Neutrophil-specific antigens, the NA and NB system.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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This book focuses on the provenance history of clastic rocks, reservoir characterization and hydrocarbon exploration in carbonate reservoirs, and enhanced oil recovery based on data from petrological investigations from various regions in Asia and Europe.",isbn:"978-1-83969-301-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-300-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-302-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92930",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"sedimentary-petrology-implications-in-petroleum-industry",numberOfPages:108,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"be71a270b1196a96cdc1162f64f9a966",bookSignature:"Ali Ismail Al-Juboury",publishedDate:"January 12th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10556.jpg",numberOfDownloads:863,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:4,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 11th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 9th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 7th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 28th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 27th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"58570",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Ismail",surname:"Al-Juboury",slug:"ali-al-juboury",fullName:"Ali Al-Juboury",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58570/images/system/58570.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Ali Ismail Al-Juboury is a professor in the Geology Department, Mosul University, Iraq. He obtained his BSc in Geology and MSc in Sedimentology from Mosul University in 1980 and 1983, respectively, and his Ph.D. from Comenius University, Slovakia, in 1992. He has published 115 scientific papers (44 Clarivate and Scopus) in local and peer-reviewed journals in the fields of petroleum geology, sedimentology, geochemistry, and economic geology. He is a member of numerous international societies and serves on the editorial board of the Iraqi Geological Journal, International Sedimentology, Stratigraphy Journal of Oil and Gas Basins, and International Journal of Geophysics and Geochemistry. Dr. Al-Juboury has received several awards, including the Distinguished Scholars Award from the Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development, Kuwait, in 2009, and the Science and Technology (Geology) Award from the Islamic States Organization in 2014.",institutionString:"University of Mosul",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"University of Mosul",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iraq"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"652",title:"Petrology",slug:"petrology"}],chapters:[{id:"75938",title:"Sandstone Petrology and Provenance in Fold Thrust Belt and Foreland Basin System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96985",slug:"sandstone-petrology-and-provenance-in-fold-thrust-belt-and-foreland-basin-system",totalDownloads:201,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The sandstone composition of foreland basin has a wide range of provenance signatures, reflecting the interplay between flexed underplate region and abrupt growth of the accreted upper plate region. The combination of contrasting detrital signatures reflects these dual plate interactions; indeed, several cases figure out that the earliest history of older foreland basin infilling is marked by quartz-rich sandstones, with cratonal or continental-block provenance of the flexed underplate flanks. As upper plate margin grows over the underplate, the nascent fold-and-thrust belt starts to be the main producer of grain particles, reflecting the space/time dependent progressive unroofing of the subjacent orogenic source terranes. The latter geodynamic processes are mainly reflected in the nature of sandstone compositions that become more lithic fragment-rich and feldspar-rich as the fold-thrust belt involves the progressive deepest portions of upper plate crustal terranes. In this context sandstone signatures reflect quartzolithic to quartzofeldspathic compositions.",signatures:"Salvatore Critelli and Sara Criniti",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75938",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75938",authors:[{id:"344418",title:"Prof.",name:"Salvatore",surname:"Critelli",slug:"salvatore-critelli",fullName:"Salvatore Critelli"},{id:"348607",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",surname:"Criniti",slug:"sara-criniti",fullName:"Sara Criniti"}],corrections:null},{id:"76390",title:"Stylolite in Upper Cretaceous Carbonate Reservoirs from Northwestern Iraq",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97527",slug:"stylolite-in-upper-cretaceous-carbonate-reservoirs-from-northwestern-iraq",totalDownloads:246,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Stylolites are commonly observed in the carbonate reservoirs in various oilfield of Iraq including those of upper Cretaceous successions from northwestern Iraq, where they are characterized by stylolite-rich zones in the Cenomanian-early Turonian Gir Bir Formation and to a lesser extent in the Turonian-Santonian Wajna and early Campanian Mushorah formations respectively. The observed stylolites are either large to be identified in the core samples or smaller ones that are well observed in the thin sections and are characterized by variations in amplitude, morphology and accumulated insoluble residues. The recorded stylolites are classified as hummocky, irregular, low and high-amplitudes peaks, and irregular anastomosing stylolites. Stylolites affect the porosity permeability and thickness reduction compaction as the main chemical compaction (pressure solution) that reduce porosity. Whereas, in other places, the stylolites act as seals and stop the upward movement of hydrocarbons. This is also seen for mineralization processes such as silicification that ended near the stylolite surfaces.",signatures:"Ali Al-Juboury, Mohammed A. Al-Haj and Aboosh H. Al-Hadidy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76390",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76390",authors:[{id:"58570",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali",surname:"Al-Juboury",slug:"ali-al-juboury",fullName:"Ali Al-Juboury"},{id:"340247",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed",surname:"Al-Haj",slug:"mohammed-al-haj",fullName:"Mohammed Al-Haj"},{id:"351318",title:"Dr.",name:"Aboosh",surname:"Al-Hadidy",slug:"aboosh-al-hadidy",fullName:"Aboosh Al-Hadidy"}],corrections:null},{id:"76297",title:"Applications of Surfactants and Nanoparticles in Enhanced Oil Recovery Processes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97506",slug:"applications-of-surfactants-and-nanoparticles-in-enhanced-oil-recovery-processes",totalDownloads:99,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The surfactant injection is considered as the EOR (Enhanced Oil Recovery) with the highest potential to recover oil from reservoirs due to its ability to reduce interfacial forces into the porous medium. However, the adsorption of this type of chemical on the surface of rocks is the main problem when a surfactant injection project is applied since the surfactant molecules would rather be placed on rock minerals instead of being the oil–water interface. Based on this fact, this chapter would be discussed the significance of surfactant injection as an EOR method, the types of surfactants used, the main mechanism and parameters involved in the surfactant adsorption on the rock, and its consequences in oil recovery. Likewise, the addition of nanoparticles to inhibit the adsorption of surfactants is another topic that will be covered as a novel technology to improve the efficiency of the EOR process.",signatures:"Christian A. Paternina",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76297",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76297",authors:[{id:"342114",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Christian A.",surname:"Paternina",slug:"christian-a.