Agro-ecological characteristics of Lesotho.
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1359",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Underlying Mechanisms of Epilepsy",title:"Underlying Mechanisms of Epilepsy",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book is a very provocative and interesting addition to the literature on Epilepsy. It offers a lot of appealing and stimulating work to offer food of thought to the readers from different disciplines. Around 5% of the total world population have seizures but only 0.9% is diagnosed with epilepsy, so it is very important to understand the differences between seizures and epilepsy, and also to identify the factors responsible for its etiology so as to have more effective therapeutic regime. In this book we have twenty chapters ranging from causes and underlying mechanisms to the treatment and side effects of epilepsy. 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She taught medical and biological sciences at various universities in Australia, the United States, United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Pakistan, and Brunei. During this period, she was also engaged in research by obtaining local and international grants (a total of more than $3 million USD) and developing products such as a rapid diagnostic test for stroke and other vascular disorders (i.e., schizophrenia). She has published more than sixty-eight articles in refereed journals, edited nine books, authored ten book chapters, presented at more than ninety international conferences, and mentored thirty-four postgraduate students. 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The Kingdom of Lesotho covers a land area of 30,355 sq. km and is situated within the Southern African plateau at an elevation of between 1500 m and 3482 m above sea level. It has four agro-ecological zones (AEZ) based on climate and elevation (Table 1). All the AEZ’s are replete with wetlands. Wetlands locally called
Agro-ecological zones | Area (km2) | Altitude (m) above sea level | Topography | Mean annual rainfall (mm) | Mean annual temperature (°C) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lowland | 5200 | <1800 | Flat to gentle | 600–900 | −11 to 38 |
Senqu river valley | 2753 | 1000–2000 | Steep sloping | 450–600 | −5 to 36 |
Foot-hills | 4588 | 1800–2000 | Steep rolling | 900–1000 | −8 to 30 |
Mountains | 18,047 | 2000–3484 | Very steep bare rock and gentle rolling valleys | 1000–1300 | −8 to 30 |
Agro-ecological characteristics of Lesotho.
In Lesotho, over the years, more emphasis of agriculture (cropping and grazing) has been placed on upland soils, but due to increasing degradation of uplands coupled with lack of vegetation for grazing, attention is now shifting to wetland soils as it now constitutes an important component of rural livelihoods for the
Wetlands are critical to maintaining and improving the quality of lives in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) by improving livelihoods of rural populations and reducing poverty especially in the summer seasons and in times of droughts [3]. In Lesotho, wetlands are also known to support grazing, forestry and cropping activities, hence can be said to be ecologically, economically and socially important [3]. According to Grenfell et al. [4], wetlands in the Southern African region was classified into seven main groups: marine, estuarine/lagoon, endorheic, riverine, lacustrine, palustrine and man-made wetlands. However, the wetlands investigated were of lacustrine and riverine systems. Lacustrine wetlands include lakes, lagoons, and dams; riverine wetlands include rivers, streams and channels. Palustrine, lacustrine and riverine wetland systems are found in Lesotho with the palustrine system being the most dominant. The palustrine system in Lesotho comprises of mires (bogs and ferns) in the highlands region, while, lacustrine system comprises of artificial impoundments for water supply and riverine system found along streams are generally small and localized [5, 6].
Agricultural activities (such as grazing and cropping) are thought to be the major contributors to non-point wetland pollution in the highlands and foothills respectively while industrial effluents and domestic waste disposal are thought to contribute significantly to wetlands’ pollution in urbanized and industrialized Lowlands AEZ. In Lesotho, wetlands are important for livestock grazing and the problems related to wetlands management, in particular, soil erosion, are related to over-grazing [3]. Land degradation in upland areas is thought to also be a major contributor to the conversion of wetlands into crop lands as the upland areas are degraded beyond use [7]. There are sparse data on the chemical characteristics of wetlands in
The effects of wetland restoration are commonly evaluated by analyzing changes in the hydrology, biological components and the physical and chemical properties of soil [9, 10, 17]. Also of importance is the changes in the vegetation composition and structure, in terms of percent cover, biomass, plant diversity associated with re-establishment of species [18, 19, 20] as well as the changes in the soil microbial communities, and functioning [21, 22] and isotopes.
Stable nitrogen isotope measurements may be used to examine the nitrogen cycle within landscapes [23, 24]. Biological discrimination between the two stable isotopes 14N and 15N often leads to natural isotopic fractionation [23, 24]. It is well established that denitrification results in isotopic changes in the nitrate (NO3−) pool, as bacteria preferentially reduce 14NO3− over 15NO3−, leaving an enriched pool of 15NO3− [23, 24]. The isotopic signature has been used to identify regions of significant denitrification in groundwater aquifers, streams and riparian buffer zones [23, 24]. Partitioning carbon contributions from different species to the soil carbon is challenging. Among the numerous methods, the carbon isotopic technique based on the difference in stable carbon isotope composition (δ13C) ratios between older soil carbon and inputs of new carbon appears promising [25, 26]. This technique studies soil carbon dynamics over a few years or several 100 years, and the results can help to understand the consequences of human induced land use change [27, 28].
This study focused on changes in soil characteristics, especially selected soil physico-chemical characteristics and hydrochemistry of the run-off water. The hypothesis was that conservation/restoration of wetlands coupled with the introduction of freshwater/rainwater would alter the soil characteristics resulting in increased accumulation of SOC, total N (TN), base cations (Ca, Mg, Na & K), C-pool as well as increased clay and silt contents, increase in silt:clay and soil organic matter:siltclay ratios (SSCR). The aim of the management effort was to reduce the wetland degradation, which is the primary threat to the wetlands in Lesotho, and provide conducive habitats for wetlands vegetation and faunal species. The specific objectives of the current study were to evaluate whether there were differences in the soil (i) physicochemical properties and (ii) hydrochemistry of a wetlands under conservation and the one that is not conserved to assess the effect of restoration after 5 years; the results are intended to support the ongoing restoration efforts in selected wetlands in Lesotho and (iii) to estimate the δC and δN in the plant samples of the conserved and non-conserved wetlands.
