\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6656",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Phase Change Materials and Their Applications",title:"Phase Change Materials and Their Applications",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Today, the application of phase change materials (PCMs) has developed in different industries, including the solar cooling and solar power plants, photovoltaic electricity systems, the space industry, waste heat recovery systems, preservation of food and pharmaceutical products, and domestic hot water. PCMs use the principle of latent heat thermal storage to absorb energy in large quantities when there is a surplus and release it when there is a deficit. This promising technology has already been successfully implemented in many construction projects. The aim of this book is to assist the scientists and to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the properties that characterize the phase change materials from theoretical and experimental perspectives with a focus on their technological applications. The present status and future perspectives of phase change material are discussed.",isbn:"978-1-78923-531-9",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-530-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-623-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71894",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"phase-change-materials-and-their-applications",numberOfPages:174,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"9b257f8386280bdde4633d36124787f2",bookSignature:"Mohsen Mhadhbi",publishedDate:"August 1st 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6656.jpg",numberOfDownloads:10669,numberOfWosCitations:17,numberOfCrossrefCitations:22,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:32,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:71,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 30th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 20th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 19th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 9th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 8th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"228366",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohsen",middleName:null,surname:"Mhadhbi",slug:"mohsen-mhadhbi",fullName:"Mohsen Mhadhbi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/228366/images/system/228366.png",biography:"Dr. Mohsen Mhadhbi obtained his Ph.D. degree from the Faculty of Sciences of Sfax, Tunisia. He is currently Assistant Professor of Chemistry in National Institute of Research and Physical-chemical Analysis, Tunisia. His research interests include material engineering, modelling, powder technology, and nanomaterials for mechanical and biomedical applications. Her published works in national and international impacted journals and books. He is a teacher in Chemistry. Hence, he supervised several researchers in materials science and nanometerials. He is a member of various scientific journals and associations and has been serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Tunis El Manar University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Tunis El Manar University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Tunisia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"14",title:"Materials Science",slug:"materials-science"}],chapters:[{id:"62304",title:"Introductory Chapter: Phase Change Material",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79432",slug:"introductory-chapter-phase-change-material",totalDownloads:1354,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Mohsen Mhadhbi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62304",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62304",authors:[{id:"228366",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohsen",surname:"Mhadhbi",slug:"mohsen-mhadhbi",fullName:"Mohsen Mhadhbi"}],corrections:null},{id:"61561",title:"Experimental and Numerical Studies on Phase Change Materials",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76807",slug:"experimental-and-numerical-studies-on-phase-change-materials",totalDownloads:1471,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Phase change materials (PCMs) are attracting significant attentions in research and application, categorized into mainly three types, that is, organic (O), inorganic (IO) and eutectic (E). This section introduces the experimental and numerical investigations conducted in recent decades, mainly focused on the properties enhancement of PCMs and the performance improvement of its application in latent heat storage (LHS) units, as well as the evaluation and optimization of LHS units. It was concluded that lots of contribution have been made to PCMs and LHS units analysis. However, there is still some weakness in research, such as the lackness of detailed and systematic research on properties, the non-uniform standard on testing method as well as the contradictory conclusions. The most evaluation of LHS units is based on energy, instead of exergy, entropy and entransy. There is another issue that most of the research is based on numerical analysis, while less experimental research is conducted, especially in the case of LHS unit.",signatures:"Cheng Wang and Ye Zhu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61561",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61561",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"62366",title:"Thermal Stability of Phase Change Material",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75923",slug:"thermal-stability-of-phase-change-material",totalDownloads:1254,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Along with the heat transfer mechanism for the development of a latent heat storage unit (LHSU), the choice of the phase change material (PCM) plays an important role. The enviable thermo-physical, kinetic, and chemical properties of PCM with the economy is an essential criterion for efficient thermo-economical LHSU. The most important criteria that have limited widespread use of LHSU are the useful life of phase change materials. For long term performance of LHSU, the PCM used in the system should be thermally stable and reliable. It does not deteriorate its own properties, especially latent heat and melting point after a repeated number of thermal cycles. Thus an exhaustive literature survey is carried out for different types of PCMs used. The primary objective of this chapter is to carry out a critical review of thermal stability of different group of PCM especially for low temperature applications. Further, an extensive list of different PCMs which are undergone thermal cyclic tests by different researchers is prepared. This information is towards the selection of reliable PCM for latent heat storage unit.",signatures:"Manish K. Rathod",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62366",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62366",authors:[{id:"236035",title:"Dr.",name:"Manish",surname:"Rathod",slug:"manish-rathod",fullName:"Manish Rathod"}],corrections:null},{id:"61689",title:"Latent Heat Thermal Energy Storage