Classification and the criteria of ototoxic substances based on occupational exposure limits.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9225",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Cloud Computing Security - Concepts and Practice",title:"Cloud Computing Security",subtitle:"Concepts and Practice",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Cloud computing is an emerging discipline that is changing the way corporate computing is and will be done in the future. Cloud computing is demonstrating its potential to transform the way IT-based services are delivered to organisations. There is little, if any, argument about the clear advantages of the cloud and its adoption can and will create substantial business benefits through reduced capital expenditure and increased business agility. However, there is one overwhelming question that is still hindering the adaption of the cloud: Is cloud computing secure? The most simple answer could be ‘Yes’, if one approaches the cloud in the right way with the correct checks and balances to ensure all necessary security and risk management measures are covered as the consequences of getting your cloud security strategy wrong could be more serious and may severely damage the reputation of organisations.",isbn:"978-1-83880-703-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-702-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-704-7",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83221",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"cloud-computing-security-concepts-and-practice",numberOfPages:128,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"28c0cf981369da03dea5b1fbf5b14677",bookSignature:"Dinesh G. Harkut",publishedDate:"September 16th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9225.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4070,numberOfWosCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:4,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 13th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 24th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 23rd 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 12th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 11th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"216122",title:"Dr.",name:"Dinesh G.",middleName:null,surname:"Harkut",slug:"dinesh-g.-harkut",fullName:"Dinesh G. Harkut",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/216122/images/system/216122.png",biography:"Dr. Dinesh G. Harkut is Associate Professor at Prof Ram Meghe College of Engineering & Management (PRMCEAM), Badnera, India, in the Computer Science and Engineering Department. He obtained a bachelor’s degree, a master’s of engineering (CSE), and a PhD (CSE) from SGBAU Amravati University, Maharashtra, India. He also holds a master’s degree and PhD in Business Administration.\nHis primary research interests are in artificial intelligence, big data, analytics, embedded systems, and e-commerce. He has supervised eighteen master’s degree and twenty-four bachelor’s degree students. He has published forty-seven papers in refereed journals and published six books with international publishers. He has also organized various workshops, sessions, conferences, and trainings. He has two patents filed and published in his name in India. \nHe is a member of the Board of Studies (Computer Science and Engineering) and a recognized PhD supervisor at SGBAU Amravati University, Maharashtra, India. He holds membership in various professional bodies including the Institution of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineers (IETE), New Delhi; International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE), New Delhi; Universal Association of Computer and Electronics Engineers (UACEE), USA; International Economics Development and Research Center (IEDRC), Hong Kong; International Association of Engineers (IAENG), Hong Kong; and the European Alliance for Innovation, Belgium.",institutionString:"Prof Ram Mehge College of Engineering and Management",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"Sant Gadge Baba Amravati University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"585",title:"Cloud Computing",slug:"cloud-computing"}],chapters:[{id:"72183",title:"Introductory Chapter: Cloud Computing Security Challenges",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92544",slug:"introductory-chapter-cloud-computing-security-challenges",totalDownloads:964,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Dinesh G. 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This chapter endorses the best practices in successfully deploying a secure private cloud infrastructure with security measures and mitigation and proposed a unique three-tier infrastructure design to mitigate distributed denial of service attacks on cloud infrastructures.",signatures:"Akashdeep Bhardwaj and Sam Goundar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72870",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72870",authors:[{id:"280395",title:"Dr.",name:"Sam",surname:"Goundar",slug:"sam-goundar",fullName:"Sam Goundar"},{id:"305726",title:"Dr.",name:"Akashdeep",surname:"Bhardwaj",slug:"akashdeep-bhardwaj",fullName:"Akashdeep Bhardwaj"}],corrections:null},{id:"71961",title:"A General Systems Approach to Cloud Computing Security Issues",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92143",slug:"a-general-systems-approach-to-cloud-computing-security-issues",totalDownloads:577,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"An intensive stream of messages about the problem of cloud computing security and a significant number of proposals to mitigate and prevent violation of data privacy and the integrity of the cloud computing environment indicate the relevance and significance of the problem. To bring everything into a certain system is the task of this chapter. We use different methodological approaches in order to find such an integrated solution to the combination of these approaches that, on a unified methodological basis, would allow us to look at the whole range of widening issues of ensuring security and the organization of thinking and activity in the near future. This approach allows us to identify additional problems in this area and outline a program for their development. We try to build a system of methodological design and research over the many private methodologies that authors of articles usually use, relying on the experience of generalizing and concretizing system approaches, and, in particular, expanding geographical and historical boundaries, including system generalizations of intercultural studies and philosophical movements. An attempt is made to disassemble the security problem of cloud computing into a certain number of layers, processes, and technologies of thinking, and to reconnect them into a single whole with the character of thinking and activity.",signatures:"Svetlana Aristova, Yousef Ibrahim Daradkeh and Petr Korolev",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71961",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71961",authors:[{id:"312277",title:"Dr.",name:"Yousef",surname:"Daradkeh",slug:"yousef-daradkeh",fullName:"Yousef Daradkeh"},{id:"312658",title:"Prof.",name:"Petr",surname:"M. Korolev",slug:"petr-m.