The climate of Lesotho is largely determined by the country’s location in the centre of the Southern African Plateau. It is sub-humid to temperate cool with warm and rainy summers and cool to cold dry winters. The mean minimum temperature during winter is around 0°C which is common in June (the coldest month), with the lowlands recording −1 to −3°C and the highlands recording −6 to −8.5°C. The mean annual temperatures recorded are 15.2°C and 7°C for the lowlands and the highlands respectively. In January, which produces the highest mean maximum temperatures throughout the country, temperatures range from 20°C in the highlands, and 32°C in the lowlands. The mean annual precipitation ranges from 500 mm in the Senqu River Valley to 1200 mm in the North and East of the country. Eighty-five percent of the rainfall is received between the months of October and April. Frost and snow are common in winter. The mountains of Lesotho are regularly covered by snow during winter months.
Land use is often used as a surrogate for disturbance and has been correlated with biological attributes in wetlands [11, 29]. In Lesotho, agricultural activity (i.e. grazing and livestock watering) coupled with climatic change is the predominant disturbance to seasonal wetlands in all agro-ecological zones. Wetlands can be characterized into low or high impact based on local land use characteristics [5, 30], with low impact wetlands having little or no agricultural activity within 150 m of the wetland boundary and high impact wetlands having agricultural activity within 10 m of the wetland boundary.
The study sites were located within Lesotho at an elevation ranging between 1800 m and >2000 m above sea level (asl) (Table 1 and Figures 1 and 2) in two agro-ecological zones (AEZ): the Foot-Hills and the Mountains. Shrubs co-dominate at higher elevations in the Mountains AEZ, wile in the Foot-Hills, the dominant vegetation is grasses (i.e.
view of
View of
Wetlands were selected for this research were characterized as either low, medium or highly impacted based on (i) local land-use characteristics [31]; and (ii) the intensity of anthropogenic pressures such as mining, smelting, and discharge of an industrial pollutant into the wetlands. Low impacted wetlands has little (i.e. <5%) or no agricultural activity within 150 m of the wetland boundary [5, 32]. The wetlands classified as highly impacted had agricultural activities; within 10 m of wetland boundary (i.e. ≅33% of the wetland area is impacted). The medium impacted wetlands had agricultural activities between 5 and 32% of the wetland boundary. Using the probability sampling approach [33], coupled with accessibility and ease of continuous monitoring, two wetland types—lacustrine and riverine systems were identified in two different AEZs of Lesotho (Table 1).
A Garmin GPS (Geko 301) was used to determine the elevations of the study sites and to track the position of the points at which samples were collected. At KHL catchments, three transects, of approximately 1000 m each, were chosen and mini-pits (0.5 m) were dug at intervals of 70 m. At HM catchments, two transects were chosen on one side of the stream and one transect on the other side and the mini-pits (0.5 m) were dug at the upper, the middle and the lower slope of each transect and at 150 m interval along the stream.
At both sites, soil samples were collected from every exposed horizon in the mini-pits. The soil samples were put into polythene bags and taken to the laboratory where they were air-dried at room temperature for 72 h and then crushed to pass through a 2 mm sieve. The soil samples were then analyzed for total nitrogen [35]; available Phosphorus [36]; Base cations (Mg, Ca, Na and K) extracted using the Ammonium acetate at pH 7 and determined using the Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (Spectro AA 300). The soils were also analyzed for micronutrients (i.e. Cu, Fe, Zn, and Mn).
At both sites, water samples were collected from December 2010 to March 2011 across from installed plastic water bottles (DWB) which have been pre-rinsed with de-ionized water at a depth of 0.50 m in duplicates. Five DWB were installed in each of the three transects at KHL catchments. However, at HM catchments, the DWB were installed at the upper, middle and toe-slopes and the land use types (LUTs). The mainland use type (LUT) at HM catchment was mainly for livestock grazing, watering, and cropping. Run-off water samples were collected in duplicates using into a 20 mL plastic bottle and acidified with 0.1 N HCl. Following sample collections, samples were preserved in the icebox to restrain microbial activities before getting to the laboratory. All the parameters mentioned above were determined, based on standard methods [37] using the Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (Spectro AA 300). Four indicators—base cations (K, Ca, Mg & Na), total P (TP) and Total N (TN) were used to describe the water quality of samples. The base cations, TN and TP were analyzed in the laboratory.
Nitrogen isotope (15N) was applied in the form of urea to wetlands at both sites located in the KHL and HM at the upper-slope (US), mid-slope (MS) and toe-slope (TS). At both sites, vegetation samples were collected in triplicates from the three sections of the toposequence. Dominant vegetation at KHL was
where R-sample and R-standard are the ratios between 15N and 14N of the sample and the standard, respectively.
Samples were collected at each site by clipping four healthy, intact, mature plants at the soil surface avoiding senescent plant leaves. Live samples were wiped cleaned to remove surface debris and then chopped into approximately 10-cm sections for drying. The vegetation samples were put into labeled paper bags and dried at a temperature of 55°C and subsequently sent by courier service to the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), laboratory, Seibersdorf, Vienna, where they were then crushed, weighed, and analyzed for N15 and 13δC isotope signatures.
Data collected (soils, water) were subjected to summary statistics (N, max, min, range, standard deviation, standard error, kurtosis, and skewness) using the means procedure of SAS (PROC Means) [38]. Data (soils, water, and vegetation N15) were also subjected to one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using the general linear model procedure (PROC GLM) [38] and means were separated using Duncan multiple range test at 5% level of significance. Results of the selected soil properties were compared across sites using analysis of variance procedure of SAS (PROC ANOVA) [38] and means were separated using Duncan multiple range test at 5% level of significance.
