\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8050",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration",title:"Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Mangroves serve as one of the nature-based solutions for coastal communities. We are now almost at the tipping point where we can restore mangroves ecologically to mitigate climate change and enhance other important ecosystem services under the United Nations Decade on Ecosystem Restoration. Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration focuses on mangrove ecosystem restoration, the ecosystem services mangroves provide, and how to manage and conserve mangroves. The three sections include eight chapters that cover such topics as evaluating mangrove degradation, forest recovery through seedling recruitment, natural regeneration of mangroves, advanced molecular biology for restoring mangroves, and more.",isbn:"978-1-83962-800-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-799-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-801-6",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77881",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"mangrove-ecosystem-restoration",numberOfPages:180,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"5eb1a688ad6c609b4092ff28eef68b2d",bookSignature:"Sahadev Sharma",publishedDate:"September 29th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8050.jpg",numberOfDownloads:2094,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:6,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:12,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 18th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 4th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 3rd 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 22nd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 20th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"227169",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sahadev",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"sahadev-sharma",fullName:"Sahadev Sharma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/227169/images/system/227169.png",biography:"Dr. Sahadev Sharma obtained a DSc in Plant Ecology and Physiology in 2012. He is a mangrove ecologist and physiologist with research interests in mangrove forest ecology, physiology, and blue carbon dynamics from local site to the landscape level, using a wide spectrum of methods and technologies such as remote sensing and field-based monitoring and sampling, and integrating ecological, chemical and hydrological data. He is currently focusing on the Asia Pacific region mangrove ecosystem. He is a senior lecturer at the Institute of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Universiti Malaya, Malaysia. Formerly he was a research faculty at the Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Management, the University of Hawaii at Manoa, and a JSPS Postdoctoral Fellow at Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan. He is currently involved in many national and international research projects for the Universiti Malaya. He is the author of more than sixty papers in international peer-reviewed journals and books, and a referee for about ten journals.",institutionString:"University of Malaya",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"875",title:"Ecosystem",slug:"environmental-sciences-forestry-science-ecosystem"}],chapters:[{id:"75337",title:"Mangrove Restoration under Different Disturbances Regime in the Niger Delta, Nigeria",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96127",slug:"mangrove-restoration-under-different-disturbances-regime-in-the-niger-delta-nigeria",totalDownloads:298,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Mangroves of the Niger Delta are the largest in Africa and are the source of numerous ecosystem services such as firewood, seafood, building materials and medicinal herbs. Their sustainable use and protection are important for future generations. However, anthropogenic activities such as oil and gas exploration, urbanization, industrialization, dredging, overexploitation and sand mining are the major disturbances that have pushed the mangroves to the brink of extinction. Therefore, in other to restore lost areas of the mangroves natural and artificial means can be adopted to bring them to a restored state. More often than not emphasis of recovery had been placed on artificial remediation and restoration, where polluted sites are cleaned with chemicals and nursery seedlings transplanted to remediated such sites. Nevertheless, this chapter discusses the possibility of utilizing natural means of forest recovery through seedling recruitment and regeneration. This can be achieved by establishing the right environmental conditions such as setting up of a hydro-channel to ensure smooth inflow and out flow of river water carrying seeds, availability of parent mangrove trees to supply the seeds, and the availability of the right soil