\r\n\tThis publication will aim to collect those projects and research that seek to make buildings, including urban environments, self-sufficient in terms of energy, focusing here on the solutions for HVAC and the energy systems they require and doing so from a double point of view:
\r\n\t- Complexity. As is the case with the automobile and aeronautics industries, buildings have become human-inhabited spaces with an ever-increasing technological load, which will presumably also be used in other ways, as the pandemic associated with COVID-19 has shown. In these scenarios, will HVAC systems be considered as before, or will new solutions have to be considered for new challenges?
\r\n\t- Disruptive technologies. In the coming years, the implementation of technologies such as hydrogen fuel cells, polygeneration of energy, the use of second-use electric batteries in buildings to accumulate energy from renewable energies, or the resolution of constructive solutions with 3D printing will become widespread in buildings. In this scenario, what will be the answers given by those responsible for HVAC systems?
\r\n\tIn addition, concepts such as artificial intelligence, technology transfer, biomimicry, or stigmergy will undoubtedly provide high-value solutions to new and refurbished buildings that society demands.
A fundamental question of interest is “What are the geographic patterns of the renewable wind resources?” Knowledge of the location of local wind capacity remains vital to the industry, yet commercially viable renewable-related geospatial products that meet the needs of the wind and weather science industries are often suspect. There are three stages involved with wind power project planning and operations during which accurate characterization of the wind plays a critical role:
\n\t\t\tProspecting (Siting): uses historical data, retrospective forecasts, and statistical methods to identify potential sites for wind power projects;
Site Assessment (Micrositing): determines the placement of a wind power project; and,
Operations: uses wind forecasts to determine available power output for hour-ahead and day-ahead time frames.
The most critical of these is the first – identifying and characterizing the resource. This chapter will discuss this first stage in detail, outlining the state of the art in understanding the wind resource, and discussing the strengths and weaknesses of existing methods. For example, appropriate statistical and modeling methods to compute the wind speed probability density function (PDF) will be described and critically examined.
\n\t\t\tIn addition, although there has been an increasing awareness of renewable energy as a viable energy supply source, there has not been a concomitant increase in the awareness of the impacts that any spatial and temporal trends in the resource (e.g., in the wind speeds themselves) may have on long-term production, use, and implementation of renewable energy and renewable energy policy. Thus, potential changes of the wind field under a changing climate will also be discussed. As will be described in more detail below, the main topics under examination in this paper are:
\n\t\t\taccurate portrayal of the resource; and
potential implications of climate change on the wind resource of the future.
The overall result will be an improved understanding of how the siting process works.
\n\t\tThe first step in determining the amount of potential electrical generation is developing an accurate portrayal of the resource. Thus, for an accurate representation of the wind energy at a particular location, correct estimates of the wind speed are necessary. Figures 1 and 2 illustrate the types of products that are typically used by in determining the wind resource. Figure 1 represents the wind resource at 50 m over the contiguous United States (obtained from the US DoE Wind Powering America program;
Rayleigh and
Weibull.”
(See also Conradsen, et al. (1984) for a description of the use of Weibull distribution for determination of wind speed statistics.)
\n\t\t\tHistorically, the wind PDF is most often estimated using a parametric model. These models generally include the Weibull (Stevens and Smulder 1979), Rayleigh (Celik 2003b) and Lognormal functions (Zaharim et al., 2009). The two parameter Weibull function has generally been accepted, and is most often used in research and industry, as an adequate model for the wind speed PDF (Hennessey, 1977; Justus et al., 1976; Pavia and O\'Brien, 1986; Ramirez and Carta, 2005; Monahan, 2006). However, as the Weibull distribution has become the industry standard, there have been many attempts to improve its overall applicability for modeling the wind speed PDF. For example, Justus and Mikhail (1976) developed an approach to adjust Weibull shape/scale parameters to a desired height. Stewart and Essenwanger (1978) developed a three-parameter Weibull distribution approach which shows a better fit than a traditional two-parameter Weibull; however, there are significant difficulties in estimating parameters, so its applicability has been limited.
\n\t\t\tIt has been shown, however, that wind speed does not always have a Weibull-like distribution (e.g., Tuller and Brett, 1984, Jaramillo and Borja 2004; Yilmaz and Çelik 2008). The result is that for wind power density computations, large errors in the resource estimation will result from this imperfect Weibull approximation. This is especially true since wind power density is a function of the expected value of the cube of the wind speed (Petersen, et al., 1997). Therefore, there has been range of other approaches attempting to fit the wind speed (or wind power density) PDF. These include: Lognormal (Luna and Church, 1974); elliptical bivariate-normal (Koeppl, 1982, who describes the difficulty translating such an approach to univariate (speed-only) distributions); and inverse Gaussian (Bardsley, W.E., 1980, which is offered as an alternative to Weibull distribution, especially in cases with low frequencies near zero).
\n\t\t\tWhile much research has focused on parametric and related approaches to this critical estimation of the wind speed or wind power density PDF, when a robust, smooth histogram of the wind speed distribution can be determined from the available data, non-parametric techniques (e.g., Izenman, 1991; Silverman 1986) can also be used given their flexibility and the likelihood that the actual wind power density may not be adequately represented by one of the models listed above (Jaramillo and Borja, 2004). A commonly used non-parametric method in industry and for research is the kernel method (Silverman 1986, Juban et al., 2007). While the kernel method is becoming increasingly popular in industry, there are significant problems with this approach. For example, the PDF functional representation using the Kernel has a number of terms equal to the number of data points used in the fitting process. Thus, the kernel method is not an optimal method for estimating the wind speed PDF, since if a PDF estimator is to be used in further mathematical computations a tractable function with a limited number of terms is required (Hall 1980).
\n\t\t\tU.S. Wind Resource Map US wind resource map provided by the Wind Powering America Program (
There has also been recent research to utilize concepts from the field of geostatistics to develop a transform function of the wind speed PDF as a function of scale (Morrissey, et al., 2010a, 2010b). If knowledge of the variance of the wind speed at a given scale is known (or can be estimated) then the probability density function representing the required scale may be estimated. In simple terms, the PDF from the higher resolution estimates can be ‘upscaled’ to match that from the lower resolution estimates. Thus, the PDFs can be scale-corrected, and the problems associated with the Weibull or other approaches can be overcome. This innovative approach uses the theoretical basis of orthogonal series estimators, or more specifically, Hermite polynomials (Schwartz (1967), Hall (1980) and Liebscher (1990)).
\n\t\t\tOklahoma Wind Resource Map Modeled wind resource provided by the Oklahoma Wind Power Initiative,
To illustrate this new approach, a series of data fits were applied to a dataset of 10m windspeeds at five-minute intervals from Boise City, Oklahoma, which is part of the Oklahoma Mesonetwork (Brock, et al., 1997). The results are shown in Figure 3. The y-axis in Figure 3 is a representation of wind power density. The value is normalized wind power density per unit speed. The units are watts/square meter/meter per second divided by air density. This value is used so that the when the integral of the curve is computed, the units reflect a measure of the actual wind power density. Although not commonly used in previous research, this is how the wind PDF values should be developed, as it is a more representative value of the variable in interest (e.g., actual electrical production).
\n\t\t\tA standard Weibull fit is compared to a kernel estimator and to a new approach using a Gauss-Hermite polynomial expansion (see Morrissey, et al., 2010a for details on the Gauss-Hermite approach). While there is a noticeable variation in the middle of the distribution, this is less significant in terms of the computation of the overall wind power. The Weibull distribution performs poorly where it matters the most – at the higher wind speeds. As might be expected, both non-parametric methods provide a better fit to the histogram than does the Weibull. The mean squared error for the Weibull distribution is approximately 10 times higher than the value for the other model approaches. Since the upper end of the wind speed distribution is the most significant when attempting to determine potential energy, this illustrates that the Weibull approach is not the best approach to fit the wind power PDF. For this location, the Gauss-Hermite and Kernel approaches have approximately the same error. However, since the kernel estimates are produced using parameters which are computed over the whole range, there is a tendancy and risk that the kernel approach will be too weighted toward the lower (e.g., less significant, from an electrical production standpoint) end of the spectrum, and therefore the Gauss-Hermite approach will yield results which more accurately model the wind power density and the electrical production potential.
\n\t\t\tActual and Modeled Wind Power Density at Boise City, Oklahoma. Values represent model estimates of scaled wind power density. The Black curve Weibull distribution fit; the Green curve is a Kernel estimator, and the Red curve is a Gauss-Hermite expansion fit.
It is well-known that climate change can influence the radiation balance and therefore wind patterns. Recent findings from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007) have shown that greenhouse gas-induced climate change is likely to significantly alter climate patterns in the future. One wind-industry relevant example is that climate change global warming is expected to affect synoptic and regional weather patterns, which would result in changes in wind speed and variability. Therefore, there is a need to examine climate change scenarios to determine potential changes in wind speed, and thus wind power. Wind power facilities typically operate on the scale of decades, so understanding any potential vulnerabilities related to climate variability is critical for siting such facilities. An exhaustive review of the existing research on the projected impacts of climate change on the wind industry can be found in Greene, et al. (2010). The purpose of this section is not to reproduce that work, but to illustrate what the potential impacts might look like.