Soils of KHL wetland have a texture that is rich in sand and ranged between 49.28% and 87.28% with a mean of 68.76 ± 1.07%; silt content ranged between 4 and 40% with a mean of 23.49 ± 0.97% and clay between 0.72 and 21% with a mean of 7.71 ± 0.51%. The soil organic carbon (SOC) content ranged from 1.30–5.76% with a mean of 3.92 ± 0.13% and the soils have low bulk densities. These soils have an acidic pHw of 3.85–5.90 and mean of 5.04 ± 0.05 and pH in KCl of between 3.24 and 5.67 with a mean of 4.46 ± 0.04. Generally, the cation exchange capacity (CEC) ranged between 0.02 and 8.33 cmol/kg with a mean of 3.32 ± 0.30 cmol/kg and base cations (K, Ca, Mg and Na) generally ranged between 0.01 and 38.36 mg/L. The total nitrogen (TN) and available P (AvP) ranged between 0.01 and 1.70 mgN/L with a mean of 0.01 ± 0.05 mgN/L and 0.06–11.55 mgP/L and a mean of 2.79 ± 0.21 mgN/L. The SOC-pool within KHL wetlands (i.e. has a mean of 11.62 ± 0.72 kg cm2). The silt:clay ratio ranged between 0.2 and 112.98 and has a mean of 4.73 ± 1.63. According to Asamoa (1973) and Zhang et al. [39], soils of old parent materials (PM) have ratios of <0.25, while those with ratios of >0.25 are of indicative of low degree of weathering. This suggests that despite the restoration efforts the PM of the restored wetlands are at different degree of weathering. The coefficient of variation (CV) varies widely and using the ranged given by Wilding [40], only sand, pHw and pHKCl had CV of <15%, while all other properties had CV > 30% (Table 2).
Variable | N | Maximum | Minimum | Mean | Coefficient of variation | Std dev | Std error | Kurtosis |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Khalong-la-Lithunya (KHL) | ||||||||
Sand | 88 | 87.28 | 42.28 | 68.76 | 14.65 | 10.07 | 1.07 | −0.83 |
Clay | 88 | 23.00 | 0.72 | 7.71 | 60.39 | 4.66 | 0.50 | 1.17 |
Silt | 88 | 44.00 | 4.00 | 23.49 | 38.56 | 9.06 | 0.97 | −0.76 |
BD | 88 | 1.67 | 1.00 | 1.39 | 19.61 | 0.27 | 0.03 | −1.43 |
pHw | 88 | 5.90 | 4.00 | 5.04 | 8.50 | 0.43 | 0.05 | −0.58 |
pHKCl | 88 | 5.62 | 3.24 | 4.46 | 8.62 | 0.35 | 0.04 | 1.23 |
AvP | 88 | 11.55 | 0.01 | 2.79 | 71.54 | 2.00 | 0.21 | 2.82 |
Tot. N | 88 | 0.01 | 1.70 | 0.01 | 168.65 | 0.42 | 0.05 | −0.78 |
Silt:clay | 88 | 41.67 | 0.02 | 5.84 | 134.27 | 7.84 | 0.84 | 10.62 |
Org C | 88 | 5.76 | 1.30 | 3.92 | 31.43 | 1.23 | 0.13 | −0.63 |
SOM | 88 | 9.96 | 2.25 | 6.77 | 31.43 | 2.13 | 0.23 | −0.63 |
C-pool | 88 | 39.90 | 1.34 | 11.62 | 58.14 | 6.76 | 0.72 | 2.68 |
Ca | 88 | 101.56 | 3.54 | 14.61 | 70.49 | 10.30 | 1.10 | 59.61 |
K | 88 | 9.63 | 0.01 | 0.28 | 500.93 | 1.38 | 0.15 | 41.03 |
Na | 88 | 10.64 | 0.02 | 3.90 | 80.84 | 3.15 | 0.34 | −1.23 |
CEC | 88 | 8.83 | 0.02 | 3.32 | 86.05 | 2.86 | 0.30 | −1.34 |
SSCR | 88 | 112.98 | 0.2 | 4.73 | 322.44 | 15.26 | 1.63 | 41.66 |
Ha-Matela (HM) | ||||||||
Sand | 80 | 65.10 | 9.00 | 37.22 | 32.20 | 11.98 | 1.34 | −0.07 |
Clay | 80 | 62.10 | 10.70 | 10.50 | 40.12 | 12.24 | 1.37 | 0.14 |
Silt | 80 | 73.00 | 0.00 | 32.86 | 44.92 | 14.76 | 1.65 | 0.55 |
BD | 80 | 1.49 | 1.00 | 1.34 | 5.75 | 0.08 | 0.01 | 3.68 |
pHw | 80 | 6.15 | 4.23 | 5.25 | 7.80 | 0.41 | 0.05 | 0.12 |
pHKCl | 80 | 5.34 | 3.64 | 4.50 | 9.03 | 0.41 | 0.05 | −0.39 |
AvP | 80 | 15.62 | 0.56 | 3.34 | 73.51 | 2.45 | 0.27 | 7.14 |
Tot N | 80 | 0.01 | 0.001 | 0.01 | 86.75 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 19.53 |
Silt:clay | 80 | 5.99 | 0.00 | 0.79 | 147.25 | 1.17 | 0.13 | 6.87 |
Org C | 80 | 3.21 | 0.23 | 2.14 | 39.77 | 0.85 | 0.01 | −0.43 |
SOM | 80 | 5.56 | 0.40 | 3.69 | 39.81 | 1.47 | 0.16 | −0.44 |
C-pool | 80 | 38.67 | 1.44 | 11.14 | 62.34 | 6.95 | 0.78 | 2.37 |
Ca | 80 | 3.30 | 0.00 | 0.78 | 81.21 | 0.63 | 0.07 | 1.66 |
K | 80 | 0.91 | 0.10 | 0.41 | 42.75 | 0.18 | 0.02 | 0.66 |
Na | 80 | 1.99 | 0.03 | 0.32 | 163.00 | 0.53 | 0.06 | 2.97 |
CEC | 80 | 0.18 | 0.17 | 0.17 | 2.72 | 0.00 | 0.00 | −1.46 |
SSCR | 80 | 260.00 | 0.20 | 31.67 | 121.42 | 38.47 | 4.30 | 14.58 |
Summary statistics of the soil properties at
N = number of observations, Std dev = standard deviation, Std err = standard error, CV = coefficient of variation, OC = organic carbon (%), SOM = soil organic matter(%), BD = bulk density (g/cm3), pHW = pH in water, pHKCl = pH in potassium chloride, ∆pH = change in pH, Tot N = total nitrogen(%), AvP = available phosphorus (mg/L), C-pool = carbon pool (kg C/cm2) CEC = cation exchange capacity (cmol/kg), Na = sodium (cmol/kg), Ca = calcium (cmol/kg), Mg = magnesium (cmol/kg), K = potassium (cmol/kg), SSCR = sand to silt + clay ratio.