condition to enable seedling germination and growth. The use of dried and ground mangrove parts as a new way for restoring polluted soil is discussed; in addition, the unconventional proposition of using low key pollution to manage and increase forest resilience is highlighted in this work even though further studies are recommended. Future direction of mangrove restoration should be tilted towards the application of the force of nature, which has the potentials of reversing the adverse effect of anthropogenic activities in well managed and protected sites.",signatures:"Aroloye O. Numbere",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75337",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75337",authors:[{id:"215285",title:"Dr.",name:"Aroloye O.",surname:"Numbere",slug:"aroloye-o.-numbere",fullName:"Aroloye O. Numbere"}],corrections:null},{id:"74975",title:"A Visual Assessment Scale for Rapid Evaluation of Mangrove Degradation, Using Examples from Myanmar and Madagascar",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95340",slug:"a-visual-assessment-scale-for-rapid-evaluation-of-mangrove-degradation-using-examples-from-myanmar-a",totalDownloads:270,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Mangroves are globally threatened, disappearing and degraded. They are lost due to land use changes, mostly agricultural expansion and aquaculture, but also degraded by cutting by villagers and logging and timber extraction for domestic and economic purposes. Extent and conversion of mangroves can usually be estimated by applying remote sensing and modern drone technology, but the scale of degradation of mangrove habitats is not easily detected by such methods. In this paper we propose an assessment tool for a rapid evaluation on the degradation, using examples from different regions in Myanmar and Madagascar. We propose a visual and practical guide listing a range of 1–6 to identify and quantify the level of degradation. We demonstrate the application by displaying various examples from Myanmar and Madagascar and how this tool can be used for wider applications, discussing advantages scope, and limitations.",signatures:"Christoph Zöckler, Dominic Wodehouse and Matthias Markolf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74975",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74975",authors:[{id:"317508",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",surname:"Zöckler",slug:"christoph-zockler",fullName:"Christoph Zöckler"},{id:"319530",title:"Dr.",name:"Dominic",surname:"Wodehouse",slug:"dominic-wodehouse",fullName:"Dominic Wodehouse"},{id:"344439",title:"Dr.",name:"Matthias",surname:"Markolf",slug:"matthias-markolf",fullName:"Matthias Markolf"}],corrections:null},{id:"74146",title:"Secondary Ecological Succession of Mangrove in the 2004 Tsunami Created Wetlands of South Andaman, India",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94113",slug:"secondary-ecological-succession-of-mangrove-in-the-2004-tsunami-created-wetlands-of-south-andaman-in",totalDownloads:376,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Andaman and Nicobar Islands (ANI’s) being situated in the Tropical zone is the cradle of multi-disasters viz., cyclones, floods, droughts, land degradation, runoff, soil erosion, shallow landslides, epidemics, earthquakes, volcanism, tsunami and storm surges. Mangroves are one of the first visible reciprocators above land and sea surface to cyclonic storms, storm surges, and tsunamis among the coastal wetlands. The Indian Ocean 2004 tsunami was denoted as one of the most catastrophic ever recorded in humankind’s recent history. A mega-earthquake of Magnitude (9.3) near Indonesia ruptured the Andaman-Sunda plate triggered this tsunami. Physical fury, subsidence, upliftment, and prolonged water logging resulted in the massive loss of mangrove vegetation. A decade and half years after the 2004 tsunami, a study was initiated to assess the secondary ecological succession of mangrove in Tsunami Created Wetlands (TCWs) of south Andaman using Landsat satellite data products. Since natural ecological succession is a rather slow process and demands isotope techniques to establish a sequence of events succession. However, secondary ecological succession occurs in a short frame of time after any catastrophic event like a tsunami exemplifying nature\\'s resilience. Band-5 (before tsunami, 2003) and Band-6 (after tsunami, 2018) of Landsat 7 and Landsat-8 satellite respectively were harnessed to delineate mangrove patches and TCWs in the focus area using ArcMap 10.5, Geographic Information Systems (GIS) software. From the study, it was understood that Fimbrisstylis littoralis is the pioneering key-stone plant followed by Acrostichum aureum and Acanthus ilicifolius facilitating Avicennia spp/Rhizophora spp for ecological succession in the TCWs.",signatures:"V. Shiva Shankar, Neelam Purti, Ravi Pratap Singh and Faiyaz A. Khudsar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74146",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74146",authors:[{id:"313820",title:"Dr.",name:"V. Shiva",surname:"Shankar",slug:"v.