\n\t\t\tThus, as an example of the specific impacts of climate change on a particular location, future summer wind speed estimates at 10m were computed for Chicago, Illinois. The data used represents estimates of daily wind speed. The dates of the model outputs were: 1990-1999, and for the decades of the 2020s, 2040s, and 2090s This was accomplished by using the Parallel Climate Model (PCM) model, and then downscaling the data. The PCM was developed at the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR), and is a coupled model that provides state-of-the-art simulations of the Earth\'s past, present, and future climate states (see Hayoe, et al., 2008a, 2008b). The projections for the future using the AOGCM are based on the IPCC Special Report on Emission Scenarios (SRES, Nakićenović et al., 2000) higher (A1FI) and lower (B1) emissions scenarios. These scenarios set the future atmospheric carbon equivalent amounts based upon estimates of a range of variables that could impact carbon emissions. These include estimates of future changes in population, demographics, and technology, among others. The B1 scenario values are considered a proxy for stabilizing atmospheric CO2 concentrations at or above 550 ppm by 2100, and atmospheric CO2 equivalent concentrations for the higher A1FI scenario are approximately 1000 ppm (Nakićenović et al. 2000). These estimates do not explicitly model carbon reduction policies, but are considered an approximate surrogates for carbon policy (B1), or a “business as usual” option (A1F1).
\n\t\t\tThe results shown in Figure 4 illustrate the changes in average wind speed throughout the spring and summer months (April – August), for the different decades listed above. Results show a decrease for April -June of approximately 3-5% by the end of the century. There is a slight increase for July and August. Overall for the summer, the total values are approximately equal (decreases of 0-1%), but the changes in the seasonal patterns illustrate the need for a more complete analysis in computing the climate change impact on wind speed and wind power density. Also, potential carbon management policy implications need to be considered. Figure 4 shows that there is a significant difference for the 2090s between the policy and no-policy estimates. For example, the May values show a decrease of 5% for the no policy option, and increase of over 4% for the climate policy estimates. This difference illustrates that for this location, a carbon management public policy would dramatically increase the wind, and therefore the potential for increased electrical production.
\n\t\tThis chapter has provided an overview of some key points associated with improved understanding of wind farm siting. Specifically, the focus has been on two areas of importance in this topic:
\n\t\t\taccurate wind resource assessment; and
potential implications of climate change on the wind resource of the future.
For the first topic, there has been much research into the best way to model the wind speed probability density function, as this is the core basis for estimation of the resource. Traditionally, the industry standard has been to model the PDF using either a Weibull or Rayleigh distribution. It has been pointed out that both of these approaches suffer severe limitations that call into question their effectiveness, and other approaches have been suggested by a range of different authors. A review of the trends and current state of the wind PDF modeling has been provided, illustrating a several new and potentially useful approaches. However, many of these approaches have the same inherent flaws, in that the efforts have been spent on modeling the wind speed PDF, when what the industry (e.g., utilities and electrical providers) are really interested in is an estimate of the amount of electrical production. Thus, this analysis of the existing research has illuminated two areas of potential improvement. First, continued improvements in the wind PDF modeling, including, for example, adopting approaches from other disciplines, such as the Gauss-Hermite approach illustrated above, are necessary to develop more accurate portrayals of the resource. Second, geographers and climatological researchers need to more effectively link their efforts to industry needs on trying to model, reproduce, and understand the resource of interest to utilities (e.g., potential electrical production) rather than the more simple and straightforward approach of analyzing the climatological variables (e.g., the wind speed).
\n\t\t\tEstimated Future Wind Speeds, Chicago. Values represent GCM-estimated wind speeds.
Finally, previous research has shown a projected slight decrease in wind speeds in the future, which would result in serious implications for wind farm siting. As shown in the analysis performed here, in the United States, particularly for the wintertime, this is theorized to be associated with a poleward shift of the mean thermal gradient as the earth warms and results in a northward shift of the associated storm track patterns. It is suggested that there will be pronounced regional and seasonal variability in the changes that are currently underway. The wind industry has been growing exponentially over the last decade, and is projected to expand and continue to play an ever-increasing role in electrical production around the world. Improved understanding of the resource, and in any inherent non-stationarities in the wind will help with transition to a sustainable energy future.
\n\t\tAs roots grow and search for nutrients they evolve in a very complex environment called rhizosphere. This is defined as the area around plant root that is populated by a variety of different microorganism species, which “cooperate” with the plant for the benefit of both. However, not all bacteria in rhizosphere are beneficial and plants have developed mechanisms to protect themselves against harmful bacteria. It has been estimated that there are over 10,000 bacterial species in the rhizosphere, not all with “good intentions” toward the plant.
The rhizosphere comprises two main compartments: ecto-rhizosphere and endo-rhizosphere. The former is the outermost zone that extends from the rhizoplane out into the bulk soil. The latter includes parts of the cortex and endodermis between which bacteria find a “home.” As McNear wrote in 2013: “the rhizosphere is not a region of definable size and shape but instead, consists of a gradient in chemical, biological and physical properties, which change both radially and longitudinally along the root” [1].
Roots are in constant “touch” with their surroundings seeking water and nutrients and also shedding root cap and border cells, mucilage and exudates. The latter comprises part of the carbon fixed via photosynthesis, namely inorganic carbon, i.e. HCO3− and organic carbon, such as organic acids and polyphenols. The exchange of material is influenced by the plant species, climate, presence of insects that feed on plants, nutrient availability, soil moisture and its physicochemical properties. Out of all organic compounds released from roots the low molecular weight compounds are the most studied because they serve as nutrients for the bacteria in the rhizosphere. The organic compounds also serve as chemo-attractants for the soil microbial population. For example, the exudates of leguminous plant roots attract rhizobium bacteria such as
The nitrogenase complex consists of two enzymes: dinitrogenase reductase (a dimeric Fe-protein) and dinitrogenase (a tetrameric FeMo-protein). The nitrogenase is rapidly inactivated by atmospheric oxygen. That is why the root nodules provide for a low oxygen environment, so that the enzyme is kept active.
Leguminous plants, which provide the largest simple source of vegetable protein in human diet and livestock feed have evolved signaling systems when under nitrogen deprivation. Legumes possess specific flavonoids that under nitrogen scarcity are released near the root tips, close to the emerging root hair zone that is the site of infection by rhizobium bacteria.
Plant flavonoids are secondary metabolites derived from the phenylpropanoid pathway and include chalcones, flavonols, flavones, anthocianins among others [3]. Flavonoids accumulate in the dividing cells of roots and some of them act as chemo-attractants for the rhizobium bacteria. The rhizobial signaling molecules are called nodulation factors and include lipo-chitooligosaccharides having a N-acetylglucosamine backbone, N-acetylated on the terminal non-reducing sugar. The substitutions on the oligosaccharide moiety determine the specificity of the symbiosis. Some plant flavonoids such as luteolin-7-O-glucoside and quercetin-3-O-galactoside can act as growth regulators of rhizobium bacteria.
One of the bacterial phylum present in the rhizosphere of legumes is
The symbiosis between nitrogen-fixing bacteria and leguminous plants is one way by which plants cope with limited availability of nitrogen in the soil. Besides this root exudates promote nutrient acquisition by changing the pH within the rhizosphere or chelating ions in soil solution. The root exudates contain organic acids such as malic and citric acids that acidify the soil and solubilize phosphate bound in soil minerals. Moreover, in case of chemical fertilizers plants respond differently depending on the chemical form of nitrogen in the soil. An excess of ammonium ion (NH4+) leads to a more alkaline environment whereas an excess of nitrate results in a lower pH in the rhizosphere. The pH fluctuations influences the availability of minerals such as zinc, calcium and magnesium. In addition, plant-bacteria cooperation can broaden immune functions of the plant host [4]. Accumulating evidence suggests that the chemical composition of root exudates is of paramount importance in selecting beneficial bacteria, which in turn leads to healthier and more productive plants [5].
Iron (Fe) is an essential mineral for plant growth and development. It is well known that in alkaline soils (representing some 30% of the world’s arable land) plants do not grow well because at higher pH, Fe is trapped in Fe oxides (Fe2O3). So plants have developed strategies for getting hold of iron. Thus, the root exudates contain a mixture of organic acids and phenols that reduce the pH in the rhizosphere, hence allowing for the reduction of Fe(III) to Fe(II), which is then taken up by the root epidermal cells (strategy I). Another strategy for Fe uptake is based on the solubilization of Fe2O3 by strong Fe(III)-chelating agents called phytosiderophores. They belong to the mugineic acid family and are released into rhizosphere by efflux transporters. The mechanisms of Fe uptake by plant roots have been extensively studied in the weed
Two other minerals are in the attention of plant scientists, namely inorganic phosphorus (Pi) and aluminum (Al). In acidic soils (that occupy a sizable portion of arable lands worldwide) low Pi availability and high Al toxicity limit plant growth and productivity. Work on
Wild plant roots have been eaten by humans since ancient times, especially during periods of food scarcity or famine. With the advent of agriculture in settled communities the roots of cultivated plants became permanent fixtures on the panoply of human diet. In this chapter we will focus on cultivated edible plants, whose roots are routinely used as foods and consumed either raw or cooked. Besides being nutritious due to their macro- and micronutrients content, they also contain numerous phytochemicals that are increasingly sought after by the food and pharma-/nutraceuticals industries both as food quality enhancers and promoters of health and disease prevention, respectively.