Mean soil physicochemical properties for KHL wetland across pits and transects are presented in Table 3. An observation of the mean separation within transects at the KHL wetlands revealed that across transects one and two all soil properties examined were significantly different except pH-water, pH-KCl and total N as well as pHKCl and TN that were not significantly different. An examination of the soil properties across transect three in KHL showed that there all soil properties were not significantly different except pH-water. Mean separation of soil micronutrients in KHL wetlands is presented in Table 3. The results showed that the Cu, Fe, Zn and Mn ranged between 0.06–1.49 mg/L, 0.12–2.89 mg/L, 0.04 mg/L and 0.35 mg/L and 4.62–22.15 mg/L. All were statistically significantly different. Ewing et al., [41] reported that wetlands in Juniper Bay were crop production had occurred had in their surface horizons significantly greater amounts of extractable P, Ca, Mg, Mn, Zn, and Cu, along with higher base saturation and pH than soils in the reference bays. Similarly, Zedler and Kercher [16] and Kotze et al. [11] reported that the nutrient-rich soils resulting from agricultural production make wetland restoration more difficult. Thus, the reasons for the slow rate of restoration of the KHL wetlands may be attributed to higher contents of base cations in the surface and sub-soils compared to the HM wetlands where no restoration efforts are yet to be embarked upon. Bedford et al., [42], Reddy et al., [43] and Harvey et al. [9] also reported that higher nutrient levels affect restoration success by decreasing plant diversity, and potentially increasing the solubility and export of P from wetlands to downstream waters once anaerobic soil conditions have been restored.
Pits | pHw | pHKCl | mg/L | Meq/100 g soil | % | kg/m2 | Silt:clay | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AvP | TN | Mg | Na | Ca | K | CEC | SOM | OC | Cpool | ||||
Transect 1 | |||||||||||||
1 | 5.5a | 4.5a | 0.96b | 0.89a | 16.06b | 1.1b | 20.7a | 0.05c | 4.8a | 4.0b | 2.32b | 7.2ab | 1.78b |
2 | 5.4a | 4.9a | 1.84ab | 0.70a | 18.7ab | 5.2a | 14.3bc | 0.05c | 5.6a | 5.0ab | 2.87ab | 10.6ab | 2.20b |
3 | 5.2a | 4.5a | 3.04ab | 0.90a | 19.8ab | 3.0ab | 21.2a | 9.2a | 4.0ab | 6.0ab | 3.48ab | 13.9a | 3.07ab |
4 | 5.4a | 4.8a | 2.10ab | 0.77a | 22.5ab | 6.9a | 15.8abc | 0.5b | 3.1ab | 4.1b | 2.39b | 8.1ab | 2.53b |
5 | 5.3a | 4.6a | 2.67ab | 0.38a | 18.0ab | 6.4a | 10.9c | 0.08c | 2.1bc | 7.4a | 4.27a | 13.7a | 2.77ab |
6 | 5.2a | 4.5a | 3.20ab | 0.53a | 19.21ab | 3.9ab | 15.2abc | 0.05c | 0.06c | 3.8b | 2.22b | 5.6b | 3.29ab |
7 | 5.4a | 4.8a | 1.04b | 0.48a | 13.9b | 6.9a | 15.3abc | 0.05c | 0.06c | 5.1ab | 2.96ab | 7.1ab | 4.46ab |
8 | 5.2a | 4.5a | 1.46ab | 0.38a | 29.24a | 0.4b | 18.4ab | 0.06c | 0.05c | 5.4ab | 3.14ab | 10.0ab | 2.88ab |
9 | 5.3a | 4.6a | 3.81a | 1.05a | 12.75b | 0.1b | 13.7bc | 0.05c | 0.03c | 3.6b | 2.10b | 4.0b | 6.75a |
Transect 2 | |||||||||||||
1 | 4.7bc | 4.4b | 3.25a | 0.23a | 17.0a | 2.2de | 7.1b | 0.05bcd | 5.9abc | 9.0a | 5.23a | 17.8a | 16.98a |
2 | 5.2ab | 4.5b | 3.32a | 0.92a | 14.7a | 6.1ab | 12.7b | 0.04bcd | 4.1bc | 7.9abc | 4.6abc | 9.4a | 5.17a |
3 | 4.8bc | 4.5b | 2.12a | 0.61a | 25.5a | 5.7abc | 9.9b | 0.03d | 6.7ab | 8.7ab | 5.0ab | 17.4a | 13.60a |
4 | 4.7bc | 4.2b | 2.88a | 0.62a | 21.4a | 0.1e | 12.3b | 0.04bcd | 5.8abc | 8.1abc | 4.7abc | 13.0a | 10.19a |
5 | 4.6c | 4.2b | 2.03a | 0.62a | 17.4a | 0.1e | 10.7b | 0.04 cd | 6.8ab | 7.5abc | 4.3abc | 14.2a | 8.11a |
6 | 4.7bc | 4.3b | 2.89a | 1.34a | 24.8a | 4.0bcd | 13.0b | 0.05bcd | 3.2c | 7.4abc | 4.3abc | 23.9a | 1.49a |
7 | 5.0abc | 4.4b | 2.92a | 0.63a | 26.1a | 5.0abc | 11.2b | 0.06abc | 4.7abc | 8.4abc | 4.8abc | 12.5a | 7.56a |
8 | 4.8bc | 4.2b | 2.83a | 0.67a | 25.9a | 7.1a | 11.7b | 0.03d | 4.1bc | 8.3abc | 4.8abc | 13.4a | 2.63a |
