis, the combination of different deposition processes, such as anodization or PEO processes, and sol-gel technique could be more effective methods to mitigate the corrosion damage. However, different factors such as sealing pore effectiveness should be considered to reach a good compromise between stacking and anticorrosion properties. The preparation of efficient composite coatings for Mg-based alloys is still a huge challenge.
To achieve a practical application in the biomedical field, the design of sol-gel coatings should be more purposeful. For example, for bone implant applications, the hybrid coatings should be pro-osteogenesis and biocompatible. Moreover, the corrosion resistance studies of the silane coatings deposited on Mg alloys should be complemented with in-vitro cell viability tests to determine the bifunctionality response of the silane coatings.
However, many challenges need to be faced and solved, intelligent multilayer systems are promising alternatives to significantly increase the use of Mg alloys in many relevant applications, from corrosion protection to bioactive devices. Continues research is the best way to get them.
This chapter is a part of the dissemination activities of the project FunGlass, which has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant agreement number: 739566.
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",metaTitle:"Copyright Policy",metaDescription:"Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish and distribute publications.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/copyright-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
\n\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
\n\nHOW COPYRIGHT WORKS WITH OPEN ACCESS LICENSES?
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\n\nIntechOpen - Registered publisher with office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ - UNITED KINGDOM
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The CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). 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Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. 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