-korolev",fullName:"Petr M. Korolev"}],corrections:null},{id:"72547",title:"Security at the Edge",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92788",slug:"security-at-the-edge",totalDownloads:510,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The Internet has become an essential part of daily life for almost everyone in society having grown far beyond its roots in the 1970s as the ARPANET, a network that was principally the domain of scientists and engineers. The popularity of the HTTP, developed at CERN in the late 1980s led to the widespread use of the term ‘the web’ as a generic name for the Internet for many years, at least in the public domain. Of course, the Internet is much more than just web browsing and, in recent years, the term cyberspace has become the most popular term to describe interactions over the Internet. Yet, an unambiguous definition of the term is difficult to formulate . Financial institutions underpinning the economy and the operation of national critical infrastructures, such as monitoring and control of the electricity supply, are now dependent on the Internet. A consequence of this is that cyberattacks become more costly for the victims and perversely more attractive to the criminals who carry them out . The advent of the Internet of Things (IoT) and edge computing as a new paradigm creates the potential for enhanced productivity but at the same time opens up new opportunities for cyberattacks while still being exposed to existing attach vectors such as the well-known denial of service attack (DDoS), which can take place in many forms . In this chapter, we described the challenges in building an edge system that is secure against cyberattack. We begin by briefly reviewing the architecture of communications over the Internet and later consider the new challenges that follow from operating the hardware with values of voltage, frequency and current that enable more energy efficiency.",signatures:"Charles J. 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Existing approaches for securing the deployment of cloud-hosted services to serve multiple users have paid little attention to evaluating the effect of the varying degrees of multitenancy isolation on the security and access privilege of tenants (or components). In addition, approaches for securing the isolation of tenants (or components) are usually implemented at lower layers of the cloud stack and often apply to the entire system and not to individual tenants (or components). This study presents CLAMP (Cloud-based architectural approach for securing services through Multitenancy deployment Patterns) to securing the deployment of cloud-hosted services in a way that guarantees the required degree of isolation between the tenants. We evaluated the framework by applying it to a motivating cloud deployment problem. The findings show among other things that the framework can be used to select suitable deployment patterns, evaluate the effect of varying degrees of isolation on the cloud-hosted service, analyse the deployment requirements of cloud-hosted services and optimise the deployment of the cloud-hosted service to guarantee multitenancy isolation.",signatures:"Laud Charles Ochei",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72528",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72528",authors:[{id:"307473",title:"Dr.",name:"Laud",surname:"Ochei",slug:"laud-ochei",fullName:"Laud Ochei"}],corrections:null},{id:"72215",title:"Semantic Web and Interactive Knowledge Graphs as an Educational Technology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92433",slug:"semantic-web-and-interactive-knowledge-graphs-as-an-educational-technology",totalDownloads:745,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Technologies of knowledge representation, inductive reasoning, and semantic annotation methods are considered in relation to knowledge graphs that are focused on the domain of nuclear physics and nuclear power engineering. Interactive visual navigation and inductive reasoning in knowledge graphs are performed using special search widgets and an intelligent RDF browser. As a toolkit for ontologies refinement and enrichment, a software agent for the context-sensitive searching for new knowledge in the WWW is presented. In order to evaluate the measure of compliance of the found content with respect to a specific domain, the binary Pareto relation and Levenshtein metrics are used. The proposed semantic annotation methods allow the knowledge engineer to calculate the measure of the proximity of an arbitrary network resource in relation to classes and objects of specific knowledge graphs. Operations with remote semantic repositories are implemented on cloud platforms using SPARQL queries and RESTful services. The proposed software solutions are based on cloud computing using DBaaS and PaaS service models to ensure scalability of data warehouses and network services. 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Ashraf",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8268.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"199287",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghulam Md",middleName:null,surname:"Ashraf",slug:"ghulam-md-ashraf",fullName:"Ghulam Md Ashraf"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11814",leadTitle:null,title:"Liposomes - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"\r\n\tLiposome, a versatile lipid vesicle, is licensed to use for effective delivery of drugs, candidate vaccines, and nucleic acids. Also, drug-loaded ligand anchored liposomes are used to induce selective apoptosis in cells of monocyte and macrophage lineage. Therefore this book aims to cover all spheres of drug and antigen delivery for developing therapeutic interventions and vaccines against infectious diseases and beyond.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will shed light on various methods for the preparation and characterization of liposomes and their engineered versions. Technological advancements have enabled us to develop newer methods of formulating liposomes. Over time, liposomes have been modified to a larger extent and engineered to meet our growing needs for sustained and controlled delivery for developing therapeutic interventions vaccines. Further, this book will throw light on the various methods of preparation and characterization of liposomes, and discuss several biochemical and indirect methods to understand the biological and physicochemical mechanisms of action of liposomes that decide their efficiency in vivo.
\r\n\tDespite their limitations such as encapsulation efficiency, liposomes are a well-established choice for a number of unconventional and conventional biological applications. The versatility of these lipid-based vesicles presents the importance of these nanoparticles in the future applications of nanotechnology besides targeted drug delivery. Overall, this book provides the necessary and relevant information about various aspects of liposomes and their use in nanomedicine.
\r\n\t
Occupational noise exposure is very common around the world. Up to 25% of workers are exposed to workplace noise above 85 dB(A) (weighted decibel relative to human ear) [1]. Noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) is the second most common cause of hearing loss after age-related hearing loss (ARHL) and 16% of adult hearing loss is estimated to be caused by workplace noise [2]. In addition, one-third of workers exposed to noise showed audiometric evidence of NIHL, with 16% experiencing material hearing loss [3, 4].
The prevalence of NIHL is increasing worldwide. Prevalence in Korea is also increasing, especially over the past 20 years. Cases of accepted compensation for NIHL are more rapidly rising from 2016 than the cases for audiometric diagnosis (Figure 1).
Prevalence of noise-induced hearing loss (D1) and compensated cases in Korea by year (1991 to 2018). Prevalence of noise-induced hearing loss (D1) (in blue bars) and cases for compensation (in red line) have increased from 1991 to 2018. Diagnostic criteria of NIHL in Korea requires hearing loss more than 30 dB on average threshold across 0.5 kHz, 1 kHz, and 2 kHz and more than 50 dB at 4 kHz. If the average threshold exceeds 40 dB, decision for compensation could be made. The compensated cases for NIHL were increasing more sharply since 2016, whereas the diagnosed cases were increasing more steadily.
Hearing loss is associated with cognitive decline and depression, and now accepted as a risk factor for dementia [5]. Noise from by daily life (subways, electric tools) or hobby (music concerts, sports viewing, hunting, etc.) can also contribute to hearing loss.