System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77177",slug:"latent-heat-thermal-energy-storage-system",totalDownloads:1969,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Latent heat thermal energy storage systems (LHTESS) are versatile due to their heat source at constant temperature and heat recovery with small temperature drop. In this context, latent heat thermal energy storage system employing phase change material (PCM) is the attractive one due to high-energy storage density with smaller temperature difference between storing and releasing functions. PCMs are generally possessed with low thermal conductivity, which leads to decreased rates of heat storage and extraction during melting and crystallization process. However, the low thermal conductivity of paraffin limits its use as a thermal energy storage material. In this chapter, experiments are conducted to investigate the enhancement of thermal conductivity of paraffin wax by adding alumina nanoparticles. Stable composites containing 5 and 10 vol% nanoparticles in paraffin were prepared by intense sonification. The thermophysical properties of the alumina nanoparticle enhanced paraffin (ANEP) specifically the melting and freezing temperature, latent heat, thermal conductivity, and dynamic viscosity were measured and compared with paraffin wax. These results as well as the thermal conductivity and dynamic viscosity variations with respect to temperature and nanoparticle volume concentration are discussed. Comparison of predicted Maxwell’s model of a recent study shows higher enhancement than the Arasu predicted Maxwell’s model.",signatures:"Ponnuraj Stella Jesumathy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61689",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61689",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"62454",title:"Thermodynamic Properties of the Polyols as Phase Change Materials for Thermal Energy Storage",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78800",slug:"thermodynamic-properties-of-the-polyols-as-phase-change-materials-for-thermal-energy-storage",totalDownloads:1049,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, four natural polyhydroxy alcohols (polyols), including xylitol, sorbitol, adonitol, and erythritol were selected as the subject of study on phase change materials for thermal energy storage application. The thermodynamic study on these polyols was performed by adiabatic calorimetry (AC), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and thermogravimetric analysis (TG). The heat capacities of these polyols were measured in the temperature range from 80 to 400 K by a fully automated high-precision adiabatic calorimeter. The experimental heat capacities of these polyols were fitted to the polynomial equations of heat capacities as a function of temperatures. The thermodynamic property data, such as temperatures, enthalpies, and entropies of the phase transitions, were obtained based on the experimental heat capacities in the phase transition temperature range. According to the thermodynamic relation equations, the standard thermodynamic functions of these polyols, relative to the standard reference temperature 298.15 K, [HT–H298.15] and [ST–S298.15], were calculated with the interval of 5 K. The thermal stability and heat storage capacity of the polyols were also investigated by thermal analysis.",signatures:"Zhicheng Tan, Quan Shi and Xin Liu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62454",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62454",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"59609",title:"Graphene Aerogel-Directed Fabrication of Phase Change Composites",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74616",slug:"graphene-aerogel-directed-fabrication-of-phase-change-composites",totalDownloads:1214,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Although phase change materials have been extensively used for thermal energy storage, various shortcomings such as low thermal conductivity, leakage during work, and shortage of multiple driving ways greatly hinder their practical applications. Among the new materials that can overcome these problems, graphene aerogel has attracted special interest owing to its 3D conductive network and extraordinary capillary force. In this chapter, we review recent progress of graphene-aerogel-based phase change composites (PCCs) and provide a brief introduction on the following topics: 1) why graphene aerogels can be used for PCCs, 2) the sol-gel transition synthesis of graphene aerogels, 3) the fabrication of graphene-aerogel-based PCCs, and 4) their applications in thermal energy storage, electric-thermal conversion and storage, solar-thermal conversion and storage, and thermal buffer. Finally, we also discuss the limitation and future development of these graphene-based materials.",signatures:"Guangyong Li, Xiaohua Zhang and Xuetong Zhang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59609",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59609",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"60031",title:"Optimization of the Phase Change Random Access Memory Employing Phase Change Materials",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74786",slug:"optimization-of-the-phase-change-random-access-memory-employing-phase-change-materials",totalDownloads:1047,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Phase-change random access memory (PCRAM) is a semiconductor device based on phase change material (PCM). The SET speed is the bottleneck of limiting the speed of PCRAM. Extract the electrical parameters of the SET operation of the PCRAM test chip and analyze the process of the SET operations. It is found that adding a high and narrow pulse before a single pulse (SP) benefits the SET resistance reduction and the SET speed improvement. A dual pulses SET (D-SET) method is proposed and optimized. The mechanism of D-SET is that the first pulse forms a large optimum temperature field cover over all regions of the PCM material. When the first pulse is converted to the second pulse, the optimum temperature field shrinks and causes the amorphous regions to rapidly crystallize from the edge to the center. On the 40 nm PCRAM test chip, the SET time of D-SET method is under 300 ns. Compared with the conventional SET method such as SP and staircase down pulses (SCD), the D-SET method is optimal for SET performance such as SET resistance distribution, SET speed, and the anti-drift ability.",signatures:"Daolin Cai, Zhitang Song and Yifeng Chen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60031",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60031",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"62455",title:"Analysis of Pyrolysis Kinetic Model for Processing of Thermogravimetric Analysis Data",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79226",slug:"analysis-of-pyrolysis-kinetic-model-for-processing-of-thermogravimetric-analysis-data",totalDownloads:1313,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pyrolysis has profound implications for coal as a raw material to make phase change material (PCM). It is necessary to derive a pyrolysis