-shiva-shankar",fullName:"V. Shiva Shankar"},{id:"320800",title:"Mrs.",name:"Neelam",surname:"Purti",slug:"neelam-purti",fullName:"Neelam Purti"},{id:"320801",title:"Mr.",name:"Ravi Pratap",surname:"Singh",slug:"ravi-pratap-singh",fullName:"Ravi Pratap Singh"},{id:"320802",title:"Dr.",name:"Faiyaz A.",surname:"Khudsar",slug:"faiyaz-a.-khudsar",fullName:"Faiyaz A. Khudsar"}],corrections:null},{id:"74592",title:"Environmental and Education Trials for Mangrove Ecosystem Rehabilitation in China",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95339",slug:"environmental-and-education-trials-for-mangrove-ecosystem-rehabilitation-in-china",totalDownloads:187,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Based on Chinese ecological policy, we have been studying mangrove ecosystems in southern China, especially from the perspective of pollutants deposition in mangrove wetlands, physiological ecology of mangrove species on the impact of heavy metal pollution and seeking ecosystem restoration. For these, we explored in three aspects: 1) pollutants distribution and ecological risk in main distribution of mangrove, China, 2) eco-statistics and microbial analyses of mangrove ecosystems (including shellfish) in representative locations where mangrove plants are well developed, especially in Shenzhen, a rapid developing economic city in Guangdong Province, 3) ecophysiological experiments on a representative species of mangrove for evaluating combination effects of major nutrient elements and heavy metal pollution on growth and physiological responses of the seedlings. Based on the results, we proposed how to rehabilitate mangrove ecosystem in China under rapidly changing environmental conditions, with a view to our future survival and to provide nature-based solution as well as the public with more ecosystem services.",signatures:"Ruili Li, Minwei Chai, Xiaoxue Shen, Cong Shi, Guoyu Qiu and Takayoshi Koike",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74592",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74592",authors:[{id:"197794",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Takayoshi",surname:"Koike",slug:"takayoshi-koike",fullName:"Takayoshi Koike"},{id:"317415",title:"Prof.",name:"Ruili",surname:"Li",slug:"ruili-li",fullName:"Ruili Li"},{id:"317416",title:"Dr.",name:"Minwei",surname:"Chai",slug:"minwei-chai",fullName:"Minwei Chai"},{id:"317417",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiooxue",surname:"Shen",slug:"xiooxue-shen",fullName:"Xiooxue Shen"},{id:"317418",title:"Prof.",name:"Guoyu",surname:"Qiu",slug:"guoyu-qiu",fullName:"Guoyu Qiu"},{id:"344615",title:"Dr.",name:"Cong",surname:"Shi",slug:"cong-shi",fullName:"Cong Shi"}],corrections:null},{id:"75083",title:"The Commercial Value of Mangrove-Based Pigments as Natural Dye for Batik Textiles",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95341",slug:"the-commercial-value-of-mangrove-based-pigments-as-natural-dye-for-batik-textiles",totalDownloads:264,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Mangrove, or bakau as it is known in Indonesia, is one of the vegetations commonly found along the shallow coasts, estuaries, deltas and protected coastal areas and are still influenced by rising tides. After the Aceh tsunami disaster, mangrove restoration was intensively conducted in coastal areas all over Indonesia and was made into a special conservation program by the government. Mangrove is distinguishable by its big, wooden stilt roots, sharpening tip in the form of supporting leaves. The roots of the mangrove tree are morphologically distinguishable into heart root which grows into the ground and the stilt root which appear to grabs onto the surface of the ground. Mangrove forests serve several important ecological roles: they act as filters which turns saline water into fresh water, buffer from seawater intrusion, prevent erosion and abrasion, hold sediments to form new habitats, feeding ground, nursery ground, and spawning ground for a number of aquatic wildlife. Mangrove forest also possess economical functions such as as source of income, industrial ingredients for the locals and as source of new mangrove seedlings. Mangunhardjo Village, Urban Community of Mangunhardjo, Mangkang Area, Kecamatan of Tugu, Semarang City, Indonesia was an area dotted with brackish water pond. However, the area had been suffering from the effects of climate change, being inundated by overflow of river and seawater intrusion (rob). These disasters caused decline in the productivity of the ponds in the area. In an effort to combat the adverse effect of environmental change in the area, the locals of Mangunhardjo village decided to shift their livelihood by restoring the surrounding mangrove forest. Mangrove conservation at Mangunhardjo Village was conducted through activities of the program such