There are jobs where hearing is very important due to the nature of work itself or safety concerns. Hearing loss reduces speech recognition ability in the noisy environment and hearing protection devices (HPDs) also hampers speech recognition in noise. When hearing impaired workers wear a HDPs, their difficulty increases in hearing warning signals. There was association between the severity of hearing loss and the risk of work-related injury requiring hospitalization [6]. Even in the workplace where hearing is less important, hearing loss is a major cause of stress-related sick leave [7]. Economic impact of NIHL on social burden includes lost productivity, absenteeism, reduced income and tax revenues, welfare payment and compensation, special education, vocational rehabilitation programs, and health care [8].
The purpose of this review is to have a comprehensive overview of NIHL including pathophysiology, diagnosis, prevention, and to understand the recently emerging topics on noise-induced cochlear synaptopathy.
Noise-induced hearing loss is a complex disease caused by the interaction of genetic and environmental factors. It is usually caused by chronic loud noise exposure but also could be caused by transient or repetitive acoustic trauma of very high intensity, resulting in greater damage [9]. The total energy level of noise causing NIHL is determined by the intensity of the noise and the total exposure time. The noise at the same total energy level will cause the same amount of cochlear damage [10].
The inner ear damage caused by noise is divided into temporary threshold shift (TTS) and permanent threshold shift (PTS) depending on the duration of the hearing loss. Hearing loss recovers within 24–48 hours in TTS, while it is irreversible in PTS. Mechanisms of TTS and PTS are considered to be different. Animal study showed that TTS in early life can accelerates age-related hearing loss (ARHL) [11]. However, long-term impact of TTS in human ear is lacking. Pathology of noise induced damage is the loss of outer hair cells leading to threshold elevations and poorer frequency discrimination. Main threshold shift occurs at an half octave higher than the frequency of loud noise, with the largest damage at 4 kHz and the smallest at 0.5 kHz [12]. Susceptibility around 4 kHz is associated with the mechanical properties of the middle ear and resonance frequency of external auditory canal [13].
Mechanism of cochlear pathology can be categorized into mechanical and metabolic [12]. Metabolic damage is a major mechanism of NIHL from chronic exposure to noise. Characteristic finding is loss of hair cells as a result of increased free radicals such as reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species within cochlear hair cells [14]. Damage starts in outer hair cells in row 2 and 3 of most vulnerable area to noise, possibly as a result of necrosis [15]. Noise releases ROS from mitochondria into cytoplasm of hair cells via release of Ca2+. Cytoplasmic ROS leads to production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and pro-apoptotic factors, finally to apoptosis of hair cells. Free radicals can persist for 7–10 days after cessation of noise exposure, which could induce progressive cochlear damage [16]. Noise-induced ischemia and reperfusion also increase the generation of ROS [14]. Lipid peroxidation induced by ROS acts as a toxic substance, causing apoptosis [15].
When the noise is extremely loud over 130 dB SPL, mechanical damage could occur via excessive vibrations of the delicate cochlear structures. Breaking or fusion of stererocilia of hair cells are most specific morphopathology. Noise could damage other cochlear structures; damage to cochlear vasculature, loss of fibrocytes, rupture of attachments of stereocilia tips to the tectorial membrane, distension or rupture of tip links, damage to pillar cells, and rupture of dendrites [14]. Noise could crumple pillar cell, decreasing length of the OHC, and detaching stereocilia from tectorial membrane in reversible way, which is understood as a mechanism of TTS [17].
Recent hot topic on noise-induced damage on auditory system is cochlear synaptopathy. Until recently, noise that does not cause threshold shift was considered safe. However, recent animal experiments have shown that noise exposure that does not cause hair cell loss may damage ribbon synapse between inner hair cell and spiral ganglion neuron [11]. Cochlear inner hair cells (IHCs) are important as mechano-electrical transducer of auditory information. Receptor potential generated by IHCs releases the neurotransmitter at the synaptic end, while outer hair cells work as cochlear amplifier via process of electromotility which increases the vibration of basilar membrane. Synaptic ribbon is specialized electron-dense structure, which is anchored to pre-synaptic membrane only nanometers apart. It contains large pool of “readily releasable” vesicles to finely vary synaptic output continuously in sensory organ of hearing and vision [18]. Thus, damage of ribbon synapse between IHCs and spiral neurons results in improper conveyance of neural information to auditory nerve fiber. Noise causes damage of presynaptic ribbons and postsynaptic nerve terminals showing various degree of swelling. The mechanism of damage for postsynaptic terminal is glutamate-mediated excitotoxicity, while mechanism of ribbon loss is unclear [19]. In cochlear synaptopathy, hearing threshold is normal because OHC is undamaged, but the amplitude of auditory nerve activity decreases as a result of silenced auditory nerve fibers [20].
Auditory nerve fibers (ANFs) could be functionally categorized by their spontaneous rate (SR). High-SR ANFs respond to sound at threshold level, whereas low-SR ANFs react to loud sound, follow rapid amplitude changes of acoustic signal, and are considered to have an important role in the hearing in noisy environment due to their larger dynamic range. Low-SR ANF appears to be damaged selectively after noise exposure [20]. Because it causes functional hearing loss without threshold change, it is also called “noise-induced hidden hearing loss”. Cochlear synaptopathy could be permanent and lead to a degenerative death of the spiral ganglion neuron [21]. The results of human studies on cochlear synaptopathy are controversial. If the cochlear synaptopathy is confirmed in human subjects, the conventional belief that noise would be safe if it does not cause a threshold shift should be changed [19].
Severity of cochlear damage after noise exposure varies among individuals. Genetic factors would account for the different susceptibility up to 50% [22]. In animal study, genetic deficits leading to ARHL predispose the inner ear to NIHL [23]. Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) is the most common site of genomic mutations. It is estimated that the SNP of K+ recycling gene and heat shock protein (HSP) gene in the inner ear is associated with the sensitivity of NIHL [24, 25].