kinetic model for predicting the yield of volatiles and reaction performance during pyrolysis of coal, which is of significant importance for its thermal processing. The devolatilization of coal is characterized by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) at different heating rates, and many kinetic models can be achieved by analyzing the TGA data. This work was aimed to find an appropriate model to describe the pyrolysis of coal and took Zhundong coal as an example. Four types of isoconversion kinetic methods, that is, Friedman, Flynn-Wall-Ozawa (FWO), Kissinger-Akahira-Sunose (KAS), Miura-Maki method, and different distributed activation energy models (DAEM) were employed here to fit TGA data for pyrolysis of Zhundong coal. The pre-exponential factors and activation energies obtained from different kinetic models were analyzed. An m-nth-DAEM was developed by considering that m classes of reactions took place with the same pre-exponential factor k0 but different distribution activation energy following logistic distribution or Gaussian distribution. The results showed that the FWO model was better for description of pyrolysis process of Zhundong coal, and the 2-nth-DAEM assuming Gaussian distribution of activation energy gave the best fit for the TGA data of Zhundong coal. The research provides a valuable reference to the development of thermal utilization technology of Zhundong coal.",signatures:"Guodong Jiang and Liping Wei",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62455",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62455",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9894",title:"Advanced Ceramic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9adbe58d10d5ca2b61e9ff2b6b138f40",slug:"advanced-ceramic-materials",bookSignature:"Mohsen Mhadhbi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9894.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"228366",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohsen",surname:"Mhadhbi",slug:"mohsen-mhadhbi",fullName:"Mohsen Mhadhbi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6320",title:"Advances in Glass Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6d0a32a0cf9806bccd04101a8b6e1b95",slug:"advances-in-glass-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Vincenzo M. Sglavo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6320.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"17426",title:"Prof.",name:"Vincenzo Maria",surname:"Sglavo",slug:"vincenzo-maria-sglavo",fullName:"Vincenzo Maria Sglavo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6802",title:"Graphene Oxide",subtitle:"Applications and Opportunities",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"075b313e11be74c55a1f66be5dd56b40",slug:"graphene-oxide-applications-and-opportunities",bookSignature:"Ganesh Kamble",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6802.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"236420",title:"Dr.",name:"Ganesh",surname:"Kamble",slug:"ganesh-kamble",fullName:"Ganesh Kamble"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6517",title:"Emerging Solar Energy Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"186936bb201bb186fb04b095aa39d9b8",slug:"emerging-solar-energy-materials",bookSignature:"Sadia Ameen, M. Shaheer Akhtar and Hyung-Shik Shin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6517.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"52613",title:"Dr.",name:"Sadia",surname:"Ameen",slug:"sadia-ameen",fullName:"Sadia Ameen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6188",title:"Solidification",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0405c42586170a1def7a4b011c5f2b60",slug:"solidification",bookSignature:"Alicia Esther Ares",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6188.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"91095",title:"Dr.",name:"Alicia Esther",surname:"Ares",slug:"alicia-esther-ares",fullName:"Alicia Esther Ares"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6805",title:"Electrical and Electronic Properties of Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6b6930e7ae9d0704f68b5c180526309",slug:"electrical-and-electronic-properties-of-materials",bookSignature:"Md. 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Our understanding of toxicity associated with exposure to radiation has increased since the discovery of X-rays in 1895. X-rays were used to treat a variety of malignant and non-malignant diseases. The effects of radioactive exposure on specific tissues can vary. Radioactive particles destroy or impair tissue by generating free radicals that damage important molecular structures, such as DNA. Radiation exposure can lead to catastrophic consequences, ranging from severe, acute injury to long-lasting effects that manifest years after the initial exposure. This chapter provides observations that demonstrate the importance of understanding guidelines to minimize radioactive exposure, and the expectations and treatment management following exposure [1, 2, 3].
Exposure to radioactive particles is divided into intentional or unintentional causes. Notable intentional causes include the atomic weapons activated on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan during World War II. The immediate injuries and fatalities were from the heat and mechanical force generated by the trauma and physical destruction. However, it became apparent that there were longer lasting consequences. Survivors in the surrounding area were exposed to high levels of radiation and suffered from acute toxicity injuries and organ failure. Many of those who did not succumb to the effects of acute toxicity were known to suffer lifelong chronic conditions, such as developmental problems in newborns and increased cancer risk [4, 5, 6].
Unintentional causes are usually the result of radiation exposure without intent to injure. These unintentional causes are typically related to the effects of radioactive materials utilized for energy or medical treatment. The first radiograph was taken in 1895 and early pioneers in the field were unaware of the consequences of exposure. Initial procedures were often associated with unintentional exposure and were fraught with numerous complications such as skin blistering, hair loss and systemic toxicity that we now know were due to radiation toxicity. These signs and symptoms were similar to those present in exposed workers in the first nuclear development programs, many of whom would later develop injuries and cancers as a consequence of their profession [7, 8].
Despite these risks, nuclear power continues to be used for its benefits. Fortunately, we now know much more about how to avoid and minimize radioactive exposure. Rigorous standards enforcing safe practices with radioactive material and the formation of numerous regulatory agencies such as the Nuclear Regulatory Commission are a testament to how far we have come [9]. However, accidents involving radioactive material do occur. In this chapter, we describe a brief history of well-known incidents involving unintended radioactive exposure, as well as the clinical consequences and care of the patient following exposure.