-paternina",fullName:"Christian A. Paternina"}],corrections:null},{id:"76624",title:"Petrological and Biostratigraphic Characteristics of Pre-Cenozoic Carbonate Rocks in the Northern Song Hong Basin, Vietnam",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97711",slug:"petrological-and-biostratigraphic-characteristics-of-pre-cenozoic-carbonate-rocks-in-the-northern-so",totalDownloads:125,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pre-Cenozoic carbonate rocks in the northern Song Hong basin, Vietnam that are being considered and studied by oil companies in exploration and exploitation. The hydrocarbon accumulations in these rocks have been discovered and have significantly commercial reserves, in which the porosity plays an important role in estimating the capacity of hydrocarbon. The carbonate rocks are composed mainly of crystalline limestone, packstone, wackestone and mudstone, which have been experienced dolomitization, compaction and dissolution. The main carbonate pore systems include fracture, vuggy and intercrystalline porosity. The predominance of larger benthic foraminiferal assemblages indicates that the carbonate sediments were formed during the late Paleozoic (Carboniferous-Permian) and were deposited in shallow marine environment. Furthermore, the obtained petrological and biostratigraphic characteristics are well-correlated with the carbonate formations exposed in adjacent Cat Ba island area. The results of this study are either used in petroleum exploration or used in a local stratigraphic correlation in northern Vietnam.",signatures:"Mai Hoang Dam, Nguyen Tan Trieu and Lieu Kim Phuong",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76624",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76624",authors:[{id:"343515",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Mai Hoang",surname:"Dam",slug:"mai-hoang-dam",fullName:"Mai Hoang Dam"},{id:"343518",title:"Dr.",name:"Lieu Kim",surname:"Phuong",slug:"lieu-kim-phuong",fullName:"Lieu Kim Phuong"},{id:"347399",title:"Mr.",name:"Nguyen Tan",surname:"Trieu",slug:"nguyen-tan-trieu",fullName:"Nguyen Tan Trieu"}],corrections:null},{id:"74956",title:"Petro-Mineralogical and Geochemical Study of the Acid Magmatic Rocks of Tusham Ring Complex, NW Peninsular India",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95836",slug:"petro-mineralogical-and-geochemical-study-of-the-acid-magmatic-rocks-of-tusham-ring-complex-nw-penin",totalDownloads:192,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The present contribution reports about the field and petrographical observations which are very important to explain the magmatic evolution and geodynamic setting of Tusham Ring Complex (TRC). TRC is associated with A-type acid volcano-plutonic rock-association which is very common characteristics of Neoproterozoic Malani Igneous Suite (MIS). Based on the geological field information, the investigated rock-types are classified as volcanic phase, plutonic phase and dyke phase. Petrographically, rhyolites show porphyritic, granophyric, glomeroporphyritic, aphyritic, spherulitic and perlitic textures whereas granites show hypidomorphic, granophyric and microgranophyric textures. Based on mineral chemistry and whole-rock geochemistry, the petro-mineralogical results are justified and proposed that the rocks under study belong to A-type affinity, within-plate and anorogenic magmatism. Physiochemical features i.e. F and Cl-rich biotite, pegmatite rim, high mineralized veins, micro-granular enclaves and altered mineralogy indicate rock-fluid interactions which are caused by magmatic origin or secondary metasomatic alteration superimposed on the host rock.",signatures:"Naveen Kumar and Naresh Kumar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74956",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74956",authors:[{id:"341055",title:"Dr.",name:"Naveen",surname:"Kumar",slug:"naveen-kumar",fullName:"Naveen Kumar"},{id:"341056",title:"Dr.",name:"Naresh",surname:"Kumar",slug:"naresh-kumar",fullName:"Naresh Kumar"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"401",title:"Petrology",subtitle:"New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"76f3cf825db7e77a7edb8bf4cd8e8087",slug:"petrology-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Ali Ismail 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Lenihan, A. Orozco, E. O’Neill, M.N.M. Ahmad, D.W. Rooney, C. Mangwandi and G.M. 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Labbe, Lee E. Gunter, Poornima Sukumar, Anne Borland, Jin-Gui Chen, Stan D. Wullschleger, Timothy J. Tschaplinski and Gerald A. 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Quitain, Shunsaku Katoh and Motonobu Goto",authors:[{id:"31504",title:"Dr.",name:"Motonobu",middleName:null,surname:"Goto",fullName:"Motonobu Goto",slug:"motonobu-goto"},{id:"37904",title:"Dr.",name:"Armando",middleName:"Tibigin",surname:"Quitain",fullName:"Armando Quitain",slug:"armando-quitain"},{id:"37905",title:"Dr.",name:"Shunsaku",middleName:null,surname:"Katoh",fullName:"Shunsaku Katoh",slug:"shunsaku-katoh"}]},{id:"20070",title:"Fertilizer Potential of Biofuel Byproducts",slug:"fertilizer-potential-of-biofuel-byproducts",signatures:"Amber Moore",authors:[{id:"24938",title:"Prof.",name:"Amber",middleName:"Dawn",surname:"Moore",fullName:"Amber Moore",slug:"amber-moore"}]},{id:"20071",title:"The Past, Present, and Future of Biofuels – Biobutanol as Promising Alternative",slug:"the-past-present-and-future-of-biofuels-biobutanol-as-promising-alternative",signatures:"Köpke Michael, Noack Steffi and Dürre Peter",authors:[{id:"37463",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Dürre",fullName:"Peter Dürre",slug:"peter-durre"},{id:"38074",title:"Dr.",name:"Steffi",middleName:null,surname:"Noack",fullName:"Steffi Noack",slug:"steffi-noack"},{id:"38075",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Köpke",fullName:"Michael Köpke",slug:"michael-kopke"}]},{id:"20072",title:"DMF - A New Biofuel Candidate",slug:"dmf-a-new-biofuel-candidate",signatures:"Guohong Tian, Ritchie Daniel and Hongming Xu",authors:[{id:"44550",title:"Prof.",name:"Hongming",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",fullName:"Hongming Xu",slug:"hongming-xu"},{id:"100409",title:"Dr.",name:"Guohong",middleName:null,surname:"Tian",fullName:"Guohong Tian",slug:"guohong-tian"},{id:"100412",title:"Mr.",name:"Ritchie",middleName:null,surname:"Daniel",fullName:"Ritchie Daniel",slug:"ritchie-daniel"}]},{id:"20073",title:"Biofuels: From Hopes to Reality",slug:"biofuels-from-hopes-to-reality",signatures:"Carioca J.O.B., Friedrich, H. and Ehrenberger, S.",authors:[{id:"82687",title:"Dr",name:"José Osvaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Beserra Carioca",fullName:"José Osvaldo Beserra Carioca",slug:"jose-osvaldo-beserra-carioca"},{id:"82693",title:"Dr",name:"Horst",middleName:null,surname:"Friedrich",fullName:"Horst Friedrich",slug:"horst-friedrich"},{id:"82694",title:"Mrs",name:"Simone",middleName:null,surname:"Ehrenberger",fullName:"Simone Ehrenberger",slug:"simone-ehrenberger"}]},{id:"20074",title:"Bioproduction of Hydrogen with the Assistance of Electrochemical Technology",slug:"bioproduction-of-hydrogen-with-the-assistance-of-electrochemical-technology",signatures:"Soundarrajan Chandrasekaran and Dachamir Hotza",authors:[{id:"25552",title:"Prof.",name:"Dachamir",middleName:null,surname:"Hotza",fullName:"Dachamir Hotza",slug:"dachamir-hotza"},{id:"44695",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Soundarrajan",middleName:null,surname:"Chandrasekaran",fullName:"Soundarrajan Chandrasekaran",slug:"soundarrajan-chandrasekaran"}]},{id:"20075",title:"A Genetic-Fuzzy System for Modelling of Selected Processes in Diesel Engine Fuelled by Biofuels",slug:"a-genetic-fuzzy-system-for-modelling-of-selected-processes-in-diesel-engine-fuelled-by-biofuels",signatures:"Michał Kekez and Leszek Radziszewski",authors:[{id:"38787",title:"Dr.",name:"Michał",middleName:null,surname:"Kekez",fullName:"Michał Kekez",slug:"michal-kekez"},{id:"38812",title:"Prof.