9 | 4.7bc | 4.3b | 1.90a | 0.37a | 28.6a | 7.1a | 14.2b | 0.06ab | 4.2bc | 6.1c | 3.5c | 12.3a | 4.78a |
10 | 5.4a | 5.1a | 3.88a | 0.44a | 25.6a | 0.3e | 14.1b | 0.05abcd | 7.8a | 8.6ab | 5.0ab | 22.9a | 1.98a |
11 | 5.4a | 5.1a | 3.47a | 1.06a | 19.0a | 3.4 cd | 8.7b | 0.07a | 7.3ab | 8.9ab | 5.1ab | 13.4a | 21.98a |
12 | 4.7bc | 4.3b | 4.88a | 0.71a | 17.aa | 0.1e | 56.5a | 0.05abcd | 3.0c | 6.6bc | 3.8bc | 12.5a | 4.50a |
Transect 3 | |||||||||||||
1 | 5.2a | 4.3a | 3.74a | 0.61a | 16.4a | 5.7a | 16.2a | 0.03a | 0.05a | 7.6a | 4.42a | 12.4a | 5.41a |
2 | 4.6b | 4.0a | 3.77a | 0.93a | 23.6a | 2.1a | 14.4a | 0.04a | 0.05a | 7.5a | 4.33a | 8.8a | 3.55a |
Mean separation for
Means with same letter in one column are not significantly different at 5% according to Duncan multiple range test (DMRT). pHw = pH in water, pHKCl = pH in potassium chlorite, AvP = available phosphorus (mg/L), TN = total nitrogen (%), Mg = magnesium (cmol/kg), Na = sodium (cmol/kg), Ca = calcium (cmol/kg), K = potassium (cmol/kg), CEC = cation exchange capacity, SOM = soil organic matter, OC = organic carbon, Cpool = carbon pool.
The most dominant soil separates in the texture of Ha-Matela wetland soils is silt and it ranged between 14 and 73% with a mean of 32.86 ± 1.65%; sand content ranges between 9.0 and 65.10% with a mean of 37.22 ± 1.34% and clay ranged between 10.7 and 62.10% with a mean of 10.50 ± 1.37% (Table 2). The SOC content ranged from 0.23 to 3.21% and has a mean of 2.14 ± 0.01% and the pH which is acidic ranged between 4.23 and 6.15 pH-water and between 3.54 and 5.34 pH-KCl. The CEC and the exchangeable cations (K, Ca, Mg and Na) were very low when compared with the restored wetlands (Table 2). This suggests that restoration of wetlands favored built-up of base cations in KHL wetlands as compared to the HM wetlands which are still not being restored. These ions, except for Na, are nutrients for forest ecosystems and vegetation and are thus of importance for the sustainability of the ecosystem [44, 45]. The results of the CVs showed that only a few properties (i.e. pH-water, pH-KCl, BD and CEC had CVs of <15% according to the classification of Wilding [40]. Other soil properties had CVs of >30% suggesting that these are highly variable (Table 2). The results of the silt:clay ratios also showed that the PM is mixed (0.00–5.99) and are at different age of weathering (Asamoa 1973; [39]). The SOC-pool in the HM wetlands were not significantly different from those at KHL wetlands and it ranged between 1.44 and 38.67 kg cm2 with a mean of 11.14 ± 0.78 kg cm2.
Mean soil physicochemical properties, for
Mini-pits | pHw | pHKCl | mg/L | cmolc/kg | % | kg/m2 | Silt:clay | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AvP | TN | Mg | Na | Ca | K | CEC | SOM | OC | Cpool | ||||
Upper slope | |||||||||||||
1 | 5.20a | 4.24b | 8.3a | 0.0010a | 0.176a | 0.09a | 0.23a | 0.5a | 0.18a | 4.35a | 2.52a | 12.24a | 0.45a |
2 | 5.90a | 4.20b | 2.1b | 0.0013a | 0.178a | 0.10a | 0.60a | 0.5a | 0.18a | 4.85a | 2.81a | 15.26a | 0.44a |
3 | 5.78a | 4.94a | 1.9b | 0.0015a | 0.178a | 0.09a | 1.05a | 0.5a | 0.18a | 4.43a | 2.56a | 12.97a | 0.43a |
Middle slope | |||||||||||||
1 | 4.88a | 4.13b | 4.0a | 0.0014a | 0.177a | 0.09a | 0.20b | 0.4a | 0.18a | 3.62a | 2.10a | 11.02a | 1.40a |
2 | 5.08a | 4.36ab | 3.3a | 0.0013a | 0.173b | 0.10.0a | 0.18b | 0.4a | 0.17b | 3.62a | 2.10a | 12.17a | 0.49a |
3 | 5.10a | 4.69a | 2.3a | 0.0015a | 0.174ab | 0.09a | 0.48a | 0.3a | 0.17b | 3.97a | 2.30a | 9.33a | 1.38a |
Toe slope | |||||||||||||
1 | 5.3a | 4.59a | 2.55a | 0.0018a | 0.174a | 0.11a | 0.35ab | 0.55a | 0.17a | 3.65a | 2.11a | 4.64a | 0.23a |
2 | 5.2a | 4.58a | 2.52a | 0.0030a | 0.174a | 0.10a | 0.23b | 0.49a | 0.17a | 2.98a | 1.73a | 6.85a | 0.76a |
3 | 4.8b | 3.95b | 3.43a | 0.0020a | 0.174a | 0.10a | 0.55a | 0.36b | 0.17a | 3.42a | 1.97a | 8.58a | 0.57a |