ISO 1999:2013 model assesses the risk of NIHL with age, gender in addition to intensity of exposed noise and exposure time in years [26]. The prevalence of NIHL is higher in male than in female and racial difference exists with lower prevalence in darker pigmentation [27]. Increasing age, smoking, poor diet, lack of exercise, comorbidity such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease may increase risk of NIHL [28]. Sufficient nutrition helps to preserve high frequency hearing [29].
The prevalence of hearing loss among noise-exposed workers is various across industries and occupations. Noise exposure is common in industries of mining, construction, manufacturing, forestry, utilities, repair and maintenance, and transportation sectors [2]. Sixty-one percent of the mining workers, 51% of the construction workers, and 47% of the manufacturing workers are exposed to noise [1]. Among workers of the above industry sectors, 20 ~ 25% have a material hearing impairment [30]. In Korea, NIHL was most common in the workers of manufacturing sector, followed by construction sector (Figure 2).
Prevalence of noise-induced hearing loss (D1) according to Korean standard industrial classification. A total of 12,822 cases were diagnosed as NIHL in 2018 in Korea. Among them, NIHL was most commonly reported in manufacturing sector with 9,455 cases, followed by construction, mining, transportation, and business facility management and business support services sectors.
Audiometric evidence of NIHL is characteristic notch or bulge between 3 kHz and 6 kHz, mostly worst at 4 kHz, with preserved hearing at 8 kHz and lower frequencies [31]. Notch deepens and widens with continued noise exposure, eventually involving lower frequencies. Hearing aggravates in the first 10–15 years of noise exposure, and then process slows down [17]. The maximum hearing loss from NIHL has been accepted not to exceed 75 dB at higher frequencies and 40 dB at lower frequencies [32]. However, it could reach 80 dB or worse in 2.6% of construction industry engineers [33]. Notch could be observed in 19.9% of persons without history of loud noise exposure, so audiometric notch does not necessarily mean NIHL [3].
Unlike NIHL, the ARHL accelerates over time. Hearing loss in ARHL starts at 8 kHz or higher frequencies and expands to lower frequencies. When NIHL and ARHL coexist, the notch widens and looks like a bulge [34]. As the combined ARHL progresses with advanced age, noise notch may be rarely observed [35]. Sometimes medicolegal opinion is sought about which factor contributes more on the etiology of hearing loss between noise and age. It is impossible to distinguish the allocation of each factor in aged persons.
Hearing in noise may be compromised probably due to cochlear synaptopathy. To quantify damage from noise exposure, speech recognition in quiet and noise is also recommended [21]. Otoacoustic emission (OAE) can be used as an earlier test before PTA deficit is evident [36]. But recent studies showed that OAE was not more sensitive than PTA in assessing hearing loss caused by long-term exposure to noise [37]. Possibility of middle ear acoustic reflex as a diagnosis of cochlear synaptopathy was also suggested [38].
Noise-induced hearing loss is typically bilateral because noise affects both ears symmetrically. However, it could be asymmetric. Prevalence of asymmetric hearing gap larger than 15 dB in general population is 1% while those of NIHL were reported as 4.7–36% [35]. Left ear was more affected, especially in male [39, 40]. Lateral difference was most prominent in 3–6 kHz [41]. The firefighters and public safety workers may no longer be able to carry their duties because asymmetric hearing disturbs to distinguish sound direction and causes work-related risk [42].
There are two theories about mechanism of lateral asymmetry. One is head shadowing effect that makes noise level affecting each ear unequal [43]. Another is that left ear is more susceptible to noise damage for physiological reasons. It involves a less sensitive acoustic reflex in left side and a stronger protective auditory efferent system of the right olivocochlear bundle [44, 45].
MRI scan should be performed to rule out vestibular schwannoma in asymmetric hearing loss. Medicolegal decision of asymmetric NIHL is quite unconvincing. According to Robinson’s criteria, if there is no evidence of NIHL in the better ear, patients can be declined compensation [45]. Whereas, Fernandes et al. insisted that comment should be made on the causation as being noise-induced, if there is no other cause to explain the asymmetry [46].
The prevalence of tinnitus among noise-exposed workers is 24%, which is much higher than that of the general population [47]. Tinnitus is bilateral in majority of workers exposed to noise, however, some of them complains of unilateral symptom, more commonly in left ear [48]. Tinnitus degrades quality of life in workers and distracts military personnel during military operation [49]. Although association of noise and hyperacusis have rarely been studied, pop and rock musicians were at high risk for the development of hyperacusis [50].
Besides hearing loss, noise can induce vestibular dysfunction through the damage to sacculocolic reflex pathway or damage to vestibular hair cell [51, 52]. The relationship between NIHL and abnormal vestibular evoked myogenic potentials (VEMPs) was reported in human study [53]. Noise exposure reduced the stereocilia bundle density of the vestibular end organ and reduces the firing rate of the anterior semicircular canal (ASCC) without significant change of the vestibular-ocular reflex, suggesting possibility of “hidden vestibular loss” [52]. Abnormal electronystagmography (ENoG) was more common in the asymmetrical NIHL group than in symmetrical NIHL [54].
Noise regulation is the best option to prevent NIHL. Current noise regulations are based on the intensity of chronic continuous noise rather than impulsive acoustic trauma. Degree of exposure is calculated as registered in individual reporting or hearing protection programs [30]. Noise of intensity below 80 dB (A) (weighted decibel relative to human ear) reduces the risk of NIHL [55]. Daily permissible exposure limit (PEL) and exchange rate should be set to run hearing conservation program. Many countries legislate PEL at 85 dB(A) for an 8-hour workday. Some countries loosely permit up to 90 dB(A). Exchange rate defines the 3–5 dB increase in noise intensity with which exposure time should be halved to protect hearing. Exchange rate of 5 dB appears to be more accurate than 3 dB [56]. For example, 4 hours of exposure to 90 dB(A) is as hazardous as 8 hours of exposure to 85 dB(A). Number of workplaces of which noise exceeds PEL of 85 dB(A) for an 8-hour workday has been decreasing in Korea. It reduced from 20.2% of total workplaces in 2014 to 15.3% in 2018 (Figure 3). For impulse noise, 140 dB is generally set as the upper limit [57].