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Radziszewski",fullName:"Leszek Radziszewski",slug:"leszek-radziszewski"}]},{id:"20076",title:"Determination of the Impact of Biogas on the Engine Oil Condition Using a Sensor Based on Corrosiveness",slug:"determination-of-the-impact-of-biogas-on-the-engine-oil-condition-using-a-sensor-based-on-corrosiven",signatures:"C. Schneidhofer, S. Sen and N. Dörr",authors:[{id:"38255",title:"MSc",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Schneidhofer",fullName:"Christoph Schneidhofer",slug:"christoph-schneidhofer"},{id:"38280",title:"BSc.",name:"Sedat",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",fullName:"Sedat Sen",slug:"sedat-sen"},{id:"38281",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicole",middleName:null,surname:"Dörr",fullName:"Nicole Dörr",slug:"nicole-dorr"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"296",title:"Developments in Heat Transfer",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"06bca9a8a622c1fa728dc3943bff471e",slug:"developments-in-heat-transfer",bookSignature:"Marco Aurélio dos Santos Bernardes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/296.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6625",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Aurelio",surname:"Dos Santos Bernardes",slug:"marco-aurelio-dos-santos-bernardes",fullName:"Marco Aurelio Dos Santos Bernardes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"531",title:"Evaporation, Condensation and Heat transfer",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"df4a2b5264d9893eafab9c49f7dec835",slug:"evaporation-condensation-and-heat-transfer",bookSignature:"Amimul Ahsan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/531.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36782",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Amimul",surname:"Ahsan",slug:"amimul-ahsan",fullName:"Amimul Ahsan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"533",title:"Heat Analysis and Thermodynamic Effects",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"43307d6e3a4a15728222e1ae75451353",slug:"heat-analysis-and-thermodynamic-effects",bookSignature:"Amimul Ahsan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/533.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36782",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Amimul",surname:"Ahsan",slug:"amimul-ahsan",fullName:"Amimul Ahsan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"625",title:"Heat Conduction",subtitle:"Basic Research",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fc597dbd40f10cbb8c09323c48d8bb15",slug:"heat-conduction-basic-research",bookSignature:"Vyacheslav S. Vikhrenko",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/625.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"66215",title:"Prof.",name:"Vyacheslav",surname:"Vikhrenko",slug:"vyacheslav-vikhrenko",fullName:"Vyacheslav Vikhrenko"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"926",title:"Thermodynamics",subtitle:"Kinetics of Dynamic Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"650764e8e17cc7d7bd87cbee632246f1",slug:"thermodynamics-kinetics-of-dynamic-systems",bookSignature:"Juan Carlos Moreno Piraján",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/926.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14015",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",surname:"Moreno Piraján",slug:"juan-carlos-moreno-pirajan",fullName:"Juan Carlos Moreno Piraján"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[{type:"book",id:"296",title:"Developments in Heat Transfer",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"06bca9a8a622c1fa728dc3943bff471e",slug:"developments-in-heat-transfer",bookSignature:"Marco Aurélio dos Santos Bernardes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/296.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6625",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Aurelio",surname:"Dos Santos Bernardes",slug:"marco-aurelio-dos-santos-bernardes",fullName:"Marco Aurelio Dos Santos Bernardes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"80254",title:"Neutrophil-Specific Antigens: Immunobiology, Genetics and Roles in Clinical Disorders",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102431",slug:"neutrophil-specific-antigens-immunobiology-genetics-and-roles-in-clinical-disorders",body:'Neutrophils are the most abundant circulating leukocytes. They are short-lived, terminally differentiated myeloid cells produced in the bone marrow. They contain intracellular granules and vesicles and a multi-lobed nucleus. The condensed nuclear chromatin is considered to indicate a limited transcriptional activity in the cells. Neutrophils are an important part of innate and adaptive immunity, and the first line of defense against invading pathogens. There are multiple types of proteins expressed on neutrophil surfaces, including Fc-receptors, adhesion molecules, integrins, multiple cytokine receptors, innate immune receptors such as Toll-like receptors, and C-type lectins. Some receptors directly recognize and bind to pathogens and play their role in the defensive functions, some other receptors, such as Fc-receptors, bind the Fc fragment of the antibody molecules to neutrophils, which enable the neutrophils to recognize the targets of the antibodies and then perform their functions in adaptive immunity. Some other receptors recognize the inflammatory signals. The extracellular structures from neutrophil surface proteins are involved in signal transduction, cell-cell interactions, neutrophil migration, and substance releases such as cytokines, reactive oxygen species, exocytosis of intracellular granules, and neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) formation, the structure that traps and kills the invading bacteria. Some of the glycoproteins expressed on the neutrophil surface carry the Neutrophil-Specific Antigens. The protective effects of neutrophils are also contributed by their ability to receive signals through their receptors that stimulate them to rapidly generate pseudopods, move and invade their targets. They phagocytize the microorganisms and digest them by proteolytic enzymes present in their intracellular granules. Eli Metchnikoff (1845–1916) of Pasteur Institute in Paris was the first investigator who identified neutrophil immunogenicity. He reported that guinea pigs injected with rabbit blood produce antibodies against rabbit leukocytes and called the antibodies leukoagglutinins and leukolysins [1]. In 1926, Charles Doan recognized that leukocyte incompatibility causes transfusion reaction and suggested that leukocytes have their own “groups” [2]. Jean Dausset later reported that the presence of leukoagglutinins in blood could be associated with chronic autoimmune neutropenia [3]. In 1957, Tom Brittingham, of the hematology team of Washington University in St. Louis, produced leukoagglutinins experimentally [4]. He volunteered to receive weekly 100 mL blood for nine consecutive weeks from a patient who had chronic myelogenous leukemia, the last four causing chills and fever. He could prevent the reaction by minimizing the number of injected leukocytes. To study the effects of antibodies in donors’ blood, he received 50 mL blood from a patient who had received numerous transfusions. This injection caused high fever, vomiting, dyspnea, cyanosis and hypotension. A chest X-ray on the following day revealed bilateral lung infiltrations, a reaction that is now recognized as transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI). Dausset [5] and others [6, 7] in subsequent years demonstrated inheritance of leukocyte antigens.