Roots can be broadly classified in:
edible taproots – consist of a main thick root from which other thin secondary roots grow laterally (ex.: carrots, radishes);
edible tuberous roots – consist of lateral thick roots that serve main as nutrient stores (ex.: sweet and regular potatoes).
Nutritionally, beetroot is a food source rich in proteins, carbohydrates, amino acids, phytosterols, vitamins and minerals, fibers, as well as nitrates. It also contains many phytochemicals such as polyphenols, flavonoids, betalains: betacyanins and betaxanthins [9].
Betalains are water-soluble nitrogen-containing pigments exhibiting red-violet and yellow-orange colors. Due to glycosylation and acylation of the hydroxyl groups in the molecule betalains have a great structural diversity. Betanin (betanidin-5-O-β-glucoside) is the most represented betacyaninin plants. It is also one of the few natural compounds that were approved for use as colorant in the food industry, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals (trade name: E162). Betanin is a strong reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenger and exhibits gene-regulatory activity via Nfr2 (nuclear factor erythroid-derived 2)-like-dependent signaling pathway that triggers the induction of phase II enzymes synthesis and antioxidant defense mechanisms. It has been suggested that betanin may also prevent LDL oxidation and DNA damage [10].
The type of beetroot processing has a considerable influence on the antioxidant power displayed by this vegetable. Thus, it was found that fresh, dried and pureed beetroot exhibited the highest antioxidant power, as expressed by the total phenolic content. Moreover, the liquid nitrogen method of beetroot processing resulted in the highest bioavailability of biologically active compounds. Beetroot active compounds have shown antitumor activity in vitro cell culture and animal model experiments.
Among all vegetables beetroot has the highest amount of nitrate (2.8 g/100 g wet weight). Nitrate as such has no biological effects but its metabolization product nitric oxide (NO•) has. Nitrate is absorbed in the upper part of duodenum but some 25% ends up in entero-salivary cycle where bacteria in the mouth convert it to nitrite. This nitrite is further reduced in the GI tract by several reductases to nitric oxide. Nitric oxide is a vasodilator (relaxes the smooth muscle cell in the vasculature) causing the vessels to widen hence prevent an increase in blood pressure. A decrease in nitric oxide supply leads to endothelial dysfunction, which is the primary risk for cardiovascular diseases (CVD). Clinical studies on healthy subjects demonstrated that beetroot juice intake was protective against endothelial dysfunction induced by an acute ischemic insult caused by brachial artery occlusion [11]. Beetroot juice supplementation significantly reduced systolic and diastolic blood pressure. Accumulating evidence suggest that several conditions such as hypertension, atherosclerosis, T2D and inflammation (chronic or acute) benefit from beetroot consumption. Betalains appear to interfere with the proinflammatory signaling cascade in which NF-ĸB plays a critical role by activating the transcription genes that regulate and amplify the inflammatory response.
Animal model experiments indicated that beetroot supplementation had a protective effect against drug-induced liver and kidney injury. The mechanisms likely involved are the anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and anti-apoptotic activities. In humans, beetroot supplementation was shown to improve hemoglobin status in adolescent anemic girls [12]. In another study involving healthy subjects it was shown that daily consumption of a 10% beetroot juice beverage resulted in a 34% decrease in plasma glucose level after 4 weeks of supplementation suggesting an improved glucose metabolism [13].
Carrots are a food source rich in micronutrients, phytochemicals and fiber. The main macronutrients are represented by carbohydrates (6.6–7.7 g/100 g), protein (0.8–1.1 g/100 g) and lipids (0.2–0.5 g/100 g). Carrots contain several B group vitamins (thiamine, niacin, folic acid, in sub milligram range), vitamin C (21-775 mg/100 g between cultivars) and minerals Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cu, Zn in milligram range). The fiber is represented by insoluble fiber (cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin) whereas the soluble fiber consists of pectin, gums and mucilage [14]. Carrots are a significant source of phenolic compounds, carotenoids and polyacetylenes [15].
Phenolic compounds are widely present in the plant kingdom and include phenolic acids, flavonoids, tanins, lignans, curcuminoids and stilbenoids. The concentration of phenolic compounds increases in the direction xylem toward peel (periderm) as they are released through the exudate into the surrounding medium of the root. Phenolic compounds play an important role in the acquisition of metal ions and the facilitation of microbes – root interactions. There is a large body of evidence that phenolics exert a host of health benefits including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antiproliferative properties. In so doing they decrease the risk of cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, inflammatory conditions and slow down the aging process. Anthocyanins from black carrot root were found to possess anti-proliferative activity in cell culture and animal model experiments. Unfortunately, epidemiological studies in humans failed to demonstrate clear cut benefits in cancer patients [16]. Most clinical studies however, had a short duration, insufficient to draw a definite conclusion on the subjects. It is worth mentioning here that in 2014 in U.S. some 40% of all cancer cases were attributable to risk factors such as smoking, alcohol consumption, bad diet, low physical activity and the rest of 60% were caused by DNA replicative errors that led to gene mutations [17]. It is therefore of paramount importance to pay attention to a diet rich in phytochemicals such as fresh fruits and vegetables in order to reduce the risk of cancer.
Isoprenoid precursors through a series of reactions yield lycopene, which is further processed to yield α- and β-carotene. α-carotene is converted to lutein whereas β-carotene is turned into zeaxanthin. In humans, conversion of β-carotene into vitamins A occurs mainly in the gut and liver and much less in other tissues. The efficiency factor for the conversion of dietary β-carotene to vitamins A is 12:1 by weight. Epidemiological data indicate that diets rich in carotenoid-containing foods are associated with a reduced risk of developing chronic diseases such as CVD, diabetes, cancer and age-related macular degeneration [18, 19]. Retinol in vitamins A has been shown to play a central role in these processes. The major factors affecting bioavailability of carotenoids and their conversion to vitamin A are food matrices, food preparation and the fat content of meals.
The third group of phytochemicals in carrots are polyacetylenes. They are non-volatile compounds comprising at least two conjugated triple C-C bonds [15]. There is evidence to suggest that these compounds have the potential to improve human health due to their antifungal, antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties.
Celery plant parts (leaves, stalk, and root) have been used since Antiquity for medicinal purposes in the treatment of conditions such as joint pain, gout, and fever cause by bacterial infection, constipation, heartburn, etc. Celery is rich in vitamins (A, C, D, E, K, B group), minerals (K, Mg, Ca, Zn, Fe, Cu, Se) and phytochemicals (carotenes, phenolic acids (ferulic acid, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid,
Celery seeds and root extracts exhibited anti-proliferative and pro-apoptotic activity against several human cancer cell lines. These extracts also reduced the ability of dendritic cells to proliferate during lipopolysaccharide stimulation. As a result, there was no decrease in the pro-inflammatory TNF-α and IL-6 levels but a reduced production of the anti-inflammatory IL-10. Interestingly, it has been recently shown that during severe cases of COVID-19 infections there was a spike in the production of anti-inflammatory IL-10 but for some unknown reason IL-10 failed to suppress COVID-associated cytokine storm that causes increased inflammation. The IL-10 level in COVID patients has been linked to disease severity and prognosis [21]. Regular consumption of celery has been consistently shown that it leads to decreased inflammation, oxidative stress and reduced risk of developing hypertension and coronary heart disease. Apigenin in celery was shown in animal model experiments to help improve liver function by increasing the antioxidant power and hepatoprotective activity [22].
Ginger has been used for a long time as a spice rather than a food staple. It is consumed raw or pickled. It is rich in polyphenols (gingerols, shogaols, paradols), flavonoids and several terpenoids, which are the main constituents of ginger essential oils. Ginger roots also contain polysaccharides, lipids, organic acids and fiber. Due to its high content in polyphenols ginger possesses a strong antioxidant activity. Dried ginger appears to have the highest antioxidant power. Cell culture experiments revealed that ginger extracts protected against oxidative stress as it stimulated the expression of antioxidant enzymes that reduce ROS generation and lipid peroxidation. The antioxidant activity was mediated through the Nrf2 signaling pathway [23].
Ginger extracts were shown, in animal model experiments to alleviate the severity of inflammatory bowel disease. The polyphenols in these extracts inhibit the inflammation signaling pathways represented by the NF-ĸB and MAPK pathways. Cell culture and mice model experiments using ginger-derived nanoparticles have shown that this novel therapeutic approach could be a promising way for the treatment/prevention of inflammatory bowel diseases [24, 25].
Ginger extracts were also shown to be cytotoxic to breast, cervical, colorectal and prostate cancer cells. The 6-gingerol from ginger may exert its effect on cancer cells via the inhibition of proliferation and the induction of apoptosis in these cells. Apoptosis is induced by the decreased expression of genes involved in the Ras/ERK and PI3K/Akt signaling pathways. Interestingly, a natural ginger extract exhibited a 2.4-fold higher inhibition of tumor growth than a mixture of 6-shogaol, 6-gingerol, 8-gingerol and 10-gingerol [26].
In a cross-sectional observational study involving 4628 participants, age 18 to77, it has been found that daily ginger consumption was associated with a decreased risk of hypertension and atherosclerosis [27].