Korean workplaces of which noise exceeded permissible exposure limit (2014 to 2018). Percentage of Korean workplaces of which noise exceeded permissible exposure limit was 21% until 2010 but is gradually decreasing. In the second half of 2018, it was 15.3% showing the lowest rate for the past 5 years.
Hearing protection devices (HPDs), including earmuffs and earplug, are secondary level personal protection. Most workplace noise can be attenuated to a safe level by reducing noise by 5–10 dB, and this goal can be achieved when if HPDs are worn properly and continuously [30]. However, many workers do not wear HPDs for enough time and the effect is cut in half if workers remove HPDs for only 30 minutes of an 8-hour workday [58]. Therefore, it is efficient, when selecting HPDs, to focus on consistency of use than noise reduction rate of HPDs [59]. Individual fit-test system for earplugs is more feasible for field use and could effectively prevent hearing deterioration [60]. Earmuffs can reduce noise more consistently than earplug, and 3D print earmuffs made from light materials such as acrylonitrile butadiene styrene/clay nanocomposites was helpful in reducing weight of earmuffs and would probably increase comfort [61]. Hearing conservation program in elementary school are potentially effective way to know the risks of noise exposure early in life, leading to behavioral changes such as noise reduction and HPDs [62].
It is important to reduce the “know-do” gap between knowledge accumulated to prevent NIHL and actual implementation at workplace. This requires frequent communication meetings for noise control, assigning staff to provide daily program support, noise hazard identification, selection of HPDs, and providing inexpensive sound level meters or sound measuring apps [30].
We suggest that hearing conservation program should include administrative or engineering controls to reduce sound levels. Workplace noise should be monitored using either a wearable sound level meter or a dosimeter to determine if noise exposure level is at or above 85 dB(A). If the workplace noise exceeds an 85 dB(A) for an 8-hour workday, exposed employees should be enrolled in a hearing conservation program (HCP) and audiometric test should be conducted annually by audiologist to check if the standard threshold shift occurs. Employees enrolled in HCP should be offered HPDs and take mandatory training program annually about effects of noise on hearing, purpose and value of HPDs and hearing test. Managers or supervisors must attend training sessions and should keep the record of all hearing tests, noise surveys, and training records.
There is no practical medication to prevent NIHL from chronic noise exposure. Most drugs have been studied either on an experimental level or on an animal study basis.
The noise exposure increases the immune and inflammatory factors in the cochlea. Steroids are the only approved medicine in treating sudden hearing loss. Animal study showed that steroids before and after the exposure to acoustic trauma were effective through control of the inflammatory response [63, 64]. It is estimated that intratympanic steroid injection would be effective in protecting outer hair cell efferent terminal synapse, and intraperitoneal steroid injection would be effective in protecting organ of Corti and stria vascularis [65]. In human studies, combined systemic & intratympanic steroid administration was more effective than systemic steroid only [66]. Long-term administration of steroid is inadequate due to its possible side effects.
Free oxygen radicals and oxidant stress are important pathological mechanisms of NIHL. N-acetylcysteine (NAC) is an antioxidant and is known to reduce noise-induced ototoxicity in animal study. There was no significant differences of overall hearing loss in military population between NAC group and placebo group [67].
Neurotropin-3 (NT3) and Brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) are known to be important factors in the generation and maintenance of cochlear hair cell ribbon synapse [68, 69]. Animal study demonstrated a reduction in synaptopathy and a restoration of hearing immediately after strong noise exposure [70] but human data is lacking.
Noise-induced hearing loss is drawing more attention than ever before. Besides hearing loss, noise can also compromise the vestibular function. Recently, evidence on noise-induced cochlear synaptopathy is accumulating. Exposure to noise in short duration or less intense noise may result in functional hearing loss without threshold change on audiogram. So far, prevention is the best option, but we expect that continuous research on NIHL will open up the possibility for treating drug ototoxicity and ARHL as well.
Chemicals such as organic solvents, metals and asphyxiants are known for their neurotoxic effects on both the central and peripheral nervous systems. These agents could injure the sensory cells and peripheral nerve endings of the cochlea [71].
Over the past 3 decades, several studies investigated the relationship between occupational exposure to chemical substances and hearing loss for humans [72]. According to the score combining human and animal data, lead (and its inorganic salts) as an only inorganic substance and the organic chemicals including toluene, styrene, and trichloroethylene were ranked as “ototoxic”. Other candidate substances classified as “possibly ototoxic” are nitriles (acrylonitrile, 3-butenenitrile), carbohydrates (n-hexane, p-xylene, and ethylbenzene), hydrogen cyanide, carbon monoxide, carbon disulfide, and mercury, germanium, and tin. Recently, a classification criteria on ototoxic substances was delivered by the Nordic Expert Group (NEG). The NEG chose a quantitative approach, meticulously comparing the “no observed” or “lowest observed” effect levels with occupational exposure limits from various countries. This information can be useful for the management of toxic substances and prevention of hearing loss (Table 1) [73].
Classification | Criteria | Ototoxic substances |
---|---|---|
Category 1 | Human data indicate auditory effects below or near the existing OELs. There are also robust animal data supporting an effect on hearing resulting from exposure | toluene, styrene, carbon monoxide, carbon disulfide, lead and mercury |
Category 2 | Human data are lacking, whereas animal data indicate an auditory effect below or near the existing OELs. | p-xylene, ethylbenzene, and hydrogen cyanide |
Category 3 | Human data are poor or lacking. Animal data indicate an auditory effect well above the existing OELs. | Other substance |
Classification and the criteria of ototoxic substances based on occupational exposure limits.
OEL: occupational exposure limits.
Until now, regarding regulatory problem, the interaction with noise has not been investigated in a satisfactory way. Although it is very difficult to combine all of the data to arrive at solid conclusions, this does not exclude the possibility of other chemical substances can worsen hearing losses due to noise.