One of the most significant nuclear accidents in history was Chernobyl. On that day, a series of missteps during a routine safety check resulted in a massive explosion that sent a plume of radioactive material into the air for an entire week. The range of this explosion extended well beyond the immediate vicinity, exposing other parts of Europe to radioactive gas in the process. In addition to exposing civilians to the radioactive material, first responders also received significant radiation levels and thermal injury, many of which were lethal. More recently, the nuclear reactor in Fukushima, Japan experienced a meltdown following the 2011 tsunami in Japan. While there were no immediate casualties, there was lasting environmental damage and the long-term health consequences are yet to be fully understood [8]. These examples demonstrate the importance of proper safety measures and providing an effective response to nuclear accidents.
Toxicity from radiation exposure can be divided into three types: acute, subacute and chronic/late. Acute radiation toxicity is defined as signs and symptoms ≤90 days following exposure. In a medical setting, treatment of acute exposure is quite common. During radiation therapy, radiation is targeted and delivered to tumors and management of side effects from the radiation exposure remains a mainstay of modern oncology.
The radioactive dose from these procedures is typically far less than the dose following unintended exposures outside of the clinical setting. The radiation treatment dose is usually fractionated, meaning the dose is given in intervals to reduce the short-term toxicity of the radioactive treatment. The clinical manifestations of acute toxicity following a radioactive accident may be much more severe than those typically encountered by most physicians and may warrant treatment in an emergency setting [4, 5].
Acute radiation toxicity involves many organ systems, including but not limited to the central nervous, gastrointestinal, and cardiovascular systems. Cells with self-renewal potential may be able to recover better from radiation damage compared to those without such protective mechanisms. Self-renewal processes are often accelerated as a response to injury where slowly proliferative tissues cannot. However, if the exposure is given in a single fraction of high enough dose, this ability for self-renewal potential will be overwhelmed. For example, a single total body dose >10 Gy will result in death within days from numerous possible causes. Damage to the central nervous system will result in cerebrovascular syndrome, with uncontrollable swelling in neuromuscular tissue. Despite best supportive care there are no medical interventions to prevent death at this level of exposure. Damage to the gastrointestinal system results in severe diarrhea and associated fluid loss. The mechanism involves depletion of most stem cells within the gastrointestinal crypts. Since these stem cells are required to replace the mucosal surface, these mucosal surfaces will disappear a few days after exposure and there will be no barrier to prevent fluid loss or bacterial entrance into the bloodstream. As a result, patients will typically present with fever, nausea, vomiting, fatigue, anorexia, and severe hypotension. Doses of 4–5 Gy are enough to cause death from depleted stem cells in the hematopoietic system without support. Those that survive the initial depletion typically succumb to infection a month later due to depleted lymphocytes and other immune elements. These manifestations can occur minutes after exposure, with severity being proportional to dose and a sharp decrease in lymphocytes within two days of exposure [1, 4, 5].
Should the patient be exposed to doses below 4 Gy, symptomatic and best supportive treatment is recommended. Nausea and vomiting are the typical initial symptoms and should be treated with hydration. If the exposure dose is unknown, noting the time of onset of vomiting is important as exposure dose is inversely proportional to time to emesis. It is not uncommon for patients at low exposure doses to feel fine for a few weeks before the gastrointestinal and hematopoietic symptoms drive a patient to seek medical care. Upon initiation of care, isolation and contact inhibition is vital since infection is a major contributor towards death in these patients as depletion of the hematopoietic system occurs. Blood transfusion and antibiotics can be delivered to alleviate these issues. A patient will often also present with skin injury burns at the site of radiation exposure as epidermal and dermal injury associated with stem cell depletion can mimic and appear similar to a thermal injury. These injuries should be treated promptly, as they are easy routes for infection to occur, which can be devastating to a patient with a compromised hematopoietic system. In patients with high exposure doses, end of life care is a possible consideration. At an exposure of 5 Gy, only about half of patients will survive after 30 days. An exposure of 10 Gy is considered lethal regardless of medical interventions [1, 5, 6]. Treating patients following radiation exposure is not only challenging in terms of clinical aspects, but emotionally as well.
Compounds that have been developed to reduce and even prevent the clinical manifestations following radiation exposure are called mitigators. These compounds work by altering the molecular response following radiation exposure. As such, a mitigator could inhibit lymphocyte recruitment at sites of radiation damage, increase proliferation of stem cells that would normally be inhibited by radiation exposure, or inhibit fibrosis. An example of a mitigator is Palifermin, a growth factor that stimulates cell growth in response to radiation exposure to reduce recovery time. Radioprotectors, on the other hand, are given before or immediately after radiation exposure to protect against the effects of radiation toxicity [10, 11]. Amifostone is one such radioprotector that has been approved by the FDA for reducing side effects from radiation therapy [12]. More mitigators and radioprotectors are expected to be approved as the need to protect against radiation toxicity increases. Although many compounds have been and are in development, no others to date are actively used in clinical practice and the role of both hematopoietic and mesenchymal transplant remains under investigation.
The subacute and/or late effects of radiation toxicity, by nature, are less visible and harder to identify for most emergency and primary care physicians. Often, these effects take many years to develop and are often mistaken as sequelae from another disease. However, they are nevertheless important to identify and address. A common misconception is that the degree to which a patient suffers from acute symptoms is proportional to severity of the long-term response. Unfortunately, patients who experience little to no acute sequela can experience serious long-term sequela, and vice versa. While both children and adults can experience the effects of late radiation toxicity, children are susceptible as they have a much longer period for these clinical manifestations to develop [13]. Unlike acute toxicity effects, anticipating long term effects is much more difficult. This technique relies heavily not only on a physician’s knowledge of potential long-term effects, but also their willingness to investigate a potential long-term effect.