Neutrophil-specific antigens were identified during the investigation on alloimmune neonatal neutropenia (ANN), proven to be due to fetal-maternal incompatibility [8]. In that study, the first child had died from neutropenia and sepsis, and the three subsequent infants also had neutropenia at birth. The diagnosis of ANN was based on the detection of a strong leukoagglutinin in the maternal serum that reacted with the paternal neutrophils but not with the maternal own cells. The blood smear from the last infant showed the absence of mature neutrophils but lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils and platelets were normal. Neutrophil-specificity of the antibody was established by demonstrating that the antibody could be absorbed only by isolated neutrophils and not by any other blood cells or tissue cells [9]. An anti-5b antibody [10], known to react with all blood leukocytes and many other tissue cells tested, was used as a control and showed that the ANN antibody reacted only with neutrophils. This first neutrophil-specific antigen identified was named NA1, “N” for Neutrophil, “A” for the first locus, and 1 for the first allele. Further investigation on ANN led to the identification of other antigens including NA2, NC1 [9, 11], SH [12, 13] and HNA-1d [14]. ANN could be identified because the tests were directly performed on the blood from the affected infants and their parents, and not on blood samples from multiparous female donors who develop multiple forms of antibodies against the HLA, red blood cells and platelets. This may explain the reason for some other investigators inability to recognize ANN, and even conclude that neonatal neutropenia was the result of infection and not alloimmunization [15]. Neutrophil specificity causes ANN because the total neutrophil mass in fetus blood is small, and there are no other cell types in the body that express the same antigens and can absorb the maternal antibodies. The more common HLA antibodies in maternal blood do not cause ANN because HLA antigens are widely distributed in blood cells and other tissues, and also, as soluble antigens, can absorb the maternal-derived antibodies [16]. In one ANN example, both neutrophil-specific and HLA antibodies were detected in the maternal plasma, but only the neutrophil-specific antibody was detected in the affected newborn’s blood. ANN is a self-limited disorder and lasts as long as the maternal antibodies remain in the infant’s circulation, a period of a few weeks to a few months. The recovery can be predicted when the antibody can no longer be detected in the infant’s plasma. In ANN, the absolute neutrophil counts are below 500 and the common symptoms are omphalitis, and infections in the skin and in other locations. It has been estimated that ANN occurs in 0.1–0.2% of pregnancies. This may be an underestimation; because now most birth deliveries are performed under sterile conditions and the newborns are not exposed to bacteria, and consequently, neutropenic infants may remain asymptomatic and undiagnosed. Also, blood counts and differentials are not routinely tested on asymptomatic newborns. ANN, in contrast to erythroblastosis fetalis, known as Rh disease, can occur in the first pregnancies. This information should warn the blood banks that blood donors with single pregnancy and asymptomatic children or undiagnosed ANN infants may be carriers of the hazardous neutrophil-specific antibodies, and transfusion of their blood may result in severe reactions and even fatalities.
The second clinical disorder that increased interest in neutrophil-specific antigens was autoimmune neutropenia of infancy (AINI). In 1975, a strong anti-NA2 antibody was identified in the blood of a six months old infant. The antibody was not present in the mother’s blood and the child was too old to have ANN [17]. Additional studies [18] demonstrated autoantibodies on 119 of 121 severely neutropenic children. The disorder, called AINI, was shown to be very common and the autoantibodies were directed against neutrophil-specific antigens found in ANN. Thus far, the antigens NA, NB, ND1 [19] NE1 [20] and 9a [18] are associated with AINI, and some of these antibodies are also found in a few cases of autoimmune neutropenia in adults [16]. Before detection of autoantibodies and establishing the autoimmune nature of this disorder, AINI was recognized as “chronic benign neutropenia,” benign because it was a self-limited neutropenia disorder, lasting several months to a few years. The neutrophil count in blood of AINI patients is between zero to 500, and there is an elevation of monocytes and eosinophils, which may represent a protective defense mechanism. Pathogenesis of AINI has not yet been determined, but it has been suggested that a delay in maturation of the regulatory T-cells (T-regs) causes a lack of tolerance to neutrophil-specific antigens, and that the autoimmunity becomes corrected when T-regs become functional [21, 22].
The NA and NB antigen systems are the most investigated neutrophil-specific antigens and are discussed here, with their information summarized in Tables 1 and 2. The genetics and biological functions of these two systems are different and are described separately. However, their clinical impacts, such as their roles in ANN, AINI, blood transfusion, and bone marrow transplantation are similar. Also, in this report, the nomenclature used is based on the original and not the HNA that will be discussed separately.
System | Allele | Frequency | Location | Amino acids | MW (kDa)* | Chromosome | Exons | Nucleotide, base pairs |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
NA (CD16b) | NA1 | 0.560 | Membrane, intracellular | 233 | 58–65 | 1q23.3 | 5 | 699 |
NA2 | 0.885 | 233 | 65–80 | |||||
NA3 (SH) | 0.05 | 233 | 65–80 | |||||
NA4 (HNA1d) | Unknown | 233 | 65–80 | |||||
NAnull | Rare | |||||||
NB (CD177) | NB1 | 0.97 | Membrane, secondary granules, vesicles | 437 | 55–64 | 19q13.2 | 9; 6 in the pseudo-gene | 1614 |
Neutrophil-specific antigens, the NA and NB system.
Difference in molecular weight (MW) is due to differences in glycosylation.