Along stream | |||||||||||||
1 | 5.69a | 4.72ab | 3.30ab | 0.0013ab | 0.173a | 1.15a | 1.28a | 0.4b | 0.17a | 2.94ab | 1.70ab | 6.67c | 0.43a |
2 | 5.36ab | 4.88a | 2.97ab | 0.0013bc | 0.174a | 0.71ab | 1.45a | 0.5b | 0.17a | 4.32a | 2.50a | 17.25ab | 0.37a |
3 | 4.75c | 4.23b | 2.16b | 0.0035ab | 0.172a | 0.36b | 0.62a | 04b | 0.18a | 4.33a | 2.50a | 15.77abc | 0.70a |
4 | 5.31ab | 4.55ab | 2.56b | 0.0012c | 0.170a | 0.15b | 0.80a | 0.4b | 0.17a | 3.96ab | 2.29ab | 13.05abc | 0.45a |
5 | 5.06bc | 4.56ab | 3.78ab | 0.0018abc | 0.173a | 0.41ab | 1.12a | 0.3b | 0.17a | 3.53ab | 2.04ab | 8.36bc | 0.41a |
6 | 5.46ab | 4.88a | 3.02ab | 0.0018abc | 0.175a | 0.17b | 1.38a | 0.4b | 0.17a | 4.37a | 2.53a | 19.23a | 1.23a |
7 | 5.44ab | 4.34ab | 5.58a | 0.0017abc | 0.173a | 0.73ab | 0.88a | 0.3b | 0.17a | 2.05b | 1.18b | 7.69bc | 1.40a |
8 | 5.45ab | 4.44ab | 2.77ab | 0.0037a | 0.170a | 0.17b | 1.05a | 0.7a | 0.17a | 2.98ab | 1.72ab | 7.45c | 0.85a |
Mean separation for
Means with same letter in one column are not significantly different at 5% according to Duncan multiple range test (DMRT). pHw = pH in water, pHKCl = pH in potassium chlorite, AvP = available phosphorus, TN = total nitrogen, Mg = magnesium, Na = sodium, Ca = calcium, K = potassium, CEC = cation exchange capacity, SOM = soil organic matter, OC = organic carbon, Cpool = carbon pool.
Mini-pits | mg/L | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Cu | Fe | Zn | Mn | |
Transect 1 | ||||
1 | 0.54bc | 0.44b | 0.12abc | 5.87c |
2 | 0.27cd | 0.20b | 0.08bc | 6.20c |
3 | 0.42bcd | 2.89a | 0.22a | 10.30b |
4 | 0.74ab | 0.12b | 0.07c | 4.85c |
5 | 0.31cd | 0.20b | 0.10bc | 14.02a |
6 | 0.41bcd | 0.33b | 0.08bc | 4.62c |
7 | 1.07a | 0.29b | 0.19ab | 6.96bc |
8 | 0.13d | 0.19b | 0.11abc | 7.05bc |
9 | 0.51bc | 0.45b | 0.10bc | 4.65c |
Transect 2 | ||||
1 | 0.09b | 0.44ab | 0.05c | 8.02b |
2 | 0.09b | 0.40ab | 0.25ab | 22.15a |
3 | 0.06b | 0.63ab | 0.09bc | 18.00ab |
4 | 0.12b | 0.20b | 0.24ab | 6.28b |
5 | 0.20b | 1.02a | 0.04c | 5.96b |
6 | 0.25b | 0.72ab | 0.35a | 8.14b |
7 | 0.11b | 0.54ab | 0.04c | 6.64b |
8 | 0.17b | 0.72ab | 0.10bc | 10.94ab |
9 | 0.51b | 0.51ab | 0.09bc | 4.77b |
10 | 3.44a | 0.76ab | 0.22bc | 16.81ab |
11 | 0.86b | 0.26b | 0.11bc | 10.76ab |
12 | 0.63b | 0.36ab | 0.14bc | 8.22b |
13 | 0.32b | 0.40ab | 0.14bc | 8.59b |
14 | 1.49b | 0.27b | 0.11bc | 12.14ab |
Upper slope | ||||
1 | 2.85a | 10.55a | 0.13a | 16.82b |
2 | 1.40a | 10.46a | 0.18a | 11.79b |
3 | 2.51a | 20.58a | 0.26a | 33.13a |
Middle slope | ||||
1 | 2.35a | 15.57a | 0.15b | 11.65a |
2 | 1.29b | 13.29a | 0.12b | 14.32a |
3 | 1.85ab | 12.82a | 0.41a | 16.04a |
Toes slope | ||||
1 | 3.19ab | 12.41b | 0.29b | 11.28a |
2 | 2.10b | 26.29a | 0.10b | 12.11a |
3 | 4.31a | 34.79a | 0.72a | 14.04a |
Mean separation for
Means with same letter in one column are not significantly different at 5% according to Duncan multiple range test (DMRT).
Comparing both sites in terms of selected soil physicochemical properties (Figure 3), results showed that after 5 years of restoration the significantly higher exchangeable Ca and Mg were observed in the KHL catchments compared to HM. Similarly, significantly higher clay, silts and soil organic matter contents were observed in the former catchments compared to the latter. Higher silt:clay ratio in the KHL suggests that the soil PM are basically of younger age compared to that of the HM. An observation of the SSCR showed that higher values (i.e. 31.68) were observed in the HM compared to the KHL suggesting that the soils of the HM will have better-rooting volumes for the plants grown on it compared to the KHL. This was in agreement with the findings of Napoli et al. [46] and Olaleye et al. [47].
Mean separation of selected properties from both restored and non-restored wetlands.