In workplace, one of the most common kinds of exposure is solvents mixture. The most prevalent exposures seem to happen in industries where workers have contacts with paints, thinners, lacquers and printing inks [74]. In Korea, organic solvents have the second highest excess rate among harmful factors in workplaces. The exceeded rate of the occupational exposure limit maintained a similar level of 0.4 to 0.7% for the last five years from 2014 to 2018 (Figure 4). Although the ototoxic effects of organic solvents have been widely studied, there is no consensus about the correlation between the solvents exposure level and the resultant hearing loss.
Korean workplaces of which organic solvents exceeded permissible exposure limit (2014 to 2018).
In occupational condition, the ototoxicity of organic solvents is more difficult to prove. Because the workplace concentration of chemicals is much lower than that used in animal studies, and the workers are usually exposed to a mixture of solvents with widely varying compositions and concentrations, it is difficult to assess the effect of a single substance. Furthermore, in industrial settings, exposure to chemicals often coexists with an elevated level of noise, which makes it difficult to distinguish the solvent effect from the noise-induced hearing loss [22].
Recently, Hormozi et al. reported dose–response relationship between organic solvents mixture exposure and risk of hearing loss from a meta-analysis [72]. The results showed a statistically significant dose–response relationship between the occupational exposure level (Exposure Index, EI), duration of exposure or number of solvents and the risk of developing hearing loss (Table 2).
Variable | Reports (n) | OR (95% CI)† | p |
---|---|---|---|
Duration of exposure | 0.001 | ||
< 5 years | 4 | 1.01 (0.92–1.10) | |
5–10 years | 3 | 1.57 (1.27–1.93) | |
> 10 years | 7 | 3.36 (2.36–4.79) | |
Exposure index (EI)‡ | 0.049 | ||
< 0.5 | 3 | 1.37 (0.75–2.48) | |
0.5–0.99 | 3 | 3.25 (1.88–5.62) | |
≥ 1 | 7 | 4.51 (3.46–5.90) | |
Solvents | 0.045 | ||
2–5 | 7 | 1.62 (1.07–2.44) | |
6–8 | 4 | 4.22 (2.72–6.56) |
Dose–response relationship between organic solvents mixture exposure and risk of hearing loss*.
Hearing loss: average hearing threshold greater than 25 dB in at least one ear (250–8000 Hz).
Reference group: not exposed to either noise or solvents mixture.
EI: the sum of the mean time-weighted exposures to each solvent was divided by its occupational exposure limit (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists threshold limit value, ACGIH TLV).
Cited from THE RISK OF HEARING LOSS ASSOCIATED WITH OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE TO ORGANIC SOLVENTS MIXTURE WITH AND WITHOUT CONCURRENT NOISE EXPOSURE: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW AND META-ANALYSIS. International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health 2017;30(4):521–535 https://doi.org/10.13075/ijomeh.1896.01024.
Long-term exposure to organic solvents has been shown to cause irreversible hearing impairment damaging the cochlear hair cells as the first target [75]. The mechanism of acute injury would be the direct action of solvents on the cells of the organ of Corti, resulting in disorganization of their membranous structures, whereas chronic ototoxic effects may be explained by the formation of chemically and biologically reactive intermediates [76].
The ototoxicity mechanisms with strong evidence were described in Table 3. These solvents adversely affect both peripheral and central auditory system. For example, toluene may enhance inhibitory synaptic responses as CNS depressants, also can inhibit the middle-ear acoustic reflex (cholinergic efferent system). This would make inner ear more susceptible to co-exposure even to a noise intensity below permissible limit value [77].
Chemicals | Targets and impacts | Mechanism | Points to consider |
---|---|---|---|
Aromatic solvents | Target: Central nervous system, cochlear hair cell Impact: Enhancement in inhibitory synaptic responses, affecting middle-ear acoustic reflex. | In case of acute effect, direct action on the cells of the organ of Corti. In case of chronic effect, formation of intermediates such as reactive oxygen species. Cause K+ flow dysfunction. Outer hair cell toxicity due to K+ massive efflux and tunnel accumulation. | Prolonged exposure causes irreversible hearing impairment. Affect the middle-ear acoustic reflex, which partially explain the synergistic effects of co-exposure to noise and aromatic solvents. |
Nitriles | Target: cochlear hair cell, spiral ganglion cells Impact: Reduces high-frequency hearing sensitivity and enhances noise-induced hearing impairment. | Induce loss of inner ear hair cells and spiral ganglion cells. In the case of acrylonitrile, the risk of oxidative damage to the inner ear is increased due to damage to the cellular antioxidant defense mechanisms. | Permanent hearing damage may occur due to combined exposure with noise. |
Halogenated hydrocarbons | Target: Outer hair cell | In the case of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), it is assumed to have a direct effect on outer hair cells. | Presumed to be a sequelae of thyroid disease caused by halogenated hydrocarbons. |
Trichloroethylene | Target: Cochlear sensory hair cell, spiral ganglion cells, auditory nerve pathways | Unknown, but dose dependent hearing loss | Hearing loss tends to occur only at high level of exposure. |
Summary for impacts and mechanisms of ototoxic chemicals in workplace exposure.
Śliwinska-Kowalska (2007) summarized a risk/odds ratio of organic solvent-induced hearing loss, compared to non-exposed population, as followings. 1) No excess risk was found for workers exposed to solvent mixture when: the exposure history was short (up to 4 years), or the exposure level was very low (current exposure ranged from few to 18 ppm for toluene, to few ppm for xylene and other solvents, and the exposure index was <1). 2) Excess risk was found for workers exposed to solvent mixture when: the exposure level was moderate (toluene exposure ranged from 25 to 70 ppm, xylene exposure 25–40 ppm, and exposure index from 0.3–1.53), or the workers were exposed to high solvent concentrations and noise (the mean lifetime exposure to xylene was 696 ppm, to toluene 203 ppm, and the mean exposure index was 6.3) [72]. Risk/odds ratios of hearing loss due to exposure to organic solvent mixture were ranged 1.4 to 5.0, while the ratio of populations co-exposed to noise and solvents were 1.7 to 8.25 [78].