System | Gene | Protein | Antigen name | Nucleotide | Amino acids |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
FcγRIIIb (CD16) | CD16 | NA1 | 108G, 114C, 194A, 233C, 244G, 316G | 36R, 38 L, 65 N, 78A, 82D, 106 V | |
NA2 | 108C, 114 T, 194G, 233A/C, 244A, 316A | 36S, 38 L, 65S, 78D/A, 82 N, 106I | |||
NA3 (SH) | 108C, 114 T, 194G, 233A, 244A, 316A | 36S, 38 L, 65S, 78D, 82 N, 106I | |||
NA4 (HNA1-d) | 108C,114 T,194G, 233A, 244A, 316A | 36S, 38 L, 655S, 78A, 82 N,106I | |||
NAnull | — | — | |||
CD177 | CD177 | NB1 | 787A | Full length | |
CD177 negative | NB2(?)* | NB2(?)* NB1-neg | 787 T | 264 (Truncated length) | |
CD177 | NB1 soluble in plasma | NB1 | 1291G > A | Truncated at the GPI-binding site |
Neutrophil-specific antigens alleles; nucleotide and amino acid differences.
NB2 is suggested to be a truncated protein, but needs to be confirmed.
Four expressing alleles, NA1, NA2, NA3 (SH), and NA4 are currently known in this system (Table 1). NA1 was the first, described with neonatal neutropenia. The antigen SH, here referred to as NA3, was first described in one case of ANN, and subsequently in three other cases [12, 13]. The antigen referred to as NA4, was originally described in two cases of ANN [14]. In rare individuals, the NA antigens are not expressed. This abnormality, caused by gene alteration, is called NAnull [12, 23, 24]. The NA antigens appear at the metamyelocytic phase of neutrophil maturation and are anchored on the cell membranes by the Glycosylphosphatydylinositol (GPI) at the density of 100,000 to 300,000 copies per cell [25, 26]. Some NA molecules are also stored inside the cells and translocate to the membrane and are released during cell activation. NA antigens are the low-affinity Fc-receptors, FcγRIII [27]. Fc-receptors are glycoproteins that bind the Fc fragment of immunoglobulins and connect the humoral to the cellular components of the immune system. In this process, the effector cell, via its Fc-receptor, is connected to the F(ab)2, the antigen-binding part of the antibodies. This connection leads to phagocytosis and antibody-mediated cell cytotoxicity (ADC) [28]. The genetic polymorphisms in the coding genes for Fc-receptors influence their effectiveness. Three Fc gamma receptor (FcγR) subclasses have been identified thus far: FcγRI, FcγRII, and FcγRIII [29]. The NA epitopes are located on FcγRIIIb (CD16b), exclusively expressed on neutrophils, bind Fc fragments of IgG1 and IgG3 immunoglobulin subclasses [30, 31]. The
NB1 [44, 45, 46], also known as CD177, is a cysteine-rich glycoprotein that expresses at the promyelocytic phase of neutrophil maturation [47]. This early expression on immature neutrophils causes the bone marrow of the newborns affected with NB1 alloimmune neonatal neutropenia, to show a “maturation arrest” profile, and even be misdiagnosed as acute leukemia. NB1 is anchored on the neutrophil membrane, and also mediates the expression of proteinase 3 (PR3), a serine protease enzyme, on the neutrophil membrane [48]. NB1 is also present in neutrophil secondary granules and intracellular vesicles. Stroncek and Skubitz determined that NB1 is a 58–65 KDa, GPI anchored glycoprotein [49, 50]. Not all circulating neutrophils in NB1-positive individuals carry the NB1 antigen on their surfaces [19, 51, 52]. This bimodal expression divides the neutrophils into NB1-positive and NB1-negative subpopulations in NB1-positive blood. Although, the percentage of NB1-positive neutrophils remains stable, infection, pregnancy, treatment with granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF), and Polycythemia Rubra Vera (PRV) upregulate, CD177 expression [49, 53, 54]. CD177 is not detectable on neutrophils of 3–5% of normal populations. These individuals are defined as CD177-null. Kissel [55] sequenced the gene and determined it to be composed of 1614 base pair nucleotides, belonging to the urokinase-type Plasminogen Activator Receptor Superfamily (uPAR, CD59, Ly6), located on chromosome 19q13.3 [53]. The gene has 9 exons and a pseudogene composed of 6 exons derived from the original gene and is reversely positioned [52, 56, 57, 58]. A missense mutation in exon 7 of CD177 gene, c.787A > T replaces amino acid 263 with a stop codon and induces production of a truncated protein and consequently loss of CD177 expression on the neutrophil surface (Table 2) [57]. The stop codon responsible for the absence of CD177 protein on the neutrophil surface arises when exon 7 in the CD177 coding region is provided by the CD177 pseudogene, called CD177P1 [52]. The heritable ratio between CD177/CD177P1 determines CD177 high and low expression; individuals homozygous for the CD177 gene have higher CD177 expression whereas the existence of CD177P1 sequence in the CD177 gene leads to the presence of CD177 negative subpopulation [52]. However, in only 40% of CD177-null individuals, the presence of c.787 T homozygote is responsible for the absence of CD177 protein from the neutrophil surface [58, 59]. Later studies have added c.1291G > A SNP that affects the GPI anchor region of CD177 molecule and converts membrane-bound to the soluble form of CD177. This polymorphism has been introduced as a genetic regulator for atypical/low expression that participates in the mechanism of CD177 deficiency. The combination of SNPs, c.787 T and c.1291A is responsible to regulate the presence of CD177 on the neutrophil surface [60]. A study on the epigenetic component that regulates CD177 expression, has documented a non-classical random monoallelic expression (MAE) on neutrophil subsets of CD177 positive individuals [61]. The complete absence of gene transcription (neither complete, nor truncated) in the CD177 negative neutrophil subpopulation has been introduced as a mechanism regulating the absence of CD177 protein on the CD177 negative subpopulation. However, later study analyzing mRNA content in sorted CD177 positive and negative subpopulations has shown the presence of CD177 mRNA in both neutrophil subsets and doubted the previous observation [59]. Additional interpretation on the potential role of c.787 T and c.1291 on NB system is presented in the NB2–dilemma subsection, separately.