Animal model experiments indicated that administration of ginger extracts to rats fed a high-fat diet resulted in improved plasma lipid profiles and increased plasma HDL-C level, thus reducing the risk of atherosclerosis. Ginger treatment decreased the activity of angiotensin-1 converting enzyme and increased NO• in hypertensive rats. Mice fed a high-fat diet treated with 6-paradol from ginger exhibited a significantly lower blood glucose level. 6-gingerol treatment of diabetic rats improved glucose tolerance by increasing glucagon-like peptide-1 expression and increased the transport of GLUT4 to cell membrane. In a clinical observational study ginger intake led to reduced levels of fasting plasma glucose, HbA1c, insulin, triglycerides in T2D patients [28]. In a RCT on gestational diabetes mellitus women it was found that ginger tablet supplementation for 6 weeks resulted in reduced fasting blood glucose, fasting insulin and HOMA index. However, there was no change in the 2 hours post-prandial blood glucose level [29]. Ginger intake, in line with a long tradition to treat respiratory disorders was shown to possess bronchodilating activity and anti-hyperactivity. This effect was due probably to the relaxation of smooth muscle cells of the airways as animal model experiments demonstrated. Ginger phytochemicals could also improve symptoms of allergic asthma by reducing allergic airway inflammation [30].
A recent systematic review of over 100 randomized controlled clinical trials on the effects of ginger consumption on a host of human disorders found that conditions such as inflammation, metabolic syndrome, irritable bowel disease, some cancers and pain relief for arthritis, chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting showed clear health benefits while others such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease and neurological disorders were not significantly helped by ginger intake [31]. In the realm of pain relief it was reported that ginger intake was helpful in alleviating primary dysmenorrhea pain and was as effective as medications such as ibuprofen and mefenamic acid. Ginger’s mode of action involves the suppression of cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase responsible for the production of pro-inflammatory prostaglandins and leukotrienes, respectively.
Like in all RCT (randomized clinical trials) to date, the wide spectrum of trial designs, number of participants, dosage of active compounds administered, standardization of methodology, etc. makes it difficult to fully assess the effectiveness of natural products from plants in the treatment/prevention of human diseases. Better designed trials will be able to address the shortcomings encountered so far.
Turmeric has been long used by the folk medicine as adjuvant for liver obstruction and jaundice, ulcers and inflammation as well as a host of other ailments such as cold, digestive problems, skin infections, wound healing, asthma, tumors and others. Turmeric was also used as a spice, food preservative and coloring agent. The plant part most important for health is the tuberous rhizome from which turmeric is formed. The main bioactive compound in turmeric is curcumin, also known as diferuloylmethane [32]. Chemically, it is a diarylheptanoid, which is a phenolic pigment responsible for the yellow color of turmeric. Besides the macronutrients (proteins, lipids and carbohydrates), turmeric rhizome contains minerals (Mn, Ca, Mg, Cu, Fe, Zn, P, Na, K), vitamins (B, A, E, K, C), polyphenols, terpenoids, alkaloids, fiber and resins. Monoterpenes are predominant in the essential oils of flowers and leaves whereas sesquiterpenes are predominant in the oils of roots and rhizome. Curcumin makes up 0.3–5.4% of raw turmeric and is the most investigated compound from this plant to date.
Animal model experiments and human clinical studies showed that curcumin may be an important adjuvant therapy in conditions such as gastrointestinal and respiratory disorders, inflammatory disorders, diabetes, CVD and cancer (colorectal, pancreatic and lung cancer). In T2D patients curcumin improved insulin sensitivity, enhanced adiponectin secretion and lowered leptin, resistin, IL-6, IL-1β and TNF-α levels. A meta-analysis of RCT found that curcumin supplementation led to lower blood lipid profiles in CVD patients [33]. One type of cancer that currently has a poor prognosis and survival rate is glioblastoma (GBM). Several cellular signaling pathways such as p53, MAPK, PI3K/Akt, JAK/STAT and NF-ĸB were found to be dysregulated in GBM.
Curcumin appears to modulate these pathways as in vitro and in vivo experiments suggested. Unfortunately, there was only one clinical trial on the possible anti-tumor effect of curcumin in GBM patients. Using the micellar curcumin formulation it was found that the intra-tumoral curcumin concentration was too low to cause a short-term anti-tumor effect. This was likely due to the small dose of curcumin administered to patients [34]. Due to its chemical structure curcumin has low solubility at neutral and acidic pH, hence reduced bioavailability. In the duodenum curcumin undergoes rapid metabolization via the formation of glucuronides and sulfates that are excreted. Free curcumin was not detected in the serum of GBM patients. It is important therefore to increase the solubility and absorption of this bioactive compound. To that effect efforts are underway to encapsulate curcumin in micelles, nanoparticles, liposomes to make sure it is delivered to the target tissue. There is evidence that curcumin-loaded nanoparticles could suppress the viability, proliferation and migration of glioma stem cells through the induction of cell cycle arrest and apoptosis [34].
In an effort to improve the efficacy of conventional drugs for the treatment of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) curcumin nanoparticles were added to standard therapy for this condition. It was found that curcumin was safe and well tolerated [35]. In another RCT curcumin reduced oxidative stress, improved aerobic metabolism and slowed down the progression of the disease [36].
Since the antiviral activity of curcumin is well documented it has been recently speculated that curcumin might be used as adjuvant therapy in the treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infections [37].
Horseradish (
There is evidence to suggest that HR oils have potential anti-cancer effects against lung, colorectal, ovarian, oral, prostate cancer as well as glioblastoma. Recent cell culture experiments using cisplatin-resistant oral cancer cells demonstrated that AITC can inhibit Akt/mTOR proliferation signaling pathway and promote mitochondria-dependent apoptotic pathway via AITC-enhanced activity of caspase-3 and caspase-9 in these cells [39].
A study back in 2007 using a HR preparation on patients with acute sinusitis, acute bronchitis and acute urinary tract infection showed that HR was just as effective as the standard treatment with antibiotics and displayed a significantly lower potential for adverse events [40]. In another cell culture experiment,
Despite promising results from in vitro and in vivo studies of the health benefits of HR oils there are no RCT to date on the use of HR extracts in clinical settings.
Like in the case of horseradish, radish roots have been used for centuries for the treatment of conditions such as stomach pain, constipation, fever, urinary tract infections, liver inflammation, ulcers and cardiac disorders. More recently, in vitro and animal model experiments reported antibacterial, antioxidant and anxiety lowering effects [42].
Radish contains carbohydrates, protein, fiber, vitamins (B group and C) and minerals (Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn, Mn, K, P). Besides the macro-and micronutrient arsenal radish contains secondary metabolites such as polyphenols, isothiocyantes (sulforaphane, sulforaphene, indole-3-carbinol) and glucosinolates (GSL) similar in composition with those in HR. GSL are found exclusively in cruciferous vegetables. They can be classified in three major classes: aliphatic GSL (derived from Met, Ileu, Leu, Val), aromatic GSL (derived from Phe, Tyr) and indolic GSL (derived from Trp). They are sulfur-rich secondary metabolites involved in plant’s defense mechanisms against herbivores and pathogens. GSL occur in pungent plants of the Brassicaceae order. To date more than 200 types of GSL have been identified [43].
Selenium (Se) has long been recognized as being essential to animal and human nutrition. Although Se is not considered essential to plants is nevertheless thought as a beneficial element. Low Se soil levels translate in low Se levels in crops used for human consumption. Se as selenate (Na2SeO4) is absorbed by plants via sulfur transporters and is incorporated into selenocysteine (SeCys) and seleno-methionine (SeMet). SeCys is part of the seleno-glutathione peroxidase, a powerful antioxidant enzyme. SeMet and methyl-selenocysteine were found to have anticarcinogenic properties.
Because of the importance of Se for human health efforts were made to increase Se uptake by root veggies like radish. Schiavon et al. [44] have shown that Se biofortification in radish resulted in enhanced nutritional value through accumulation of methyl-selenocysteine and secondary metabolites such as glucosinolates, polyphenols and amino acids. The method of Se fertilization and the dosage of selenate applied to plants is important as excess Se may interfere with cysteine and methionine biosynthesis and can also affect negatively glucosinolate accumulation in plants. This is because Se and sulfur share the same uptake pathway. Nitrogen assimilation may also be affected by a high Se concentration in the fertilizer as Se may interfere with molybdenum (Mo) uptake. Mo is a cofactor in the enzyme nitrate reductase that converts nitrate to nitrite, the first reaction in nitrate assimilation by plants. Nitrite is further reduced to ammonia by nitrite reductase. At higher Se dosage the concentration of GSH in roots was lower than at low Se dosage because of a lower entry of sulfate into the sulfur assimilation pathway. The foliar Se spray of radishes grown in soil yielded a higher production of cysteine and GSH in roots. The study of Schiavon et al. [44] also revealed that Se foliar spray resulted in higher levels of all types of glucosinolates in roots including the glucoraphanin, a powerful anticarcinogen. The authors concluded that Se foliar fertilization is a better way to achieve a higher Se and other bioactive compounds in the roots than the hydroponic method.
In the following we will examine some of the properties that make radish such a valued vegetable in terms of nutrition and health enhancement promoter. Turmeric has been long used by the folk medicine as adjuvant for liver obstruction and
Antioxidant activity
Radish contains a large selection of phytochemicals that includes carotenoids, GSL, isothiocyanates, phenolic acids, polyphenols, flavanol, flavanone and anthocyanins. Some are present in only one tissue (GSL and carotenoids in sprouts) while others occur in more than one tissue, e.g. anthocyanin, in root and leaves. The leaves have a higher amount of polyphenols than the root. The leafy part constitutes an excellent source compounds with antioxidant power. Hence, it is recommended that all parts of the radish plant be consumed, including the sprouts. The flavonoids in radish have the ability to chelate iron, thus blocking iron-catalyzed generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS).