as mangrove planting, mangrove-based food production, and mangrove waste management by applications of bioactivator bacteria for mangrove composting and production of mangrove-based natural dye for batik fabric. Mangrove-based natural dye for batik fabric from Rhizopora mucronata mangrove waste is a quite promising product and increases people’s income.",signatures:"Delianis Pringgenies, Ali Ridlo, Lutfianna Fatma Dewi and Ali Djunaedi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75083",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75083",authors:[{id:"317472",title:"Dr.",name:"Delianis",surname:"Pringgenies",slug:"delianis-pringgenies",fullName:"Delianis Pringgenies"},{id:"319512",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",surname:"Ridlo",slug:"ali-ridlo",fullName:"Ali Ridlo"},{id:"319514",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",surname:"Djunaedi",slug:"ali-djunaedi",fullName:"Ali Djunaedi"},{id:"319515",title:"Ms.",name:"Lutfianna Fatma",surname:"Dewi",slug:"lutfianna-fatma-dewi",fullName:"Lutfianna Fatma Dewi"}],corrections:null},{id:"75642",title:"Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration after Oil Spill: Bioremediation, Phytoremediation, Biofibers and Phycoremediation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95342",slug:"mangrove-ecosystem-restoration-after-oil-spill-bioremediation-phytoremediation-biofibers-and-phycore",totalDownloads:270,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Environmental accidents involving spills of oil and its derivatives in mangroves present themselves as difficult problems to be solved in the short term, as for example in the construction of emergency strategies to combat the arrival of oil stains and fragments. Petroleum its derivatives and the residues generated in this chain, have a complex mixture of hydrocarbons and are considered dangerous substances. This mixture is difficult to degrade and can cause multiple problems in the ecosystem. Our developed biofiber barrier removes oil more than five times in relation to its mass in a simple way and in a short time. However when the spilled oil reaches the mangroves, other biotechnologies were developed and applied such as phytoremediation (87% efficiency), the use of microalgae (94% efficiency) and the use of fungi and bacteria (70% efficiency). This chapter will present biotechnologies developed, patented and applied in cases of oil spills in tropical mangrove of Brazil. These generated biotechnologies have been applied together with civil society in tropical ecosystems that were hit by the Venezuelan oil spill in 2019. The use of advanced molecular biology (studies of genomics, transcriptome, proteomics and metabolomics) in the biotechnologies presented has shown a promising path to faster, viable economically and ecologically correct mangrove restoration.",signatures:"Ícaro Thiago Andrade Moreira, Célia Karina Maia Cardoso, Evelin Daiane Serafim Santos Franco, Isadora Machado Marques, Gisele Mara Hadlich, Antônio Fernando de Souza Queiroz, Ana Katerine de Carvalho Lima Lobato and Olívia Maria Cordeiro de Oliveira",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75642",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75642",authors:[{id:"294139",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ícaro",surname:"Thiago Andrade Moreira",slug:"icaro-thiago-andrade-moreira",fullName:"Ícaro Thiago Andrade Moreira"},{id:"319288",title:"Dr.",name:"Olívia",surname:"Maria Cordeiro de Oliveira",slug:"olivia-maria-cordeiro-de-oliveira",fullName:"Olívia Maria Cordeiro de Oliveira"},{id:"319290",title:"Dr.",name:"Gisele",surname:"Mara Hadlich",slug:"gisele-mara-hadlich",fullName:"Gisele Mara Hadlich"},{id:"319291",title:"Dr.",name:"Antônio",surname:"Fernando de Souza Queiroz",slug:"antonio-fernando-de-souza-queiroz",fullName:"Antônio Fernando de Souza Queiroz"},{id:"319292",title:"MSc.",name:"Célia",surname:"Karina Maia Cardos",slug:"celia-karina-maia-cardos",fullName:"Célia Karina Maia Cardos"},{id:"319293",title:"MSc.",name:"Isadora",surname:"Machado Marques",slug:"isadora-machado-marques",fullName:"Isadora Machado Marques"},{id:"319294",title:"MSc.",name:"Evelin",surname:"Daiane Serafim Santos Franco,",slug:"evelin-daiane-serafim-santos-franco",fullName:"Evelin Daiane Serafim Santos Franco,"},{id:"330694",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana",surname:"Katerine de Carvalho Lima Lobato",slug:"ana-katerine-de-carvalho-lima-lobato",fullName:"Ana Katerine de Carvalho Lima Lobato"}],corrections:null},{id:"73687",title:"Stieglers Gorge Dam Construction: Potential Impacts and Possible Mangrove Restoration Options in the Rufiji Delta, Tanzania",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94141",slug:"stieglers-gorge-dam-construction-potential-impacts-and-possible-mangrove-restoration-options-in-the-",totalDownloads:118,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The varied importance of mangroves has long been recognized. And