The role of CD177 on neutrophil function is complicated and poorly understood. Physical association of CD177 with CD11b/CD18, concentrated on lipid rafts, support transduction of signals initiated after binding of anti-PR3 antibodies (such as Anti-Neutrophilic Cytoplasmic Autoantibody (ANCA)) on CD177/PR3 complex toward neutrophil cytoplasm and consequently leads to neutrophil activation, degranulation, and superoxide production [62]. The association of CD177 in ANCA-mediated neutrophil degranulation may explain the selective activation of CD177 positive neutrophil subsets involved in the mechanism of ANCA-associated vasculitis (AAV). Analysis has introduced an epitope formed by CD177/PR3 complex as a relevant epitope for CD177 autoantibodies but not isoantibodies. Interestingly this epitope is a signaling relevant epitope that upon binding of relevant antibodies induces neutrophil activation [63]. A previous study indicated CD177 as a heterophilic binding partner for platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule 1 (PECAM-1). Inhibitory analysis has introduced PECAM-1 membrane-proximal domain 6 to mediate the binding of CD177. The later study however introduced PR3 as a binding partner for PECAM-1 but not CD177 alone [63]. The CD177/PECAM-1 interaction is considered to induce a signal in endothelial cells, destabilize VE-cadherin from the endothelial junction, and lead to the preferential trans-endothelial migration ability of CD177-positive neutrophils [64, 65]. The binding of monoclonal antibodies to CD177 (such as MEM166) enhances the expression of β2 integrins, activates CD177 positive neutrophils, raises neutrophil adhesion, and interrupts neutrophil’s migratory ability [66]. This effect rather than direct CD177/PECAM-1 binding, explains a neutrophil adhesion via a CD177-driven pathway [67]. In CD177 deficient mice, besides a slight decrease in neutrophil counts, no defect in neutrophil function, chemotaxis, and clearance of bacterial infection was observed [68]. Although, no distinct difference between CD177 positive and negative neutrophil subsets have been described and both CD177 positive and null individuals are healthy, in multiple diseases the CD177 expression/upregulation has been introduced as a risk factor. In comparison to healthy donors, a higher proportion of CD177 positive neutrophils have been detected in patients with ANCA vasculitis [69]. The study documented a differential gene expression between CD177 negative and positive neutrophils; CD177 positive produces a lower level of pro-inflammatory cytokines and exhibits increased bactericidal activities such as ROS production and neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) [70]. A decreased percentage of CD177 positive neutrophils in Myelodysplastic Syndrome has been documented [71]. In contrast, in Kawasaki disease, an epigenetic hypomethylation and consequently increased CD177 gene transcription has been reported [72]. Beyond neutrophils, the presence of CD177 on epithelial cells, in cervical cancer, prostate cancer and ovarian cancer has been documented. Analysis of CD177 in mammary epithelial cells revealed a strong CD177 expression on epithelial cells that was significantly reduced in paired cancer specimens [73]. These data suggest CD177 molecule as a cancer cell-intrinsic tumor suppressor and introduced this molecule as a potential good prognostic factor in different cancer types [73]. A recent study documented TRALI induction in a CD177 pre-immunized recipient after transfusion with packed red blood cells (PRBC) from CD177 positive donors, but not CD177 negative donors. In vitro analysis has documented the presence of soluble CD177/PR3 complex in plasma from CD177 donors that was significantly increased after PRBC filtration. The molecular mechanism regulating the secretion of CD177 in plasma is yet to be resolved. PECAM-1 on pre-activated endothelial cells absorbs soluble CD177/PR3 complex from plasma. Binding of CD177 isoantibodies to the absorbed CD177/PR3 complex on endothelial cells, induced endothelial barrier dysfunction implicated in the mechanism of anti-CD177 mediated reverse TRALI [74]. In severe cases of COVID-19 infections, progressive respiratory failure results from immunothrombosis that is driven by activated neutrophils and platelets. As an activation marker, CD177 molecules were upregulated in severe COVID-19 cases [75]. Further studies have documented a correlation between CD177 upregulation in the serum and disease severity and mortality in COVID-19 [76].
The presence of a stop codon on the CD177 gene is shown to prevent NB1 biosynthesis [77]. Based on this observation, the NB-negative individuals are called NBnull. This interpretation also suggests that there is no allele to NB1. In contrast to this conclusion, a NB1 positive mother was reported to have a child with ANN and have a neutrophil-specific antibody that reacted only with NB1-negative neutrophils. This antibody could be absorbed only by NB1-negative neutrophils and was called anti-NB2, an allele to NB1 [78]. In this case, the maternal neutrophils were also found to be 9a-negative, which suggested a possible relationship between NB2 and 9a, an antigen previously described by van Rood. Also, examination of data from testing neutrophils from 76 members of 11 families, tested with anti-9a and anti-NB2 showed identical results in 72 of 76 donors (these results were obtained during 1967 HL-A workshop experiments in Torino, Italy). Anti-NB2 antibodies were also reported to cause febrile transfusion reaction [79] and TRALI [80]. Future studies are needed to confirm that NB2, an allele to NB1, exists or if its identification has been the result of serological errors. If confirmed, NB2 would be a truncated NB1 molecule in NB-negative individuals who carry the c.787 stop codon, which causes the absence of amino acids responsible for CD177 expression (Table 2). Therefore, NB2 will be CD177-negative but not NBnull. It should also be recognized that individuals with SNP c.1291 G > A expression have soluble NB1 antigens present in their plasma and not on their neutrophils, and thus will be classified as NB1 negative, however, this individual would not necessarily be NB2 positive.
In 1964, Bernard Amos of Duke University was appointed by the National Research Council to organize an international research team to identify the antigens involved in organ transplantation. Over a few years, different antigens were identified and were named ‘HL-A’ [81, 82], in which ‘H’ and ‘L’ were the terms used by different investigators for the antigens they had discovered, and ‘A’ was for the first locus identified. It was later recognized that the system was too complicated, and HL-A was changed to HLA to make place for other antigens and loci. Therefore, the HLA is not “Human Leukocytes Antigens” nor is “Human lymphocyte Antigens,” as used by the current literature. The HLA antigens are widely distributed in various tissues and not leukocyte-specific. It should also be noted that these antigens have their biological functions. and are not designed for organ transplantation that is a medical procedure. The term “HNA,” proposed to be used for neutrophil-specific antigens, is a misinterpreted copy of HLA nomenclature and creates confusing issues: In the HNA nomenclature, the letter ‘H’ for human is wrong because these antigens are not specific for humans, and are present in various other animals, ‘N’ for neutrophil is wrong, because none of the antigens, HNA3, HNA4 nor HNA5, described in NHA systems are neutrophil-specific or cause ANN, AINI or neutropenia.