Previous experiments on ototraumatic substances in animals have confirmed the synergistic adverse effects of combined exposure to noise and solvents on hearing [79, 80]. In the case of combined exposure to noise and organic solvents, depending on the parameters and characteristics associated to the noise (such as intensity and impulsiveness) and solvent (such as concentration), they might interactively affect each other.
From the animal studies, the increase in auditory brainstem response (ABR) latencies after exposure by inhalation of more than two solvents observed an additive effect rather than a synergistic or antagonistic interaction. Results of these studies imply that the mechanism of ototoxicity for these solvents may be similar. However, rats simultaneously exposed to both toluene and noise induced a more severe hearing loss than the summated hearing loss obtained from an equivalent exposure level to each agent alone [77].
From the human studies, exposure to a mixture of solvents may damage the inner ear to a much greater extent than noise exposure. The relative risk for hearing loss in workers exposed to solvents was greater (RR = 9.6) in comparison to workers exposed only to noise (RR = 4.2). Hearing loss associated with styrene significantly increased in high frequency (8–16 kHz) and mid-audiometric frequency of 2 kHz [22]. Sliwinska-Kowalska et al. (2003) found a positive linear relationship between average working life exposure to styrene concentrations and hearing thresholds at 6 and 8 kHz. The possible synergism of combined exposure to solvents and noise on hearing has not been consistently identified in human studies. Some researchers have failed to find a synergistic effect between these agents on hearing [22].
Although it is difficult to derive a dose–response relationship between the solvent concentration and the hearing outcome, the risk of hearing loss increase with the longer duration of employment and accompanying noise in workers exposed to organic solvent [72].
Although there is no consensus on the lowest OELs for solvents in relation to their effect on the auditory organ, the current standards for solvent-exposed populations seem to be inadequate. Since organic solvents have detrimental effects both on the peripheral and central parts of the auditory pathway, pure-tone audiogram might be insufficient to monitor their ototoxicity [78].
From previous studies, researchers have found some useful tests for the evidence of adverse effects on the central auditory system in workers exposed to mixture of solvents: 1) dichotic listening: useful tool in the assessment of solvent-exposed workers, particularly in those who have had intermediate levels of exposure; 2) electrophysiological techniques (ABR): increase of the absolute latencies and inter-peak latencies (IPL) between waves of the ABR (I-III IPL; I-V IPL; III-V IPL) or prolonged P300 (a long latency auditory evoked potential); 3) otoacoustic emissions (OAEs): gradual deterioration of hearing threshold before audiometric change; 4) comprehensive battery of behavioral central auditory function assessment procedures: solvent-exposed participants presented with poorer results adjusted for age and hearing thresholds in comparison to non-exposed subjects [77]. These tests can be conjugated to evaluate possible adverse effects of solvents on the auditory system.
So far, the robust evidence confirms that the effects of ototoxic substances on auditory function can be aggravated by noise, which is supported by data from epidemiologic studies on human workers.
In real world, the exposure to solvent mixtures is various in terms of levels and composition. Numerous study groups reported an association between low to moderate exposure to solvent mixtures and hearing disorders. However, occupational legislation does not take environmental chemicals hazardous to hearing into consideration. Thus, there may be numerous workers with unmet needs concerning hearing conservation.
Here we are going to make some necessary suggestions for occupational health professionals and the workforce. Health care provider should be aware of the risks related to ototoxic substances. Employers and workers should be advised accordingly. Risk management measures aimed at reducing exposure to noise and ototoxic substances, especially co-existence of them, should be encouraged. In occupational health-screening activities, ototoxicity should be included. Appropriate diagnostic tools should be developed for early detections of chemically induced hearing impairment. Suitable scientific investigations into ototoxic properties of substance and combined effects with noise should be encouraged by well-designed studies.
Occupational noise exposure has been well-known as the most deleterious factor to hearing loss, however, the impact of chemical-induced hearing loss on workers should not be underestimated [81]. Industry-based initiatives should include the identification of populations at risk and the delivery of tailored hearing conservation program accordingly to noise and chemical-exposed workers regarding their exposure levels.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
I would like to thank the members of the Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Ulsan University Hospital. A Ram Kim, Daeyun Kim, Sunghee Lee, Jisoo Kim, and Hanjoon Kim, also Jinhee Bang, member of Environmental health center have contributed directly or indirectly to this chapter. We have shared information and ideas. Moreover, they have made suggestions and comments.