so have been the threats to their existence, leading to various actions taken locally by local communities, national governments, and through international agreements for the protection and integration of human livelihood needs in a manner that balances conservation goals and goals of socio-economic development. In Tanzania the mangrove conservation ethos began during the German colonization of Tanganyika and has been persistent in the age of high globalization. In an effort to deepen our understanding of the dynamics of global, national and local nature conservation, this chapter documents the various strategies and approaches used in mangrove restoration elsewhere in the world generally, and then specifically in the Rufiji Delta. The chapter further unpacks the contrasting socio-political interests behind the efforts to conserve mangroves worldwide and in Tanzania. It does so by looking at three competing narratives, i.e. the mainstream perspective, the neo-liberal perspective, and the local cultural perspective, acting at a number of nested scales from the local grassroots to the national and the global scales.",signatures:"Claude Gasper Mung’ong’o",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73687",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73687",authors:[{id:"313786",title:"Prof.",name:"Claude Gasper",surname:"Mung'Ong'O",slug:"claude-gasper-mung'ong'o",fullName:"Claude Gasper Mung'Ong'O"}],corrections:null},{id:"73463",title:"Conservation Management of Planted Mangroves through Evaluating Ecosystem Services in Baros Village Bantul Regency, Indonesia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93780",slug:"conservation-management-of-planted-mangroves-through-evaluating-ecosystem-services-in-baros-village-",totalDownloads:311,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Planting mangrove trees on sandy land in Baros village into forest conservation has many ecological, economic, social, and tourism benefits for the surrounding community. The mangrove conservation in Baros village is artificial conservation managed by the men and women Baros youth. The coastal area of Baros village is often affected by tidal flooding, which causes losses to agriculture, fisheries, and livestock. In the early 2000s, an NGO assisted at research sites in mangrove restoration in a mangrove restoration area in the lagoon of Baros village to prevent abrasion and sea intrusion and protect agricultural areas. Restored mangroves can grow well to bring ecological, biological, economic, and social benefits. The local government of Bantul has designated the Baros mangrove forest as a reserve of a coastal park conservation area. The existence of the tree is beneficial ecological, biological, economic, and social. The Baros village youth group made various efforts to increase mangrove trees’ area so that their benefits were sustainable. Managers and the village government and tour guides are expected to accommodate the existence of culture and local wisdom. Also, increasing community participation, fisheries, agriculture, and animal husbandry activities can provide socio-economic benefits for the community and the wider community’s welfare.",signatures:"Djumanto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73463",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73463",authors:[{id:"317471",title:"Dr.",name:"Djumanto",surname:null,slug:"djumanto",fullName:"Djumanto null"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6411",title:"Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5425ea4e90ed12b902f30186f807f8f5",slug:"mangrove-ecosystem-ecology-and-function",bookSignature:"Sahadev Sharma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6411.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"227169",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sahadev",surname:"Sharma",slug:"sahadev-sharma",fullName:"Sahadev Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"902",title:"Tropical Forests",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"55286837c680e9be2bc357abf678212e",slug:"tropical-forests",bookSignature:"Padmini Sudarshana, Madhugiri Nageswara-Rao and Jaya R. 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\r\n\tFood is the basic necessity, which sustains active and health life style. Everybody should have an access towards adequate amount of food that can be ensured through food security. Therefore, the concept regarding the food security has utmost importance for developed and developing nations. It measures that every individual has access to the food that fulfils the food safety and quality standards. Food availability, access, utilization and stability are the pillars of the food security. These pillars are being affected due to various factors such as natural disasters, poor agricultural and post-harvest practices, climate change and poor manufacturing and marketing strategies. The role of all these factors will aim to fall in the scope of this book.