Many techniques are used for investigating neutrophils antigens [83, 84]. However, leukoagglutination is one of the most essential laboratory tests for neutrophil antibody detection. Unfortunately, some facilities avoid neutrophil agglutination testing because of the lack of reproducibility due to the use of inappropriate technology. The mechanism of neutrophil agglutination was investigated by time-lapse cinematography [85] and showed that after the addition of antibodies to neutrophil suspensions, a period of 5–10 minutes incubation at 37°C was required to activate the neutrophils. After this silent period, neutrophils develop many pseudopods and begin to move toward each other (agglutinate). This suggests that neutrophil agglutination is a chemotactic response and requires a biological environment. Damage to neutrophils during isolation, storage, presence of contamination, and centrifugation cause non-specific clumping. Another technical difficulty is the mixed agglutination that occurs when there are red cells (or red cell ghosts) in the cell preparation and red cell antibodies present. This red cell incompatibility, in the presence of complement, causes neutrophil stimulation to phagocytize the red cells, and or red cell ghosts, and form massive neutrophil aggregates. EDTA In the medium can prevent this process. Maintaining a highly viable environment for neutrophils is essential for the neutrophil agglutination test.
Neutrophil-Specific antigens are biological structures on blood neutrophils, the most frequent nucleated cells in blood circulation. Fetal-maternal incompatibility on these antigens causes neonatal neutropenia, and their autoimmunity results in neutropenia in children and adults. Also, the presence of antibodies against these antigens causes serious complications in blood transfusions, and incompatibility in bone marrow transplantation can cause graft rejection. Beyond antigenicity and immunological effects, these molecules have major roles on neutrophil functions: NA antigens connect neutrophils to antibodies to perform their phagocytic and other defense functions. The NB antigen interacts with Proteinase 3, Platelet-Endothelial Cell Adhesive Molecule 1 and other molecules to perform various neutrophil functions, including protein digestion and penetration across endothelial cells. This may be part of the mechanism of the development of serious lung injuries associated with COVID-19 infection and transfusion-related acute lung injury. It is also recognized that NB antigen expression is increased in Polycythemia Vera and in several cancer tissues. More investigation is needed to understand the significance of the appearance of NB on neoplastic tissues. This information would contribute to the understanding of the development of malignancies, their progression, and lead to the development of new approaches for their treatment.
The authors are grateful to Mr. Jeffrey Rothschild for his support of the Neurological Surgery Research Laboratory at Montefiore Medical Center. The authors also thank Shirin Lalezari and Rukmani Lekhraj for their assistance in preparation of this manuscript.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
IntechOpen publishes different types of publications
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Africa",slug:"reappraising-urban-planning-and-urban-sustainability-in-east-africa",totalDownloads:5291,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"905",slug:"urban-development",title:"Urban Development",fullTitle:"Urban Development"},signatures:"Shuaib Lwasa and Cecilia Kinuthia-Njenga",authors:[{id:"103098",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuaib",middleName:null,surname:"Lwasa",slug:"shuaib-lwasa",fullName:"Shuaib Lwasa"},{id:"115349",title:"MSc.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Kinuthia-Njenga",slug:"cecilia-kinuthia-njenga",fullName:"Cecilia Kinuthia-Njenga"}]},{id:"34611",doi:"10.5772/38884",title:"The Evolution and Spatial Dynamics of Coastal Cities in Greece",slug:"the-evolution-and-spatial-dynamics-of-coastal-cities-in-greece",totalDownloads:1928,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"905",slug:"urban-development",title:"Urban Development",fullTitle:"Urban Development"},signatures:"Serafeim Polyzos and Dimitrios Tsiotas",authors:[{id:"106057",title:"Dr.",name:"Serafeim",middleName:null,surname:"Polyzos",slug:"serafeim-polyzos",fullName:"Serafeim Polyzos"}]},{id:"68541",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88449",title:"Environmental Noise Mapping as a Smart Urban Tool Development",slug:"environmental-noise-mapping-as-a-smart-urban-tool-development",totalDownloads:995,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Since the European Directive 2002/49, large transportation infrastructure along with large urban areas should have completed strategic noise maps (SNM) and the relative noise action plans (NAP). The majority of European Member States (MS) has enforced this directive and completed fully or, in some cases, partially, with European smart cities to use and share the same criteria and methodologies and along with transport operators to communicate to the public the relevant results and respective action plans by ensuring the citizen’s awareness about the environmental noise, the quality acoustic environment, and their effect to their professional and everyday lifestyle. Today, 18 years after its first edition, the European Directive 2002/49/EC is needed to be reformulated to take into account all defects that have been identified and to adapt as well as possible to contemporary constraints. New methodology tools have been developed especially regarding soundscaping and environmental acoustic rehabilitation of urban areas, and the respective chapter will describe the progress being made on these smart developments of cities and infrastructures. This chapter will also evoke criticisms of these smart tools and will present results from several—state of the art—case studies especially regarding the practical and theoretical limits they face.",book:{id:"7624",slug:"smart-urban-development",title:"Smart Urban Development",fullTitle:"Smart Urban Development"},signatures:"Konstantinos Vogiatzis and Nicolas Remy",authors:null},{id:"63405",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80810",title:"Restructuring Gauteng City Region in South Africa: Is a Transportation Solution the Answer?",slug:"restructuring-gauteng-city-region-in-south-africa-is-a-transportation-solution-the-answer-",totalDownloads:1850,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The Gauteng city region forms the economic hub of socio-economic development and growth in South Africa. The province itself includes the Johannesburg metropolitan city, Ekurhuleni metropolitan city as well as Tshwane municipality—key urban growth regions of Gauteng province, South Africa, and by extension Southern Africa. The region exhibits the rapid urbanisation challenges typical in any developing country city. Rural–urban migration, pressure on infrastructure demand, supply and capacity constraints and mismatches in urban governance structures with respect to service delivery have remained stubborn challenges. Initiatives and strategies to resolve urban traffic congestion such as through road construction and highway expansion (physical instrument), e-tolling of roads (financial instrument), innovative housing and waste management technology deployment (technology instruments) as well as presenting advanced spatial planning and development and management systems (planning and regulatory instruments) have been employed with mixed fortunes in attempts to (re)solve the urban problems in the study area. Making use of a thematic approach and technique, the major urbanisation issues are explored and solutions proffered. Recommendations revolve around the need to implement robust and progressive rafts of projects, programmes, activities, measures and actions to reverse spatial fragmentation and spatially inefficient transport induced and perpetuated disadvantages.",book:{id:"7470",slug:"an-overview-of-urban-and-regional-planning",title:"An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning",fullTitle:"An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning"},signatures:"James Chakwizira, Peter Bikam and Thompson A. 