Detoxification activity
Cell culture and animal model experiments revealed that radish extracts attenuated the chemically-induced rat liver injury by decreasing lipid peroxidation caused by oxidative stress (OS). There is evidence to suggest that administration of radish extracts to rats upregulated the expression of cytochrome P450, Nrf-2/HO-1 signaling pathway, which are known to activate the expression of antioxidant enzymes. Besides fresh extracts some studies employed fermented radish in presence of
Radish extracts proved helpful in the detoxification of xenobiotics. Thus, a single center, open label, pilot study investigated black radish supplementation to healthy males who received a controlled dose of acetaminophen (ibuprophen). The results showed that changes over a 4 week period of the ibuprophen metabolite and estradiol-17β suggested that there was an upregulation of phase I and phase II detoxification enzymes [47].
Anticancer activity
There is some evidence to suggest that indole-3-carbinol and its metabolite 3,3′-diindolyl-methane could suppress the growth and proliferation in tumor cell lines. These compounds target several features of cancer cell metabolism such as cell cycle regulation and survival including NF-ĸB/Akt signaling pathway, estrogen receptor signaling, caspase activation and endoplasmic reticulum stress [48]. Several studies reported the anti-cancer properties of GSL and isothiocyanates [42]. Thus, extracts of Spanish black radish inhibited the proliferation of HepG2 human tumor cells in vitro by up-regulating the phase I and II detoxification system. Apparently, the anti-cancer effect was due to the GSL compounds glucoraphasatin and 4-methylthio-3-butenyl isothiocyanate [49]. Sulforaphane and sulforaphene in Thai rat-tailed radish extract exhibited a strong cytotoxic effect against colon tumor cell line HCT116 [50]. The mechanism of action involved the increased production of ROS in these cells and the disruption of microtubule polymerization, hence affecting cell cycle regulation. A prospective EPIC-Heidelberg cohort study comprising 11,405 subjects and a mean follow-up time of 9.4 years found that a high GSL intake from cruciferous vegetables including radish was inversely associated with prostate cancer risk.
A very interesting use of radish extracts with the goal of obtaining cytotoxic agents against cancer cells is the reduction of graphene oxide (GO) in the presence of mild reductants such as those in radish extracts. GO is generated by the exfoliation of graphene from graphite in the presence of strong acids and bases. For biomedical applications GO is reduced by eco-friendly compounds such as polyphenols and flavonoids in plants such as radish. It has been found that reduced GO could significantly inhibit the proliferation of human breast and lung cancer cell lines [51].
Potential anti-diabetic properties
Unlike other medical conditions discussed above the potential of radish extracts to exert an anti-diabetes activity has been investigated so far only by using in vitro or in vivo (animal model experiments) systems. Thus, radish extracts administered to streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats caused a significant reduction in blood glucose, insulin and triglycerides levels [52]. Radish extracts also reduced the starch-induced postprandial glycemic load suggesting that is has a potent anti-diabetic activity. It has been speculated that the hypoglycemic effect was due to an improved insulin sensitivity rather than increased insulin output. The phenolic compounds in radish may also assist in reducing oxidative stress via production of ROS, which are known to be elevated in diabetes. In addition, isothiocyanates in radish were shown to induce phase II antioxidant enzymes such as glutathione transferase, heme oxygenase-1, NAD(P)H-quinone reductase and UDP-glucuronosyl transferase. In vitro studies, demonstrated that aqueous radish extracts inhibited the activity of α-amylase and α-glucosidase, hence a decreased absorption of poly-and oligosaccharides in the GI tract.
Like the other root vegetables discussed above parsnip has been a staple for humans since ancient times. Parsnip is rich in vitamins and minerals (particularly potassium), phytochemicals (polyphenols, flavonoids, polyacetylenes, terpenes), essential oils and fiber. 100 g of parsnip provide about 75 kcal. A typical parsnip root contains 80% water, 5% carbohydrates, 1% protein, 0.3% lipids and 5% fiber.
Traditionally, parsnip has been used by folk medicine, particularly in the old Persian medical practice for topical and oral treatment of headaches, stomatitis, dermatitis, kidney stones and fever as well as recommended as gastric tonic, laxative and diuretic [53].
We cannot emphasize strongly enough the importance of fiber intake for a healthy life because of the proven health benefits of a fiber-rich diet. The dietary fiber comprises cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, pectin and β-glucans. According to WHO and FAO dietary fiber consists of ten or more monomeric units that are neither digested nor absorbed in the small intestine and they are labeled as complex carbohydrates. Fruits and vegetables contain soluble and insoluble fiber. The former includes pectins, gums, insulin-type fructans and some hemicellulose. The latter comprises lignin, cellulose, some hemicellulose, resistant starches and analogous carbohydrates such as methyl cellulose. The content of dietary fiber in parsnip is 30% of the dry matter, composed mainly by neutral sugars (18%), pectic compounds (10%) and Klason lignin (1.92%). Klason lignin represents the insoluble residue portion left after removing the ash by acid hydrolysis of the plant tissue [54, 55].
When designing a healthy meal one should bear in mind the potential interplay between soluble fiber and fat. Experiments on mice indicated that mice fed a high fat diet that included soluble fiber exhibited a weight gain [56]. This outcome might be due to increased short chain fatty acids production after fermentation in the colon and subsequent increase in energy absorption.
Regular intake of soluble fiber has been associated with lower cholesterol and glucose levels, increased mass of friendly gut bacteria and a lower risk of developing metabolic syndrome, T2D and CVD. An observational study comprising healthy subjects found an inverse association between fiber intake and the concentration of serum C reactive protein. In another study on T2D patients it was shown that a higher fiber intake led to a decrease in the levels of circulating pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-18. It is well documented that high levels of circulating pro-inflammatory cytokines are associated with an increased risk for diabetes and CVD so a diet rich in fiber lowers the risk of getting T2D or CVD. Dietary fibers also decrease blood glucose excursions and lower insulin response.
The phytochemicals in parsnip root have been shown to possess a wide spectrum of pharmacological properties, which made them useful in tackling conditions such as neurological, respiratory, gastrointestinal, liver, skin, heart and urogenital disorders [54]. In vitro cell culture experiments have also shown cytotoxic effects of parsnip phytochemicals on cancer cell lines. A parsnip furanocoumarin such as xanthotoxin was shown to prevent memory impairment induced by injection of scopolamine in mice suggesting that xanthotoxin has neuroprotective effects on the cholinergic neurotransmission and also reduced oxidative stress in the brain [57].
Garlic (
There have been numerous observational and clinical trials in the last two decades assessing the therapeutic effects of garlic preparations on pathologies such as diabetes, CVD, hypertension, metabolic syndrome, skin disorders, cancer, bacterial and fungal infections due mainly to the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and lipid lowering effects shown by these preparations [59]. Garlic compounds were shown to elicit a number of biological responses such as the modulation of several cell signaling pathways (Akt/mTOR, MAPK, Nrf2, protein kinase B, 5’-AMP-activated protein kinase) as well as the activity of cytokines, intercellular adhesion molecules, cyclooxygenase, inducible NO synthase and others). Many studies were hampered by the low bioavailability and fast metabolization of garlic compounds in the human body and that affected the interpretation of the results. For example, the effect of garlic treatment on people with elevated blood pressure showed mixt results. One study indicated that the treatment resulted in slight improvement in cases of mild hypertension whereas another study showed no effect. Moreover, aged garlic extracts contain mainly water-soluble organosulfur compounds such as S-allyl cysteine and S-allylmercaptocysteine, which show other pharmacokinetics properties than oil-soluble S-containing compounds and that may influence the outcome of garlic supplementation.
Table headings list study design, medical condition examined, number of patients, type of intervention, duration of study and outcome. The clinical trials on T2D patients receiving garlic preparations with or without standard medication indicated that in general there was a significant reduction in blood glucose and HbA1c levels as well as an improved plasma lipid profile. Patients with gastric lesions supplemented with garlic preparations over a long period of time showed a decreased risk of developing gastric cancer incidence and mortality. On the other hand, patients with liver, prostate and colon cancer supplemented with 4 capsules of garlic preparation daily for 6 months did not show an improvement of their condition and the quality of life. Garlic preparations were found useful in reducing the level of oxidative stress and the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6 and CRP commonly associated with most human pathologies. Garlic preparations were found helpful for combating microbial infections. There was an inverse association between oral bacteria level and a lime-containing garlic extracts mouth wash in children with severe early caries. The inhibitory effect of garlic may include morphological alterations in bacterial cell wall and inhibition of microbial adherence to the epithelial cells of the host.
In general, garlic therapy yielded mixed results suggesting that not all pathologies are alike and not all patients respond in the same way to garlic supplementation. Better garlic formulations together with the standard therapy and a healthy diet and lifestyle should improve the outcome of treatment and reduce the risk of developing the conditions in the first place.
Onion (
Onions contain vitamins (B1, B2, B6, folate, vitamin C), minerals (Mg, Ca, K, P), phenolic acids (gallic acid, ferulic acid, protocatechuic acid), flavonoids (flavanones, flavonols, flavanonols, kaempferol, anthocyanins), sulfur-containing compounds (diallyl sulfide, diallyl disulfide, S-methyl cysteine sulfoxide, etc), organic acids (citric, tartric, malic, oxalic, succinic), monosaccharides (glucose, fructose), fructooligosaccharides, phytoalexins and saponins. The main flavonol in onion is qercetin, in free form and as glucoside.