A common theme in radiation injury is the ability of the tissue or organ to respond to cell death and self-regenerate. These aspects vary among organs and thus the clinical presentation and treatment is different depending on the organ involved. Injuries and treatment protocols for specific organs are as follows:
As previously discussed, damage to the hematopoietic system typically results from injury to progenitor cells, which can lead to hematopoietic crisis and infection. Fortunately, with the exception of whole-body exposure, the hematopoietic system is generally able to recover from radiation damage due to migration of stem cells from outside the site of exposure. Patients who are also receiving chemotherapy or taking medications that may result in immunosuppressed states should be carefully assessed. In the case of total body irradiation, an immediate decrease in circulating lymphocytes can be expected with subsequent defects in immune response. Symptomatic treatment, including blood infusions and antibiotics as needed, with isolation are crucial in these situations [13, 14]. Use of bone marrow transplants to replenish depleted progenitor cells has a theoretical survival benefit opportunity in total body irradiation patients, but to date has not been embraced as standard practice and often only applied to those most severely affected. The risk of graft-vs-host disease makes this approach controversial, especially in the setting of an emergency unrelated allogeneic transplant [6].
The skin is often the most direct site of radiation injury, as the epidermis covers all other organs and is susceptible to radiation damage. The dermal stem cells are the most susceptible component of the skin, as these are the actively dividing cells that replace other cells in the rest of the organ. Early symptoms of exposure typically involve erythema and swelling as vasodilation and the recruitment of inflammatory components localize to the area. These symptoms typically resolve within a month. Late term effects include decreased wound healing capacity with increased fibrosis and ulceration. Interestingly, the skin will appear to be more vascularized with more prominent vasculature. However, this is due to thinning of the epidermis, which causes veins to appear more prominent. Proper wound care is the standard treatment for these manifestations, with surgical debridement as needed. Particular concern must be paid for patients with medical conditions that are prone to fibrosis, such as those with dermatitis, lupus, and scleroderma. Skin infections, such as cellulitis, are particularly dangerous given the immunosuppressive effects of radiation therapy. Lastly, an interesting phenomenon occurs in some patients where previously irradiated skin can become erythemic and fibrotic several years later in response to certain medications like antibiotics and chemotherapy. The mechanism behind this phenomenon is unknown [15].
In the past, skin involvement from radiation therapy that could not be treated with topical ointments was relatively rare. However, with the increasing use of hypofractionation (radiation therapy with greater amounts of dose per treatment), these findings are becoming more common [16]. Thus, radiation damage to the skin is likely to become more prominent in the future as therapy becomes more compressed with higher doses delivered in a shorter period of time. Patients with a history of radiation therapy and significant skin sequalae should be carefully observed for more serious developments as injuries in treated tissues heal less well and contain less local immunity.
Like the skin, the gastrointestinal system is composed of mucosal cells with multiple layers underneath that are constantly replaced over time. Unfortunately, the rate at which some of these cells are replaced is higher than that of the skin, leading to more immediate and sometimes more severe clinical manifestations. Cells of the gastric and small bowel tend to have the highest rate of replacement, leading to very early nausea if these regions were exposed. Exposure to mucosal cells in the upper gastrointestinal system (mouth, esophagus, salivary glands) tend to present with clinical symptoms around two weeks after exposure due to a longer replacement rate. Damage to these cells tends to present with more localized pain and swelling. Exposure to the salivary glands can result not only with localized pain, but also xerostomia (dryness of mouth) and ageusia (loss of taste). Saliva can become more acidic which can further injure normal tissue and alter the environment of the oral cavity. Regardless of these manifestations, patients should be advised to maintain adequate nutrition and dental hygiene, as this practice helps mitigate the complications of an immunocompromised state. Symptomatic treatment of localized pain is also advised and considered standard of care as bone exposure can be a serious consequence of mucosal denudation [14]. Figure 1 represents modern head/neck radiation therapy treatment plan through the oral cavity demonstrating sparing of the parotid tissue with intensity modulation.
Parotid sparing. Image courtesy of the Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Massachusetts Medical School.
Farther along the digestive tract, the expected symptoms can be predicted based on the location of the tumor. Radiation exposure to the gastric mucosa during treatment of gastric tumors can result in near immediate nausea given the daily replacement the gastric mucosa. Treatment of esophageal tumors, which are now more commonly in the lower third of the esophagus, present with a timeline of symptoms similar to head and neck tumors (approximately two weeks after exposure). Tumors in this region typically cause dysphagia and anorexia. Treatment initially tends to relieve patient symptoms, but later patients may return thinking the tumor has returned when in reality these symptoms are due to swelling from the therapy. Like head and neck tumors, patients should be advised to continue maintaining adequate hydration and nutrition [13, 14].