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A smart city is one of the burning topics of research. Although there is no particular definition of a smart city, it means smart grid, e-health, e-environmental monitoring, smart home, smart water quality, smart air quality, etc. integrated into a single application. Human civilization can’t be sustained and prosper with shortage of usable water. Hence, water has a vital share in human life even for those living in smart cities. This chapter describes about the smart water quality issues in a smart city and some of the research advances in handling those issues. Among them it investigates the rainwater harvesting technologies and some of their practical applications.",book:{id:"7624",slug:"smart-urban-development",title:"Smart Urban Development",fullTitle:"Smart Urban Development"},signatures:"Raseswari Pradhan and Jayaprakash Sahoo",authors:null},{id:"62066",title:"Urban Planning and Mega-Event Projects: Lessons from Expo 2010, Shanghai",slug:"urban-planning-and-mega-event-projects-lessons-from-expo-2010-shanghai",totalDownloads:1327,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"With the capitalist transformation from Fordist-Keynesianism to neoliberalism, mega-events such as Olympic Games and World Exposition have increasingly been incorporated into urban development plan to boost urban renewal. Seeking the role of mega-event in urban transformation and its related effects have practical significance as mega-event movements have become a worldwide phenomenon. Although the profile of world fairs is reduced and does not have the international impacts that they used to have, Shanghai Expo 2010, the first Expo ever held in a developing country is pinned hope on as the “Turn to Save the World Expo” and is unusually ambitious to bring opportunities in urban transformation. While much attention has been paid to how mega-events can be used in tourism development in previous literature, this research links mega-event to urban development. Specifically, it reviews planning history before Expo 2010, addresses how a mega-event is integrated into city’s overall transformation strategy and what possible challenges a mega-event strategy may encounter related to the ultimate goal of urban transformation. It finds that political added value of mega-events empowers Shanghai to advance its urban agenda and the role of urban planner is vital to deliver a sustainable mega-event.",book:{id:"7470",slug:"an-overview-of-urban-and-regional-planning",title:"An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning",fullTitle:"An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning"},signatures:"Lingyue Li",authors:[{id:"247599",title:"Dr.",name:"Xx",middleName:null,surname:"Xx",slug:"xx-xx",fullName:"Xx Xx"}]},{id:"67808",title:"Understanding Urban Mobility and Pedestrian Movement",slug:"understanding-urban-mobility-and-pedestrian-movement",totalDownloads:1358,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Urban environments continue to expand and mutate, both in terms of size of urban area and number of people commuting daily as well as the number of options for personal mobility. City layouts and infrastructure also change constantly, subject to both short-term and long-term imperatives. Transportation networks have attracted particular attention in recent years, due to efforts to incorporate “green” options, enabling positive lifestyle choices such as walking or cycling commutes. In this chapter we explore the pedestrian viewpoint, aids to familiarity with and ease of navigation in the urban environment, and the impact of novel modes of individual transport (as options such as smart urban bicycles and electric scooters increasingly become the norm). We discuss principal factors influencing rapid transit to daily and leisure destinations, such as schools, offices, parks, and entertainment venues, but also those which facilitate rapid evacuation and movement of large crowds from these locations, characterized by high occupation density or throughput. The focus of the chapter is on understanding and representing pedestrian behavior through the agent-based modeling paradigm, allowing both large numbers of individual actions with active awareness of the environment to be simulated and pedestrian group movements to be modeled on real urban networks, together with congestion and evacuation pattern visualization.",book:{id:"7624",slug:"smart-urban-development",title:"Smart Urban Development",fullTitle:"Smart Urban Development"},signatures:"Marija Bezbradica and Heather J. Ruskin",authors:null},{id:"63405",title:"Restructuring Gauteng City Region in South Africa: Is a Transportation Solution the Answer?",slug:"restructuring-gauteng-city-region-in-south-africa-is-a-transportation-solution-the-answer-",totalDownloads:1855,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The Gauteng city region forms the economic hub of socio-economic development and growth in South Africa. The province itself includes the Johannesburg metropolitan city, Ekurhuleni metropolitan city as well as Tshwane municipality—key urban growth regions of Gauteng province, South Africa, and by extension Southern Africa. The region exhibits the rapid urbanisation challenges typical in any developing country city. Rural–urban migration, pressure on infrastructure demand, supply and capacity constraints and mismatches in urban governance structures with respect to service delivery have remained stubborn challenges. Initiatives and strategies to resolve urban traffic congestion such as through road construction and highway expansion (physical instrument), e-tolling of roads (financial instrument), innovative housing and waste management technology deployment (technology instruments) as well as presenting advanced spatial planning and development and management systems (planning and regulatory instruments) have been employed with mixed fortunes in attempts to (re)solve the urban problems in the study area. Making use of a thematic approach and technique, the major urbanisation issues are explored and solutions proffered. Recommendations revolve around the need to implement robust and progressive rafts of projects, programmes, activities, measures and actions to reverse spatial fragmentation and spatially inefficient transport induced and perpetuated disadvantages.",book:{id:"7470",slug:"an-overview-of-urban-and-regional-planning",title:"An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning",fullTitle:"An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning"},signatures:"James Chakwizira, Peter Bikam and Thompson A. 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To this end, a random sample of individuals from both areas was asked to fill out a questionnaire. Sound pressure levels were also measured in each of the evaluated areas. The World Health Organization (WHO) considers a quiet area as one in which the measured sound pressure level is up to 55 dB(A). The average measured sound pressure levels were 53.5 and 72.9 dB(A), respectively, in the quiet area and in the area considered acoustically polluted. Data were subjected to a multivariate factor analysis. The main complaints reported by the interviewees were as follows: headache, irritability, poor concentration and insomnia. 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He obtained a Master’s degree in Public Health and PhD in Public Health and Epidemiology. He has a background in Clinical Medicine and has taken courses at higher diploma levels in public health from University of Transkei, Republic of South Africa, and African Medical and Research Foundation (AMREF) in Nairobi, Kenya. Dr. Kasenga worked in different places in and outside Malawi, and has held various positions, such as Licensed Medical Officer, HIV/AIDS Programme Officer, HIV/AIDS resource person in the International Department of Diakonhjemet College, Oslo, Norway. He also managed an Integrated HIV/AIDS Prevention programme for over 5 years. He is currently working as a Director for the Health Ministries Department of Malawi Union of the Seventh Day Adventist Church. Dr. Kasenga has published over 5 articles on HIV/AIDS issues focusing on Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission of HIV (PMTCT), including a book chapter on HIV testing counseling (currently in press). 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His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. 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At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. 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Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment"},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 15th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRqB9QAK/Profile_Picture_1626163237970",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/19903",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"19903"},fullPath:"/chapters/19903",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()