In an elegant randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled cross-over clinical trial it was found that supplementation with 162 mg/d quercetin from onion skin extract powder to overweight-to-obese patients for 6 weeks resulted in a modest drop in blood pressure (BP) in hypertensive but not in pre-hypertensive individuals [63]. These findings suggest that a threshold of higher BP might be necessary in order to detect a BP-lowering effect of quercetin. In addition, in the clinic’s office where the BP measurements were performed no significant effects of quercetin supplementation on systolic BP were recorded and only about 50% of the participants showed a decrease in systolic BP. In contrast to animal model studies showing that quercetin attenuated hypertension and vascular dysfunction in a NO•-dependent fashion, in the human trial above the biomarkers of endothelial function such as plasma endothelin-1, soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1, reactive hyperemia index were not affected by quercetin supplementation. The marker of inflammation CRP and angiotensin converting enzyme activity were also unaffected by quercetin treatment. The authors of the study concluded that for the hypertensive patients quercetin could decrease the 24 h systolic BP but without affecting the markers associated with inflammation and endothelial function. For the time being the molecular mechanisms underlying the BP-lowering effect of quercetin remain unclear.
In another RCT study it was found that onion extracts containing 50 mg quercetin increased the circulating endothelial progenitor cells and improved the flow-mediated dilation while BP and blood lipid profile were not affected.
It is also worth mentioning here that a meta-analysis of several RCTs on the effect of quercetin on BP indicated that a significant anti-hypertensive effect was only apparent at doses above 500 mg/day taken for longer than 8 weeks.
Platelet aggregation constitutes an aggravating factor in atherosclerosis. In vitro experiments using rat platelets have demonstrated that methanol extracts of onion skins were able to inhibit platelet aggregation. Quercetin and quercetin glucosides as well as organosulfur compounds appear to be involved in this inhibition. Allicin in onions was found to be a potent inhibitory factor toward ADP, arachidonic acid and collagen-induced platelet aggregation. It has been proposed that quercetin and organosulfur compounds from onion may be included in a preparation to be used for the prevention/management of atherosclerosis.
Most studies on the effect of onion compounds on cancer have been carried out on cancer cell lines and animal models. The polyphenols and S-containing compounds were mainly responsible for the observed effects. Quercetin glucosides in onion extracts were shown to possess antiproliferative activity against human breast, colorectal and prostate cancer cell lines. One possible mechanism is the inhibition of the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway, which results in apoptosis. Diallyl-trisulfide from onion was shown to trigger cancer cell cycle arrest at G2/M phase and the release of ROS that promote apoptosis and restrict tumor cell formation and development.
Onion extracts have been investigated in animal model experiments in relation to their potential use as anti-diabetic agents. For instance, STZ-induced diabetic rats treated with
Onion constituents show clear benefits against respiratory and allergic disorders. Experiments with allergic asthma guinea pigs indicated that onion quercetin significantly alleviated asthma symptoms. The mechanism of action includes β2-adrenoreceptors stimulation, inhibition of Ca channel blocking, histamine H1 receptors and phosphodiesterase activity. Protective effects of onion extracts were demonstrated by epidemiological and population case–control studies. Onion extracts as well as purified thiosulfinates and kaempferol acted by relaxing tracheal smooth muscles hence, improving clinical symptoms and reducing the severity of asthmatic attacks.
Biological active compounds in onions were shown in vitro experiments to possess antimicrobial activity. Red onion extracts were more effective antimicrobial agents than those from white and yellow onions. The bacterial species tested included
The last 30 years or so have been marked by an impressive progress in our knowledge about the chemical composition and the mode of action of biologically active compounds in fruits and vegetables, both wild and cultivated. In the present chapter we focused on the biochemistry and the potential benefits of compounds occurring in the roots and bulbs of some cultivated vegetables that have been for thousands of years part of human staple in all cultures. These chemicals are synthesized by plants to help attract friendly bacteria and/or ward off pathogens as well as increasing the absorption of vital nutrients including minerals.
All of the vegetable roots discussed in this chapter contain a wealth of bioactive compounds such as phenolic acids, polyphenols, sulfur-containing compounds, isothiocyanates, glucosinolates, mono- and polysaccharides, phytosterols, saponins, fiber and others. These chemicals have been extensively studied by using a variety of in vitro and in vivo experimental systems. Numerous clinical trials tried to assess the usefulness of either isolated compounds from roots and bulbs or whole extracts from these tissues for the treatment of major diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancer, allergies as well as bacterial infections either alone or in conjunction with standard therapies. In most cases there was a significant improvement in the condition of patients and quality of life. If total cure could not be achieved at least these natural compounds can assist in the prevention of many diseases in the first place. It is hoped that based on the knowledge accumulated so far the nutraceutical industry will come up with better product formulation regarding these bioactive compounds so there will be a better outcome for the patients. Besides supplementation with plant-based products, a diet rich in fruits and vegetables, an active lifestyle with physical activity and stress management will ensure a good health and a happy life.
IntechOpen - where academia and industry create content with global impact
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\\n\\nCo-founded by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic: “We are passionate about the advancement of science. As Ph.D. researchers in Vienna, we found it difficult to access the scholarly research we needed. We created IntechOpen with the specific aim of putting the academic needs of the global research community before the business interests of publishers. Our Team is now a global one and includes highly-renowned scientists and publishers, as well as experts in disseminating your research.”
\\n\\nBut, one thing we have in common is -- we are all scientists at heart!
\\n\\nSara Uhac, COO
\\n\\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
\\n\\nAdrian Assad De Marco
\\n\\nAdrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
\\n\\nDr Alex Lazinica
\\n\\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"Our business values are based on those any scientist applies to their research. We have created a culture of respect and collaboration within a relaxed, friendly and progressive atmosphere, while maintaining academic rigour.
\n\nCo-founded by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic: “We are passionate about the advancement of science. As Ph.D. researchers in Vienna, we found it difficult to access the scholarly research we needed. We created IntechOpen with the specific aim of putting the academic needs of the global research community before the business interests of publishers. Our Team is now a global one and includes highly-renowned scientists and publishers, as well as experts in disseminating your research.”
\n\nBut, one thing we have in common is -- we are all scientists at heart!
\n\nSara Uhac, COO
\n\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
\n\nDr Alex Lazinica
\n\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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This chapter documents some of the studies on antibiotic usage in poultry farming; with specific focus on some selected bacterial species, their economic importance to poultry farming and reports of resistances of isolated species from poultry settings (farms and poultry products) to essential antibiotics.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Christian Agyare, Vivian Etsiapa Boamah, Crystal Ngofi Zumbi and\nFrank Boateng Osei",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"261271",title:"MSc.",name:"Crystal Ngofi",middleName:null,surname:"Zumbi",slug:"crystal-ngofi-zumbi",fullName:"Crystal Ngofi Zumbi"},{id:"261272",title:"MSc.",name:"Frank Boateng",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"frank-boateng-osei",fullName:"Frank Boateng Osei"},{id:"261273",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian Etsiapa",middleName:null,surname:"Boamah",slug:"vivian-etsiapa-boamah",fullName:"Vivian Etsiapa Boamah"}]},{id:"49246",doi:"10.5772/61300",title:"Chitosan as a Biomaterial — Structure, Properties, and Electrospun Nanofibers",slug:"chitosan-as-a-biomaterial-structure-properties-and-electrospun-nanofibers",totalDownloads:4727,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:63,abstract:"Chitosan is a polysaccharide derived from chitin; chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide in the world, after cellulose. Chitosan is biocompatible, biodegradable and non-toxic, so that it can be usedin medicalapplications such as antimicrobial and wound healing biomaterials. It also used as chelating agent due to its ability to bind with cholesterol, fats, proteins and metal ions.",book:{id:"4648",slug:"concepts-compounds-and-the-alternatives-of-antibacterials",title:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials",fullTitle:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials"},signatures:"H. M. Ibrahim and E.M.R. El- Zairy",authors:[{id:"90645",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hassan-ibrahim",fullName:"Hassan Ibrahim"},{id:"175694",title:"Dr.",name:"Enas",middleName:null,surname:"El- Zairy",slug:"enas-el-zairy",fullName:"Enas El- Zairy"}]},{id:"70919",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90891",title:"Antimicrobial Effect of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles",slug:"antimicrobial-effect-of-titanium-dioxide-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:1817,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:47,abstract:"The widespread use of antibiotics has led to the emergence of multidrug-resistant bacterial strains, and therefore a current concern for food safety and human health. The interest for new antimicrobial substances has been focused toward metal oxide nanoparticles. Specifically, titanium dioxide (TiO2) has been considered as an attractive antimicrobial compound due to its photocatalytic nature and because it is a chemically stable, non-toxic, inexpensive, and Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) substance. Several studies have revealed this metal oxide demonstrates excellent antifungal and antibacterial properties against a broad range of both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. These properties were significantly improved by titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs) synthesis. In this chapter, latest developments on routes of synthesis of TiO2 NPs and antimicrobial activity of these nanostructures are presented. Furthermore, TiO2 NPs favor the inactivation of microorganisms due to their strong oxidizing power by free radical generation, such as hydroxyl and superoxide anion radicals, showing reductions growth against several microorganisms, such as Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Understanding the main mechanisms of antimicrobial action of these nanoparticles was the second main purpose of this chapter.",book:{id:"9521",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A One Health Perspective"},signatures:"Carol López de Dicastillo, Matias Guerrero Correa, Fernanda B. Martínez, Camilo Streitt and Maria José Galotto",authors:[{id:"244902",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez De Dicastillo",slug:"carol-lopez-de-dicastillo",fullName:"Carol Lopez De Dicastillo"},{id:"315494",title:"Mr.",name:"Matias",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero Correa",slug:"matias-guerrero-correa",fullName:"Matias Guerrero Correa"},{id:"315495",title:"Ms.