Mean nutrient concentrations in
Date | Pit | mg/L | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ca | Mg | K | Na | Total P | Total N | ||
Dec’10 | 1 | 1.64a | 78.86a | 5.94b | 4.09a | 1.74a | 0.36a |
Feb’11 | 1 | 1.63a | 0.37b | 2.25b | 2.89a | 0.41b | 0.36a |
Apr’11 | 1 | 0.12c | 78.86a | 45.07a | 2.22a | 1.74a | 0.003b |
Dec’10 | 2 | 0.94b | 0.37b | 1.64b | 2.25a | 0.24b | 0.31a |
Feb’11 | 2 | 1.41a | 0.37b | 1.49b | 2.25a | 0.39b | 0.31a |
Apr’11 | 2 | 0.19c | 115.39a | 230.7a | 3.25a | 2.22a | 0.004b |
Dec’10 | 1 | 0.58a | 0.38b | 1.25b | 2.84a | 0.39b | 0.11a |
Feb’11 | 1 | 0.5a | 0.37b | 1.12b | 2.89a | 0.34b | 0.11a |
Apr’11 | 1 | 0.28a | 101.01a | 339.6a | 2.65a | 2.53a | 0.003a |
Dec’10 | 2 | 0.5a | 0.37b | 1.05b | 1.27a | 0.10b | 0.18a |
Feb’11 | 2 | 0.54a | 0.37b | 1.25b | 2.43a | 0.38b | 0.18a |
Apr’11 | 2 | 0.16a | 75.01a | 274.4a | 2.44a | 2.19a | 0.003a |
Dec’10 | 1 | 0.32b | 0.35b | 0.28a | 0.20c | 0.24a | 0.49a |
Feb’11 | 2 | 0.63a | 0.37b | 1.36a | 2.27b | 0.35a | 0.49a |
Apr’11 | 3 | 0.07b | 194.49a | 153.55a | 2.61a | 1.84a | 0.004a |
Nutrient concentrations in water for
Ca = calcium, Mg = magnesium, K=potassium, Na = sodium; means with the same letter in one column are not significant at 5% Duncan multiple range test (DMRT).
Date | mgL | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ca | Mg | K | Na | Total P | Total N | |
Dec’10 | 0.002a | 0.001a | 0.012a | 0.015a | 1.70a | 0.002a |
Feb’11 | 0.002a | 0.002a | 0.007a | 0.009a | 1.19a | 0.002a |
Apr’11 | 0.002a | 0.006a | 2.052a | 0.003a | 0.38a | 0.682a |
Dec’10 | 0.002a | 0.001a | 0.008a | 0.012a | 1.84a | 0.002a |
Feb’11 | 0.002a | 0.004b | 0.010a | 0.003b | 7.23a | 0.002a |
Apr’11 | 0.001a | 0.002ab | 4.017a | 0.006a | 0.46a | 0.687a |
Dec’10 | 0.002a | 0.001a | 0.008a | 0.013a | 2.27a | 0.002a |
Feb’11 | 0.002a | 0.004b | 0.010a | 0.002b | 2.88a | 0.002a |
Apr’11 | 0.002a | 0.002b | 4.801a | 0.004a | 0.38a | 0.685a |
Mean selected water chemical properties for
Ca = calcium, Mg = magnesium, K=potassium, Na = sodium, means with the same letter in one column are not significant at 5% Duncan multiple range test (DMRT).
mg/L | ||
---|---|---|
Eutrophic status | Total P | Total N |
Oligotrophic water | 0.005–0.01 | 0.25–0.60 |
Moderately eutrophic | 0.01–0.03 | 0.50–1.10 |
Eutrophic | 0.03–0.10 | 1.10–2.00 |
Hypertrophic | >0.10 | >2.00 |
Variables | Surface water quality classification | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
I | II | III | IV | V | |
pH | 6–9 | ||||
Total N (mg/L) | ≤0.20 | ≤0.50 | ≤1.0 | ≤1.50 | ≤2.0 |
The vegetation 15N and 13C isotopic signatures for KHL and HM wetlands are presented in Table 10. The result indicates that δ13C in KHL wetland was higher, indicated by more negative values, compared to that in HM wetland. This shows that the KHL wetland is less degraded compared to HM wetland. Furthermore, results showed that less N is lost in KHL wetlands compared to that at HM. These may be attributed to high overgrazing and over-cultivation observed at HM as opposed to KHL wetland which is now under conservation. A breakdown of the δ13C and δ15N within both sites across the toposequence (Table 10) showed that there is higher δ13C in the minimally degraded wetland (KHL) compared with that from HM. Furthermore, the results of the breakdown also showed that less δ15N is lost from KHL compared to the HM [23, 57, 58]. The variation in the δ13C across sites can be ascribed to differences in vegetation species. The increased δ15N in plants is often interpreted as an indicator of sewage or pollution [59, 60]. The HM wetland is still being used for human activities (i.e. livestock grazing and watering and cropping especially maize and sorghum). Therefore, higher δ15N in the vegetation samples (i.e. 2.00–6.18‰) may as a result of build-up of pollutants. It could be observed that higher δ15N (i.e. 6.18‰) was observed in the lower slopes/wetlands compared to other section of the toposequence.
Sites | Toposequence | 13C (‰) | 15N (‰) |
---|---|---|---|
Khalong-la-Lithunya | Upper slope | −28.84a* | −2.52a |
Middle slope | −28.90a | −2.97a | |
Lower slope | −28.13a | −2.93a | |
Ha-Matela | Upper slope | −12.72b | 2.00ab |
Middle slope | −11.77b | 2.61a | |
Lower slope | −13.85b | 6.18b |
Isotopic signatures of δ13C and δ15N in two wetlands sites.
Means with same letter in same column within sites are not significantly different @ 5% (DMRT).
Results of the study showed that higher base cations were observed in the soils and water samples of the KHL wetlands compared to that of the HM wetlands. Also, the results of the isotopic signatures of were significantly higher (i.e. δ13C and δ15N) in HM wetlands (shown by less negative and high positive values) compared to the KHL wetlands. The result indicated that δ13C in KHL wetland was higher, indicated by more negative values, compared to that in HM wetland suggesting that the former wetland is less degraded compared to the latter confirming that if other wetlands in the country will revert to their original status if conserved/rehabilitated. Results also showed that both wetlands have higher levels of total N and total P in run-off water samples suggesting that both wetlands can be classified as hypertrophic. However, higher base cations in the soils and water samples of the KHL wetlands may be related more to the geology of the site as this has been under conservation for about 6 years. Avoiding the restoration of agricultural land with high nutrient levels in favor of land with lower amounts of nutrients may increase the likelihood of restoration success.