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Successful treatment of oral cancer patients is a complex issue that requires a multidisciplinary approach, including oral and maxillofacial surgeons, oral and maxillofacial radiologists, ENT specialists, medical and radiological oncologists, prosthodontists, dentists, speech therapists, supportive care experts, and also pathologists or, if possible, oral and maxillofacial pathologists.",book:{id:"8631",slug:"prevention-detection-and-management-of-oral-cancer",title:"Prevention, Detection and Management of Oral Cancer",fullTitle:"Prevention, Detection and Management of Oral Cancer"},signatures:"Nihat Akbulut and Ahmet Altan",authors:[{id:"262769",title:"Dr.",name:"Nihat",middleName:null,surname:"Akbulut",slug:"nihat-akbulut",fullName:"Nihat Akbulut"},{id:"268500",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmet",middleName:null,surname:"Altan",slug:"ahmet-altan",fullName:"Ahmet Altan"}]},{id:"63395",title:"The Impact of Sequencing Human Genome on Drug Design to Treat Oral Cancer",slug:"the-impact-of-sequencing-human-genome-on-drug-design-to-treat-oral-cancer",totalDownloads:892,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Of all the known cancers, oral cancer is the most preventable and it is the second most deadly cancer after the breast cancer. Out of 609,640 deaths of overall cancers, 13,500 died of oral cancer. In spite of this enormous increase in loss of life, there are no useful drugs to treat oral cancer. Sequencing human genome identifies with precision and accuracy the specific mutations responsible for causing oral cancer. In this chapter, a novel approach to design drugs to attack mutated genes in squamous cell carcinoma responsible for causing oral cancer is proposed. Alkylating aziridines attack single-stranded DNA shutting off genes. Using dinitrobenzamide dye as a carrier for aziridine, we successfully made a novel class of drugs (CB 1954) which shuts off gene of a solid tumor, Walker Carcinoma 256, in rats. We translated the animal work in humans by using quinone as a carrier for aziridines making AZQ (US Patent 4,146,622) for attacking glioblastoma for treating brain cancer in humans. We propose to search for a carrier for aziridines to attack squamous cell carcinomas to treat oral cancer. Ethical issues are discussed. Since tobacco smoking causes oral cancer, it is the most preventable disease.",book:{id:"8631",slug:"prevention-detection-and-management-of-oral-cancer",title:"Prevention, Detection and Management of Oral Cancer",fullTitle:"Prevention, Detection and Management of Oral Cancer"},signatures:"Abdul Hameed Khan",authors:[{id:"262416",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdul Hameed",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"abdul-hameed-khan",fullName:"Abdul Hameed Khan"}]},{id:"67124",title:"Introductory Chapter: Head and Neck Cancer",slug:"introductory-chapter-head-and-neck-cancer",totalDownloads:884,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"8631",slug:"prevention-detection-and-management-of-oral-cancer",title:"Prevention, Detection and Management of Oral Cancer",fullTitle:"Prevention, Detection and Management of Oral Cancer"},signatures:"Sivapatham Sundaresan and Paliarasu Rajapriya",authors:[{id:"187272",title:"Dr.",name:"Sivapatham",middleName:null,surname:"Sundaresan",slug:"sivapatham-sundaresan",fullName:"Sivapatham Sundaresan"}]},{id:"66850",title:"Thyroid Anatomy",slug:"thyroid-anatomy",totalDownloads:964,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In ancient times, the Celsius first identified the masses in the neck and reported that their surgical removal was fatal. The sources related to thyroid surgery show that the success of the neck masses with the surgical intervention was limited until the second half of the nineteenth century. Among the names leading the development of thyroid surgery in contemporary times are Emil Theodor Kocher, Theodor Billroth, William James Mayo, and William Stewart Halsted. In this chapter, we will be investigating thyroid gland embryology, histology, and anatomy that is essential to the practicing thyroid surgeon.",book:{id:"7883",slug:"knowledges-on-thyroid-cancer",title:"Knowledges on Thyroid Cancer",fullTitle:"Knowledges on Thyroid Cancer"},signatures:"Sinan Binboga, Eyup Gemici and Elif Binboga",authors:[{id:"291528",title:"Dr.",name:"Sinan",middleName:null,surname:"Binboga",slug:"sinan-binboga",fullName:"Sinan Binboga"},{id:"295739",title:"Dr.",name:"Eyup",middleName:null,surname:"Gemici",slug:"eyup-gemici",fullName:"Eyup Gemici"},{id:"295740",title:"Dr.",name:"Elif",middleName:null,surname:"Binboga",slug:"elif-binboga",fullName:"Elif Binboga"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1081",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,annualVolume:null,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11400,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11401,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11402,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:58,paginationItems:[{id:"81961",title:"Antioxidants as an Adjuncts to Periodontal Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105016",signatures:"Sura Dakhil Jassim and Ali Abbas Abdulkareem",slug:"antioxidants-as-an-adjuncts-to-periodontal-therapy",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Trauma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11567.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}},{id:"82357",title:"Caries Management Aided by Fluorescence-Based Devices",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105567",signatures:"Atena Galuscan, Daniela Jumanca and Aurora Doris Fratila",slug:"caries-management-aided-by-fluorescence-based-devices",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Caries - The Selection of Restoration Methods and Restorative Materials",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11565.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"81894",title:"Diet and Nutrition and Their Relationship with Early Childhood Dental Caries",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105123",signatures:"Luanna Gonçalves Ferreira, Giuliana de Campos Chaves Lamarque and Francisco Wanderley Garcia Paula-Silva",slug:"diet-and-nutrition-and-their-relationship-with-early-childhood-dental-caries",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Caries - The Selection of Restoration Methods and Restorative Materials",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11565.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"81595",title:"Prosthetic Concepts in Dental Implantology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104725",signatures:"Ivica Pelivan",slug:"prosthetic-concepts-in-dental-implantology",totalDownloads:27,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:8,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6668",title:"Dental Caries",subtitle:"Diagnosis, Prevention and Management",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6668.jpg",slug:"dental-caries-diagnosis-prevention-and-management",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Zühre Akarslan",hash:"b0f7667770a391f772726c3013c1b9ba",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Dental Caries - Diagnosis, Prevention and Management",editors:[{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7139",title:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7139.jpg",slug:"current-approaches-in-orthodontics",publishedDate:"April 10th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Belma Işık Aslan and Fatma Deniz Uzuner",hash:"2c77384eeb748cf05a898d65b9dcb48a",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",editors:[{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"7572",title:"Trauma in Dentistry",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7572.jpg",slug:"trauma-in-dentistry",publishedDate:"July 3rd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Serdar Gözler",hash:"7cb94732cfb315f8d1e70ebf500eb8a9",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Trauma in Dentistry",editors:[{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7060",title:"Gingival Disease",subtitle:"A Professional Approach for Treatment and Prevention",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7060.jpg",slug:"gingival-disease-a-professional-approach-for-treatment-and-prevention",publishedDate:"October 23rd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",hash:"b81d39988cba3a3cf746c1616912cf41",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Gingival Disease - A Professional Approach for Treatment and Prevention",editors:[{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. 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His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"95",type:"subseries",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",keywords:"Circular economy, Contingency planning and response to disasters, Ecosystem services, Integrated urban water management, Nature-based solutions, Sustainable urban development, Urban green spaces",scope:"