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"B. Martínez",slug:"fernanda-b.-martinez",fullName:"Fernanda B. Martínez"},{id:"315496",title:"Mr.",name:"Camilo",middleName:null,surname:"Zuñiga",slug:"camilo-zuniga",fullName:"Camilo Zuñiga"},{id:"315497",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria José",middleName:null,surname:"Galotto",slug:"maria-jose-galotto",fullName:"Maria José Galotto"}]},{id:"65613",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84411",title:"The Methods for Detection of Biofilm and Screening Antibiofilm Activity of Agents",slug:"the-methods-for-detection-of-biofilm-and-screening-antibiofilm-activity-of-agents",totalDownloads:9283,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"Biofilm producer microorganisms cause nosocomial and recurrent infections. Biofilm that is a sticky exopolysaccharide is the main virulence factor causing biofilm-related infections. Biofilm formation begins with attachment of bacteria to biotic surface such as host cell or abiotic surface such as prosthetic devices. After attachment, aggregation of bacteria is started by cell-cell adhesion. Aggregation continues with the maturation of biofilm. Dispersion is started by certain conditions such as phenol-soluble modulins (PSMs). By this way, sessile bacteria turn back into planktonic form. Bacteria embedded in biofilm (sessile form) are more resistant to antimicrobials than planktonic bacteria. So it is hard to treat biofilm-embedded bacteria than planktonic forms. For this reason, it is important to detect biofilm. There are a few biofilm detection and biofilm production methods on prosthetics, methods for screening antibacterial effect of agents against biofilm-embedded microorganism and antibiofilm effect of agents against biofilm production and mature biofilm. The aim of this chapter is to overview direct and indirect methods such as microscopy, fluorescent in situ hybridization, and Congo red agar, tube method, microtiter plate assay, checkerboard assay, plate counting, polymerase chain reaction, mass spectrometry, MALDI-TOF, and biological assays used by antibiofilm researches.",book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"}]},{id:"63397",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80624",title:"Antibiotic Resistance in Lactic Acid Bacteria",slug:"antibiotic-resistance-in-lactic-acid-bacteria",totalDownloads:2486,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Most starter cultures belong to the lactic acid bacteria group (LAB) and recognized as safe by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). However, LAB may act as intrinsic or extrinsic reservoirs for antibiotic resistance (AR) genes. This fact may not constitute a safety concern itself, as the resistance gene transfer is vertical. Nevertheless, external genetic elements may induce changes that favor the horizontal transfer transmission of resistance from pathogens as well as from the human intestinal microbiota, which represents a severe safety issue. Some genus of AR LAB includes Enterococcus, Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, and Streptococcus isolated from fermented meat and milk products. Currently, the WHO recommends that LAB used in the food industry should be free of resistance. Therefore, the objective of this chapter is to present an overview of the LAB antibiotic resistance and some methods to determine the same.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Yenizey M. Álvarez-Cisneros and Edith Ponce-Alquicira",authors:[{id:"256345",title:"Dr.",name:"Yenizey Merit",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez Cisneros",slug:"yenizey-merit-alvarez-cisneros",fullName:"Yenizey Merit Alvarez Cisneros"},{id:"256347",title:"Dr.",name:"Edith",middleName:null,surname:"Ponce-Alquicira",slug:"edith-ponce-alquicira",fullName:"Edith Ponce-Alquicira"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"65613",title:"The Methods for Detection of Biofilm and Screening Antibiofilm Activity of Agents",slug:"the-methods-for-detection-of-biofilm-and-screening-antibiofilm-activity-of-agents",totalDownloads:9297,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:"Biofilm producer microorganisms cause nosocomial and recurrent infections. Biofilm that is a sticky exopolysaccharide is the main virulence factor causing biofilm-related infections. Biofilm formation begins with attachment of bacteria to biotic surface such as host cell or abiotic surface such as prosthetic devices. After attachment, aggregation of bacteria is started by cell-cell adhesion. Aggregation continues with the maturation of biofilm. Dispersion is started by certain conditions such as phenol-soluble modulins (PSMs). By this way, sessile bacteria turn back into planktonic form. Bacteria embedded in biofilm (sessile form) are more resistant to antimicrobials than planktonic bacteria. So it is hard to treat biofilm-embedded bacteria than planktonic forms. For this reason, it is important to detect biofilm. There are a few biofilm detection and biofilm production methods on prosthetics, methods for screening antibacterial effect of agents against biofilm-embedded microorganism and antibiofilm effect of agents against biofilm production and mature biofilm. The aim of this chapter is to overview direct and indirect methods such as microscopy, fluorescent in situ hybridization, and Congo red agar, tube method, microtiter plate assay, checkerboard assay, plate counting, polymerase chain reaction, mass spectrometry, MALDI-TOF, and biological assays used by antibiofilm researches.",book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"}]},{id:"62553",title:"Antibiotic Use in Poultry Production and Its Effects on Bacterial Resistance",slug:"antibiotic-use-in-poultry-production-and-its-effects-on-bacterial-resistance",totalDownloads:7339,totalCrossrefCites:43,totalDimensionsCites:92,abstract:"A surge in the development and spread of antibiotic resistance has become a major cause for concern. Over the past few decades, no major new types of antibiotics have been produced and almost all known antibiotics are increasingly losing their activity against pathogenic microorganisms. The levels of multi-drug resistant bacteria have also increased. It is known that worldwide, more than 60% of all antibiotics that are produced find their use in animal production for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes. The use of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry has been linked to the development and spread of resistant bacteria. Poultry products are among the highest consumed products worldwide but a lot of essential antibiotics are employed during poultry production in several countries; threatening the safety of such products (through antimicrobial residues) and the increased possibility of development and spread of microbial resistance in poultry settings. This chapter documents some of the studies on antibiotic usage in poultry farming; with specific focus on some selected bacterial species, their economic importance to poultry farming and reports of resistances of isolated species from poultry settings (farms and poultry products) to essential antibiotics.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Christian Agyare, Vivian Etsiapa Boamah, Crystal Ngofi Zumbi and\nFrank Boateng Osei",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"261271",title:"MSc.",name:"Crystal Ngofi",middleName:null,surname:"Zumbi",slug:"crystal-ngofi-zumbi",fullName:"Crystal Ngofi Zumbi"},{id:"261272",title:"MSc.",name:"Frank Boateng",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"frank-boateng-osei",fullName:"Frank Boateng Osei"},{id:"261273",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian Etsiapa",middleName:null,surname:"Boamah",slug:"vivian-etsiapa-boamah",fullName:"Vivian Etsiapa Boamah"}]},{id:"65914",title:"Introductory Chapter: The Action Mechanisms of Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-action-mechanisms-of-antibiotics-and-antibiotic-resistance",totalDownloads:4436,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu, Nesrin Gareayaghi and Bekir S. Kocazeybek",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"},{id:"248288",title:"Prof.",name:"Bekir",middleName:null,surname:"Kocazeybek",slug:"bekir-kocazeybek",fullName:"Bekir Kocazeybek"},{id:"406463",title:"Dr.",name:"Nesrin",middleName:null,surname:"Gareayaghi",slug:"nesrin-gareayaghi",fullName:"Nesrin Gareayaghi"}]},{id:"63397",title:"Antibiotic Resistance in Lactic Acid Bacteria",slug:"antibiotic-resistance-in-lactic-acid-bacteria",totalDownloads:2497,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Most starter cultures belong to the lactic acid bacteria group (LAB) and recognized as safe by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). However, LAB may act as intrinsic or extrinsic reservoirs for antibiotic resistance (AR) genes. This fact may not constitute a safety concern itself, as the resistance gene transfer is vertical. Nevertheless, external genetic elements may induce changes that favor the horizontal transfer transmission of resistance from pathogens as well as from the human intestinal microbiota, which represents a severe safety issue. Some genus of AR LAB includes Enterococcus, Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, and Streptococcus isolated from fermented meat and milk products. Currently, the WHO recommends that LAB used in the food industry should be free of resistance. Therefore, the objective of this chapter is to present an overview of the LAB antibiotic resistance and some methods to determine the same.