Symptoms from radiation exposure in the small and large bowel are more complex and require more in-depth patient history and laboratory tests. The small bowel absorbs much of the nutrients from food. Damaging the microvilli of the mucosal surface, which are vital for nutrient absorption, can result in severe malabsorption regardless of a patient’s appetite. These findings can be confirmed by stool tests. Patients will often present to the emergency room with diarrhea, steatorrhea, bloating and general abdominal pain a few days after radiation exposure. The large bowel plays an important role in absorption of water, and exposure of large portions of this organ may compromise this function. Patients may complain of increased defecation frequency, which can lead to dehydration and electrolyte abnormalities that can be confirmed through electrolyte panels. To make matters more difficult, abdominal organs are prone to forming adhesions after surgical interventions, which disrupts blood flow to portions of the bowel that are exacerbated after concurrent radiation therapy. Anticipation of these issues through a careful patient history are vital to preventing severe complications from occurring [13, 14, 17].
Late effects of radiation also depend on location of the exposure. The mucosal cells of the oral cavity should theoretically recover like that of typical skin cells, but the combination of a tight space and harsh oral environment prone to infection and necrosis makes healing difficult. Thus, fibrosis and ulceration over a long period of time are possible. Acute effects of radiation typically damage mucosa of the gums and affect the pH of the saliva, facilitating microbial growth. These changes can lead to long-term problems with dental hygiene and patients should modify their dental habits accordingly through increased tooth brushing and fluoride mouthwash [13, 14]. Motility issues are also becoming more common, especially since patients who receive radiation therapy are now living longer. Dysphagia appears to be due to edema surrounding constrictor muscles, and physical therapy to encourage lymph drainage offers symptomatic treatment [18]. Gastric emptying issues due fibrosis at the gastric antrum and regions in the bowel where surgery was performed are also possible years after treatment. Atrophy of the pancreas many years after radiation exposure is also known to happen, although the clinical relevance of this is unknown [13, 14]. Symptoms can mimic malabsorption syndrome.
The main mechanism of radiation injury in the lungs is the generation of free oxygen and nitrogen radicals which damage the lung parenchyma with irregular repair of type I and II pneumocytes along the delicate reticulin network of pulmonary parenchyma. This oxidative damage causes disorganized repair and replacement of these cells associated with late fibrosis, impairs the ability for the lungs to oxygenate the blood. Pneumocyte damage also leads to recruitment of pro-inflammatory modulators that recruit immune cells to the region, leading to fibrosis and further depleting oxygenation capacity [19]. Furthermore, the radiation-driven production of nitric oxide has been suggested as a possible cause of damage to lung parenchyma outside of the field of radiation [20].
Complicating this situation is that many chemotherapeutic agents given with radiation therapy, such as bleomycin, also causes pulmonary fibrosis. The results of these sequelae are the development of pneumonitis up to two to six months after exposure. If asymptomatic, careful observation is standard of care. If symptomatic, the patient usually presents with occasional bouts of cough and dyspnea. Treatment with corticosteroids, supplementary oxygen, and prophylactic antibiotics are recommended in this situation. Once the pneumonitis resolves, fibrosis typically marks the site of radiation injury and can result in limited ventilation requiring long term use of supplemental oxygen. Given these findings, it is important to note that these patients tend to be at higher risk of developing chronic pulmonary disease compared to those who were unexposed [13, 21, 22, 23, 24]. Pulmonary rehabilitation is an important aspect to survivorship care and optimizing respiratory health is important to each patient as the rehabilitate from therapy. Figure 2 represents changes in lung parenchyma associated with immunotherapy and low dose radiation therapy with improvement seen after withdrawal of the immunotherapy.
(A) and (C) Therapy driven pneumonitis outlining the radiation therapy field while on immune check point inhibition. (B) and (D) Improvement after immunotherapy withdrawal. Courtesy of the Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Massachusetts Medical School.
Radiation injury to the liver, also known as radiation-induced liver disease (RILD), is unique in that it is often during the healing process that tissue function undergoes disorganized repair, including injury to the reticulum network, and limits the vascular relationship to the hepatocyte. While acute damage to hepatocytes affects liver function, as the cells divide during repair they tend to become disorganized, particularly if the structural reticulum of the liver is damaged. Increased distance between the hepatocytes and the blood supply leads to decreased liver function. This phenomenon explains why the state of the liver before exposure to radiation also plays an important role in this process. For example, a cirrhotic liver due to heavy alcoholic use or hepatitis will likely have pre-existing disorganized architecture, making this liver more susceptible to radiation damage. This includes veno-occlusive disease which also separates vascular anatomy from the hepatocyte. For these reasons, imaging studies such as magnetic resonance imaging before the delivery of radiation are obtained for evaluation of anatomy and function [25]. Disorganized repair can lead to migration of infusional therapies including radiolabeled therapy as the vascular anatomy can be disrupted and limit efficacy in spite of placement of therapy in close approximation to disease.
Patients with RILD typically experience symptoms that mimic cirrhosis, which include abdominal pain, elevated liver enzymes, jaundice, and ascites within four months of radiation exposure. Livers with pre-existing damage typically have earlier onset, with more severe symptoms. Treatment is symptomatic with keen observation of potential veno-occlusive and metabolic disease secondary to a congested liver with decreased function. Careful consideration must be given for medications that are metabolized in the liver, especially chemotherapeutic agents that are also hepatotoxic [25, 26].