\r\n\tFood insecurity results in fear of hunger and starvation that ultimately affects one’s ability to work for sustainability and economic growth of the country. In addition to this, food insecurity results in various chronic diseases due to reduce immunity that ultimately, a burned on the county economy. Therefore, this book will intend to discuss in detail about the food insecurity challenges and their effect on the quality of life. This book will also aim to provide an overview about the new trends and future prospective that help to resolve the food security issues.
Resection and reconstruction are two vital components of surgical oncology. While the former depends primarily on the surgeon’s discretion, the latter includes a vital role for the patient. The surgical team must consider the patient’s desired outcome (especially in terms of facial esthetics) and remain cautious of critical aspects such as early bone resorption, infection and donor site morbidity.
The first bone graft dates back to 1881 when Sir William MacEwan performed a successful xenograft transfer into a craniofacial defect [1]. Currently, common non-vascularized bone graft (NVBG) options include anterior or posterior iliac crest, cranial vault and costochondral grafts [2]. Multiple studies had demonstrated a relatively high success rate between 85–90% when NVBG were used regardless of the type of injury [3, 4, 5].
Bone defects in the craniomaxillofacial complex require three-dimensional structural considerations to ensure proper dental occlusion and temporomandibular joint function. This makes any reconstructive surgery in the craniomaxillofacial skeleton complex and challenging [5, 6]. In most such reconstructions, fresh autogenous bone is the gold standard bone grafting material [7]. There are three typical ways in which fresh autogenous graft can be transferred:
Non-vascularized grafts,
Pedicled grafts, and
Microvascular free flaps.
In simple terms, a critical-sized bone defect is the minimum size defect beyond which bone fails to heal spontaneously despite surgical fixation, requiring further surgical intervention [8]. It is imperative to diagnose critical-sized bone defect as this will help surgeons decide the need for surgical intervention [9]. Although there is no clear-cut consensus in the literature regarding minimum defect size measurement, a few studies have estimated this value to be in the range of 4 mm–5 mm [8, 9]. Defect size less than this measurement can be managed by plate and screw fixation, but anything above this value must be considered for grafting and subsequent fixation [8, 9, 10].
Age of the patient - Older individuals have decreased healing capacities as compared to the younger groups. Moreover, systemic complications such as diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular diseases are more common in geriatric patients and must be ruled out [11]. Surgical reinforcements like the bone morphogenic protein (BMP-2) or plasma rich platelet therapy should be considered to promote faster healing [11, 12, 13].
Nature of the disease – NVBG is primarily indicated in benign lesions where the risks of recurrence are low as it aids in better graft uptake. Furthermore, malignant lesions are frequently treated with radiotherapy, which compromises the capacity for angiogenesis into grafted tissues [5, 14].
Size of the defect – As previously mentioned, 5 cm is the maximum defect size that can be reconstructed with NVBG. Beyond 5 cm, a graft needs its own blood supply in the form of a vascularized graft as NVBG depends solely on recipient site vasculature [15, 16].