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Yenizey M. Álvarez-Cisneros and Edith Ponce-Alquicira",authors:[{id:"256345",title:"Dr.",name:"Yenizey Merit",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez Cisneros",slug:"yenizey-merit-alvarez-cisneros",fullName:"Yenizey Merit Alvarez Cisneros"},{id:"256347",title:"Dr.",name:"Edith",middleName:null,surname:"Ponce-Alquicira",slug:"edith-ponce-alquicira",fullName:"Edith Ponce-Alquicira"}]},{id:"49246",title:"Chitosan as a Biomaterial — Structure, Properties, and Electrospun Nanofibers",slug:"chitosan-as-a-biomaterial-structure-properties-and-electrospun-nanofibers",totalDownloads:4733,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:63,abstract:"Chitosan is a polysaccharide derived from chitin; chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide in the world, after cellulose. Chitosan is biocompatible, biodegradable and non-toxic, so that it can be usedin medicalapplications such as antimicrobial and wound healing biomaterials. It also used as chelating agent due to its ability to bind with cholesterol, fats, proteins and metal ions.",book:{id:"4648",slug:"concepts-compounds-and-the-alternatives-of-antibacterials",title:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials",fullTitle:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials"},signatures:"H. M. Ibrahim and E.M.R. El- Zairy",authors:[{id:"90645",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hassan-ibrahim",fullName:"Hassan Ibrahim"},{id:"175694",title:"Dr.",name:"Enas",middleName:null,surname:"El- Zairy",slug:"enas-el-zairy",fullName:"Enas El- Zairy"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"897",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81704",title:"Quorum Sensing Inhibition Based Drugs to Conquer Antimicrobial Resistance",slug:"quorum-sensing-inhibition-based-drugs-to-conquer-antimicrobial-resistance",totalDownloads:22,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104125",abstract:"Quorum sensing is the cell to cell communication mechanism in microorganism through signalling molecules. Regulation of virulence factor, sporulation, proteolytic enzymes production, biofilm formation, auto-inducers, cell population density are key physiological process mediated through quorum-sensing (QS) signalling. Elevation of innate immune system and antibiotic tolerance of pathogens is highly increased with perspective of quorum-sensing (QS) activity. Development of novel drugs is highly attractive scenario against cell-cell communication of microbes. Design of synthetic drugs and natural compounds against QS signal molecules is vital combat system to attenuate microbial pathogenicity. Quorum sensing inhibitors (QSIs), quorum quenchers (QQs), efflux pump inhibitors (EPIs) act against multi-drug resistance strains (MDR) and other pathogenic microbes through regulation of auto-inducers and signal molecule with perceptive to growth arrest both in-vitro and in-vivo. QQs, QSIs and EPIs compounds has been validated with various animal models for high selection pressure on therapeutics arsenal against microbe’s growth inhibition. Promising QSI are phytochemicals and secondary metabolites includes polyacetylenes, alkaloids, polyphenols, terpenoids, quinones.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Kothandapani Sundar, Ramachandira Prabu and Gopal Jayalakshmi"},{id:"82372",title:"Unlocking the Potential of Ghost Probiotics in Combating Antimicrobial Resistance",slug:"unlocking-the-potential-of-ghost-probiotics-in-combating-antimicrobial-resistance",totalDownloads:24,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104126",abstract:"Antimicrobial resistance is a global concern that requires immediate attention. Major causes of development of antimicrobial resistance in microbial cells are overuse of antimicrobials along the food chain especially in livestock, in preventing infections as well as misuse of antimicrobials by patients. Probiotics could be a viable alternative to antibiotics in the fight against antimicrobial resistance. Probiotic strains can act as a complement to antimicrobial therapy, improving antimicrobial function and enhancing immunity. However, there are safety concerns regarding the extensive use of live microbial cells especially in immunocompromised individuals; these include microbial translocation, inhibition of other beneficial microorganisms and development of antimicrobial resistance, among other concerns. Inevitably, ghost probiotics have become the favored alternative as they eliminate the safety and shelf-life problems associated with use of probiotics. Ghost probiotics are non-viable microbial cells (intact or broken) or metabolic products from microorganisms, which when administered in adequate amounts have biologic activity in the host and confer health benefits. Ghost probiotics exert biological effects similar to probiotics. However, the major drawback of using ghost probiotics is that the mechanism of action of these is currently unknown, hence more research is required and regulatory instruments are needed to assure the safety of consumers.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Abigarl Ndudzo, Sakhile Ndlovu, Nesisa Nyathi and Angela Sibanda Makuvise"},{id:"82178",title:"Managing Antimicrobial Resistance beyond the Hospital Antimicrobial Stewardship: The Role of One Health",slug:"managing-antimicrobial-resistance-beyond-the-hospital-antimicrobial-stewardship-the-role-of-one-heal",totalDownloads:16,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104170",abstract:"Infections caused by micro-organisms affect the health of people and animals, causing morbidity and mortality, with Asia and Africa as the epicenters. Some of the infectious diseases are emerging and re-emerging in nature. Examples include viral hepatitis, Lassa fever, Ebola, yellow fever, tuberculosis, covid-19, measles, and malaria, among others. Antimicrobials have been playing an important role in the treatment of infections by these microbes. However, there has been a development of resistance to these antimicrobials as a result of many drivers. This write-up used secondary data to explore the management of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) beyond the hospital antimicrobial resistance steward using the one health concept. The findings showed AMR to be a transboundary, multifaceted ecosystem problem affecting both the developed and developing countries. It is also one of the top ten global public health threats facing mankind. Globally, AMR will cost over US$100 trillion in output loss by 2050, about 700,000 deaths a year, and 4,150,000 deaths in Africa by 2050. About 2.4 million people could die in high-income countries between 2015 and 2050 without a sustained effort to contain AMR. The drivers of AMR are beyond the hospital and hospital AMR stewardship. Therefore, the need for one health concept to manage it.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Istifanus Anekoson Joshua, Mathew Bobai and Clement Sokfa Woje"},{id:"81918",title:"Machine Learning for Antimicrobial Resistance Research and Drug Development",slug:"machine-learning-for-antimicrobial-resistance-research-and-drug-development",totalDownloads:56,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104841",abstract:"Machine learning is a subfield of artificial intelligence which combines sophisticated algorithms and data to develop predictive models with minimal human interference. This chapter focuses on research that trains machine learning models to study antimicrobial resistance and to discover antimicrobial drugs. An emphasis is placed on applying machine learning models to detect drug resistance among bacterial and fungal pathogens. The role of machine learning in antibacterial and antifungal drug discovery and design is explored. Finally, the challenges and prospects of applying machine learning to advance basic research on and treatment of antimicrobial resistance are discussed. Overall, machine learning promises to advance antimicrobial resistance research and to facilitate the development of antibacterial and antifungal drugs.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Shamanth A. Shankarnarayan, Joshua D. Guthrie and Daniel A. Charlebois"},{id:"81891",title:"Alternatives to Antibiotics in Semen Extenders Used in Artificial Insemination",slug:"alternatives-to-antibiotics-in-semen-extenders-used-in-artificial-insemination",totalDownloads:29,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104226",abstract:"Antimicrobial resistance is a serious global threat requiring a widespread response. Both veterinarians and medical doctors should restrict antibiotic usage to therapeutic use only, after determining the sensitivity of the causal organism. However, the addition of antibiotics to semen extenders for animal artificial insemination represents a hidden, non-therapeutic use of antimicrobial substances. Artificial insemination for livestock breeding is a huge global enterprise with hundreds of million sperm doses prepared annually. However, reporting of antimicrobial resistance in semen is increasing. This review discusses the consequences of bacteria in semen samples, as well as the effect of antimicrobial substances in semen extenders on bacteria in the environment and even on personnel. Alternatives to antibiotics have been reported in the scientific literature and are reviewed here. The most promising of these, removal of the majority of bacteria by colloid centrifugation, is considered in detail, especially results from an artificial insemination study in pigs. In conclusion, colloid centrifugation is a practical method of physically removing bacteria from semen, which does not induce antibiotic resistance. Sperm quality in stored semen samples may be improved at the same time.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Jane M. Morrell, Pongpreecha Malaluang, Aleksandar Cojkic and Ingrid Hansson"},{id:"81699",title:"Efflux Pumps among Urinary E. coli and K. pneumoniae Local Isolates in Hilla City, Iraq",slug:"efflux-pumps-among-urinary-e-coli-and-k-pneumoniae-local-isolates-in-hilla-city-iraq",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104408",abstract:"Urinary tract infections (UTI) are the most common bacterial infections affecting humans. Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae were common enterobacteria engaged with community-acquired UTIs. Efflux pumps were vital resistance mechanisms for antibiotics, especially among enterobacteria. Overexpression of an efflux system, which results in a decrease in antibiotic accumulation, is an effective mechanism for drug resistance. The ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters, small multidrug resistance (SMR), and multidrug and toxic compound extrusion (MATE) families, the major facilitator superfamily (MFS), and the resistance-nodulation- cell division (RND) family are the five superfamilies of efflux systems linked to drug resistance. This chapter highlights the results of studying the prevalence of efflux pump genes among local isolates of E. coli and K. pneumoniae in Hilla City, Iraq. class RND AcrAB-TolC, AcrAD-TolC, and AcrFE-TolC genes detected by conventional PCR of E. coli and K. pneumoniae respectively. The result revealed approximately all studied efflux transporter were found in both E. coli and K. pneumoniae in different percentages. Biofilm formation were observed in 50(100%) of K. pneumoniae and 49(98%) of E. coli isolates were biofilm former and follow: 30(60%), 20(40%) were weak, 12(24%), 22(44%) were moderate and 7(14%) and 8(16%) were Strong biofilm former for E. coli and K. pneumoniae, respectively.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Hussein Al-Dahmoshi, Sahar A. 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In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. 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He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. 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He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). 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Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. 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His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. 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