All components of the kidney, including structures crucial for filtration, such as cells of the glomerulus, are susceptible to radiation damage. The signs of acute radiation damage are usually seen within 3–18 months, typically mimicking signs of renal failure. These signs include decreased glomerular filtration rate (GFR), increased serum β2-microglobulin, albuminuria, and other markers of poor renal function. Later signs of kidney radiation damage, which include hypertension and eventual renal failure, are often hard to distinguish from other pathological causes. For treatment of these sequelae, the use of hypertension medications such as angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitors (ACE) inhibitors are theoretically beneficial. Monitoring of renal function, both short and long term, also remains crucial in the standard of care for these patients [27, 28, 29]. In aging patients who are not candidates for surgery, radiation therapy with stereotactic techniques is being used more frequently to treat sub-total renal volumes for renal malignancies in an effort to spare as much renal function as possible.
The mechanism of radiation damage to the heart and blood vessels involves immediate cellular damage followed by fibrotic and disorganized repair, leading to reduced function in all cardiac segments including electrical conduction, myocardium, valves, and vascular anatomy. The time period is variable due to differences in size and functional architecture. However, what is clear is that unintended radiation exposure to the heart and blood vessels has a strong association with cardiovascular disease and complications [30, 31, 32, 33]. The lack of mitigation and therapeutic strategies in response to radiation of cardiovascular tissues explains why radiation oncologists spend such a large amount of effort to minimize cardiovascular exposure [34].
Generous radiation exposure to the heart can result in acute pericarditis. This diagnosis should always be in the differential in a patient with history of radiation exposure who presents with sharp, radiating chest pain that is relieved when sitting up. Anti-inflammatory medications like aspirin, colchicine and prednisone can offer symptomatic relief, with pericardiocentesis being an option in severe cases. Long term, patients who receive radiation exposure to the heart have a higher risk of heart disease and use of echocardiograms and nuclear stress tests in these patients is recommended if symptoms warrant use. Large blood vessels like the aortic, carotid, and femoral arteries can experience hyperplasia and atherosclerotic change from radiation doses. These changes can result in rupture and fistula formation, necessitating immediate treatment. This usually requires very high doses and prolonged exposure usually not seen in modern radiation therapy [30, 31, 32, 33]. With improvements in survival, patients can receive therapy with intentional overlap to previously treated volumes for second malignancies. These patients are vulnerable to vascular injury, including larger arteries and survivorship plans need to include periodic surveillance of vessels to optimize follow up care. Figure 3 demonstrates cardiac sparing for left-sided breast cancer treatment with breath-hold treatment techniques and optical tracking.
Cardiac sparing with deep inspiration breath-hold (DIBH), (left-free-breathing (FB); right-DIBH). Image courtesy of the Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Massachusetts Medical School.
Since most cells of the nervous system do not typically have a high turnover rate, it would seem reasonable to assume that the nervous system is more resistant to radiation damage than other organs. However, this assumption does not account for the immediate molecular effects of radiation. Regardless of the rate of cell division, all cells will receive damage to membranes, organelles, and other structures within the cell. Cells that do not divide very frequently will have to endure these injuries for long periods of time, leading to eventual clinical manifestations. Damage to nearby vasculature also limits growth and healing of these structures, leading to pronounced long term effects. There are clear reports of radiation damage to the central nervous system sometimes long after the initial radiation exposure [35, 36, 37, 38].
Patients who received radiosurgery or hypofractionation techniques are at risk of developing necrosis within six months of receiving therapy. Clinically, these developments can result in focal changes and change in behavior depending on the site of necrosis. Demyelinating syndromes, although rare, are also possible in the peripheral nerves and spinal cord. Often, neurotoxic symptoms are enhanced by chemotherapeutic agents, such as vinblastine, vincristine and cisplatin. Gathering a detailed physical exam, medical history and possible neurological referral may be required for definitive identification of these outcomes. Patients who received radiation therapy for pituitary adenomas or at sites near the optic structures are at risk for visual changes [36, 37]. This is because some structures, such as the lens and optic chasm, are sensitive to radiation exposure due to limited blood supply [15, 39, 40]. Patients treated for breast and head and neck cancers may rarely present with brachial plexopathy. Peripheral lymph nodes for these regions are often within the same field of treatment as the brachial plexus, resulting in unintended exposure to this region [41].
The effect of radiation therapy on the endocrine glands varies depending on the gland affected. The timeline for the development of clinical sequelae varies, with some cases even being reported many years after the radiation exposure. The pituitary gland is relatively radiation sensitive and results in panhypopituitary syndrome, requiring supplementation of depleted hormones. Secondary malignancies from un-intentional radiation exposure, while rare, have been reported [42]. Patients who received previous head and neck radiation therapy who now present with headache, vision loss and/or hormonal abnormalities should be carefully examined for the development of pituitary adenomas. The thyroid gland is also sensitive to radiation therapy, resulting in hypothyroid syndromes. Patients who receive radiation therapy to the head and neck often receive surgery that involves dissection of the thyroid gland, exasperating thyroid function loss. The thyroid also has a relatively higher incidence of developing secondary malignancies. This finding has been identified not only in patients receiving radiation therapy, but also victims of the Chernobyl incident [5]. The same care must be given to the parathyroid glands, given the proximity to the thyroid gland, which can present with signs and symptoms of hypoparathyroidism. Radiation exposure to the endocrine pancreas and adrenal glands are less characterized and are thought to be more radiation resistant. However, there are a few cases of injury to these organs associated with radiation exposure [42].