Sincere thanks go to the Regional University Forum (RUFORUM), Uganda that awarded grants RU 2009/GRG15 to the two M.Sc. students—Mr. Nkheloane and Ms. Mating. Also, thanks go to the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Vienna, Austria that provided N-15 isotope fertilizer and analyzed the data under the grant agreement CRP 15399/R1-3.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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It is an oldest, most efficient, and easiest method to apply any surface without modifying the intrinsic properties of materials. Moreover, the initial phase of fire always occurs on the surface by ignition, and hence, it is important to concentrate on the surface protection of a material. Being an organic nature of conventional surface coating will burn easily and generate smoke and toxic fumes, which may not be suitable for application where fire protection or fire prevention is required. Reaction-to-fire and/or resistance-to-fire are to be considered for assessing both flammable and non-flammable material by using fire retardant and fire resistant or fire protective coatings. The degree of fire retardation mainly depends on the coating thickness, substrates, and efficiency of formulations. This chapter explains briefly the fire retardation of wood by using fire retardant coatings.",book:{id:"5827",slug:"new-technologies-in-protective-coatings",title:"New Technologies in Protective Coatings",fullTitle:"New Technologies in Protective Coatings"},signatures:"Thirumal Mariappan",authors:[{id:"198114",title:"Dr.",name:"Thirumal",middleName:null,surname:"Mariappan",slug:"thirumal-mariappan",fullName:"Thirumal Mariappan"}]},{id:"75967",title:"Recent Advances in Ceramic Materials for Dentistry",slug:"recent-advances-in-ceramic-materials-for-dentistry",totalDownloads:774,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Dental ceramics constitute a heterogeneous group of materials with desirable optical and mechanical proprieties combined with chemical stability. They are inorganic non-metallic materials used in several applications. These materials are biocompatible to tissue, highly esthetic, with satisfying resistance to tensile and shear stress. Over the past years, several developments in new ceramic materials in dental restoration were achieved, including processing techniques and high mechanical properties. Thus, concepts on the structure and strengthening mechanisms of dental ceramic materials are also discussed. The dental practitioner requires best knowledge concerning indications, limitations, and correct use of started materials. The purpose of this book chapter is to overview advances in new ceramic materials and processes, which are used in dentistry. The properties of these materials are also discussed.",book:{id:"9894",slug:"advanced-ceramic-materials",title:"Advanced Ceramic Materials",fullTitle:"Advanced Ceramic Materials"},signatures:"Mohsen Mhadhbi, Faïçal Khlissa and Chaker Bouzidi",authors:[{id:"228366",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohsen",middleName:null,surname:"Mhadhbi",slug:"mohsen-mhadhbi",fullName:"Mohsen Mhadhbi"},{id:"324375",title:"Dr.",name:"Faïçal",middleName:null,surname:"Khlissa",slug:"faical-khlissa",fullName:"Faïçal Khlissa"},{id:"324535",title:"Dr.",name:"Chaker",middleName:null,surname:"Bouzidi",slug:"chaker-bouzidi",fullName:"Chaker Bouzidi"}]},{id:"66615",title:"Survey of Bauxite Resources, Alumina Industry and the Prospects of the Production of Geopolymer Composites from the Resulting by-product",slug:"survey-of-bauxite-resources-alumina-industry-and-the-prospects-of-the-production-of-geopolymer-compo",totalDownloads:1199,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Guinea is endowed with huge mineral resources. Several geological surveys have identified bauxite, iron, gold, diamond, and several metal ores. Because of the diversity and the magnitude of its resources, the country is referred to as a geological scandal. Nowadays the aluminum industry is still at the quarrying stage of bauxite, the main raw material that is converted into alumina and further to aluminum. Approximately 35–40% of the processed bauxite ore goes into the waste as alkaline red mud RM slurry which consists of 15–40% solids. RM and other industrial wastes material such as fly ash FA, rice husk ash RHA, that poses environmental hazards can be mixed to make them apt for usage in engineering applications. Geopolymers GP represent a new class of materials consisting of Al2O3▬SiO2-based material suitable for several engineering application. The present chapter presents the bauxitic potential of Guinea, the subsequent developing alumina industry. It reviews the application of RM for the production of geopolymer materials in the perspective of the valorization of the huge bauxite potential of Guinea.",book:{id:"8612",slug:"geopolymers-and-other-geosynthetics",title:"Geopolymers and Other Geosynthetics",fullTitle:"Geopolymers and Other Geosynthetics"},signatures:"Sékou Traoré, A. Diarra, O. Kourouma and D.L. Traoré",authors:[{id:"266484",title:"Prof.",name:"Sekou",middleName:null,surname:"Traore",slug:"sekou-traore",fullName:"Sekou Traore"},{id:"272379",title:"Dr.",name:"Doussou L.",middleName:null,surname:"Traoré",slug:"doussou-l.-traore",fullName:"Doussou L. Traoré"}]},{id:"59550",title:"Introductory Chapter: A Brief Introduction to Porous Ceramic",slug:"introductory-chapter-a-brief-introduction-to-porous-ceramic",totalDownloads:1842,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:null,book:{id:"6084",slug:"recent-advances-in-porous-ceramics",title:"Recent Advances in Porous Ceramics",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Porous Ceramics"},signatures:"Uday M. Basheer Al-Naib",authors:[{id:"182041",title:null,name:"Uday",middleName:"M.",surname:"Basheer",slug:"uday-basheer",fullName:"Uday Basheer"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"155",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. 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Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. 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She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"4",type:"subseries",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11400,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188"},editorialBoard:[{id:"302145",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",middleName:null,surname:"Bongomin",slug:"felix-bongomin",fullName:"Felix Bongomin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302145/images/system/302145.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gulu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}},{id:"45803",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Payam",middleName:null,surname:"Behzadi",slug:"payam-behzadi",fullName:"Payam Behzadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/45803/images/system/45803.jpg",institutionString:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institution:{name:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:13,paginationItems:[{id:"82457",title:"Canine Hearing Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105515",signatures:"Peter M. 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