The reproductive organs are highly sensitive to radiation damage, with early exposure in pediatric patients leading to severe detriments like sterility and secondary malignancies (see Pediatrics). Since much of the reproductive system depends on hormonal homeostasis, radioactive effects on the endocrine system (see Endocrine) and the subsequent effect on hormone production, such as that on testosterone and estrogen, can drastically affect reproductive function and development depending on the effected hormone and gland. When investigating radiation injury to the reproductive system, it is always important to consider the location of exposure and any endocrine glands involved. Germ cells, such as spermatogonia, are particularly sensitive to radiation damage as they can experience inter-mitotic death. Even mild radiation exposure can lead to a heavy drop in sperm numbers. Mature sperm that receive radiation damage can harbor serious mutations or chromosomal abnormalities, leading to severe birth defects in progeny. Exposure to female reproductive organs can even lead to miscarriage and early menopause. As a result, it usually recommended for patients who receive gonadal exposure practice birth control methods for up to six months after the exposure. Because the ovaries rely on a regular, cyclical production of hormones from the follicles, radiation injury can lead to more pronounced effects on fertility. Mucosal atrophy and drying of female genitalia can cause great discomfort for the patient as well. Thus, fertility treatment and consultation should be considered for patients who received heavy or repeated radiation exposure to the gonads [13, 14, 42].
Pediatric patients are unique in that many organs and tissues are still developing. As a result, the cells involved are particularly sensitive to radiation damage as the fully developed adult organ can become abnormal or dysfunctional. Pediatric patients who receive radiation therapy are known to have a higher risk of developing growth abnormalities, chronic diseases, secondary malignancies and premature death compared to sibling controls [43]. Children who were treated with radiotherapy in the pelvis for tumors such as rhabdomyosarcoma or germ cell tumors are at high risk for gonadal abnormalities. Given the rapid growth in the musculoskeletal system during puberty, exposure to the spine at an early age can cause drastic changes to the respiratory and cardiovascular system. Radiation exposure to any cartilage or bone not only presents the risk of bone necrosis, but also may affect the fully developed form of such tissue, sometimes resulting in stunted extremity length and increased frequency of fractures. Children treated for Wilms tumors are at high risk of renal abnormalities later in their lifetime to the remaining kidney, therefore attention to detail for renal health as these patients become adults is an important aspect of a survivorship plan. Exposure to the bowel and hepatic structures are known to adversely affect the growth and development of intraabdominal organs. These effects can affect nutritional intake, indirectly causing developmental issues as the child matures [14, 43, 44]. As these patients mature into adulthood, detailed review of a patient’s radiation exposure history will play a pivotal role in survivorship plans.
As many of the side effects of radiation therapy are difficult to anticipate and manage, a great deal of effort has been put into reducing the amount of non-tumor tissue exposed to radiation. In the early days of radiation, this was difficult simply due to the lack of technology. Now, most radiation oncologists have access to various new tools, such as 4-dimensional conformal avoidance techniques to minimize off-target exposure [34]. Compact structures that were traditionally difficult to irradiate without significant off-target, such as the axilla and chest, can now be treated much more accurately with minimal exposure to non-tumor tissue [41]. Modern imaging techniques can be utilized to assess organ performance even before the administration of radiation to determine the risk of post-radiation symptoms. Indocyanine retention assays used in conjunction with MRI have determined the pre-exposure function of liver to assess if the patient is a good candidate for radiation therapy [25]. New guidelines are constantly being updated to ensure that the risks of radiation therapy are minimized. Novel pharmacological agents, such as the development of immunotherapy, are being implemented to supplement the efficiency of radiation therapy. As medicine becomes more collaborative and data is more available, physicians outside of radiation oncology will be able to better understand the radiation therapy treatment plans and define survivorship care plans accordingly.
The discovery of nuclear power and the utilization to benefit humanity has been one of the defining moments of the modern era. While this discovery certainly has benefits, there are also unintended and intended consequences which we must continue to mitigate. In the field of medicine, what is clear is that radiation remains a crucial tool to diagnose and treat diseases. Understanding and minimizing the risks of using this tool remains a priority for the safety and well-being of patients, especially given the broad impact it has on organs throughout the body and the long-term effects. It falls upon health care professionals to remain vigilant and well-informed to ensure that nuclear energy and radiation therapy remains a blessing and not a curse.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"147824",title:"Mr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Revuelta Sanz",slug:"pablo-revuelta-sanz",fullName:"Pablo Revuelta Sanz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. 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His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. 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\r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
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",annualVolume:11967,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"177015",title:"Prof.",name:"Elke Jurandy",middleName:null,surname:"Bran Nogueira Cardoso",fullName:"Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGxzQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-25T08:32:33.jpg",institutionString:"Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil",institution:null},{id:"211260",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Ricart",fullName:"Sandra Ricart",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211260/images/system/211260.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",keywords:"Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Fauna, Taxonomy, Invasive species, Destruction of habitats, Overexploitation of natural resources, Pollution, Global warming, Conservation of natural spaces, Bioremediation",scope:"