Need for adjuvant Radiotherapy – Radiation causes compromises blood supply and cellular function in recipient tissue beds. According to the current guidelines of management of head and neck pathologies, NVBG should not be the first choice in patients who require radiation therapy. If radiation is planned, it should be administered at least six months before and after grafting to ensure that the graft develops an adequate blood supply [17].
Timing of reconstruction – Surgical intervention may occur as a single- or two-staged operation. The single-staged modality refers to immediate reconstruction after ablation. This allows for shorter duration of treatment and maintenance of pre-operative soft tissue contours. On the other hand, the two-staged modality refers to initial ablation followed by reconstruction at a later date. This provides ample time for planning the reconstruction. The authors favor immediate grafting as it averts the need for a second surgery and minimizes the total treatment duration.
Type of bone required – Cortical bone resists resorption and maintains its structural integrity post-operatively. Conversely, cancellous bone is more porous and demonstrates a faster rate of resorption. However, there is also rapid neovascularization in cancellous bone when compared to cortical bone. Calvarial grafts have more cortical component, while the iliac crest has a more cancellous component [18, 19].
Following options are available to the surgical team in the reconstruction of maxillofacial defects
Bone graft from anterior or posterior ileum
Bone graft from calvarium
Bone graft from tibia
Bone graft from rib
Autogenous bone harvested from the ileum serves as an excellent source of cortico-cancellous graft with a maximum harvest volume of 50 cc for the anterior iliac crest and 100 cc for the posterior iliac crest [2, 5]. In general, harvests from the anterior iliac region are considered easier and safer because they do not require intra-operative repositioning [7, 20].
The important anatomical landmarks that should be considered during surgery are the anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS) and iliac tubercle, which is 6 cm posterior to the ASIS. The iliac crest receives its blood supply from the deep circumflex iliac artery, a branch of the internal iliac artery and the most common bleeding source during surgery [7, 20, 21]. Sensory nerves that must be protected are iliohypogastric nerve and lateral femoral cutaneous nerve. The lateral femoral cutaneous nerve (LFCN) is at increased risk of damage during surgery and must be identified and protected from iatrogenic injuries. According to Mischowski et al. the LFCN courses between 5 to 14.6 mm superiolaterally from the ASIS [22, 23].
A curvilinear incision is placed 2 cm superior to the ASIS along the iliac crest to prevent injury to the LFCN, and the dissection is taken down through subcutaneous tissue to the muscular levels. The external oblique muscle and tensor fascia lata are identified and lateralized to expose periosteum. The periosteum is then incised, and the iliacus muscle is identified and retracted medially [2, 7, 24]. Osteotomy is performed along the length of the iliac tubercle joined by two vertical cuts at the ends of the osteotomy along the medial iliac curvature. The cortical bone may be harvested with an osteotome and the cancellous bone using a bone gouge [2, 24]. There are various other approaches described in the literature for harvesting the anterior iliac crest. In the trapdoor approach, the medial or lateral bony cortex is pedicled with an attached muscle to gain visualization to the cancellous bone. The Tschopp technique involves obliquely osteotomizing the iliac crest. A third approach, the Tessier approach, involves medial and lateral oblique osteotomies to gain access to the underlying cancellous bone [25, 26, 27].
The trapdoor technique allows direct access to the cancellous bone while preserving the attachments to the muscle and abdominal fascia [26]. On the contrary, Tschopp and Tessier techniques preserve the natural contour of the iliac crest, improving post-operative cosmesis [24, 26, 27].
A maximum of 3 x 5 cm of cortical bone and 50 cc of cancellous bone [2, 23, 24] can be harvested from anterior ileum. This is typically sufficient to reconstruct mandibular segmental defect up to 5 cm [2, 6, 7].
The posterior ileum can provide up to 100 cc of corticocancellous, uncompressed bone [2, 6]. The posterior iliac crest also demonstrates extremely low rates of post-op morbidity including gait and neurosensory disturbances [2, 6, 27, 28, 29]. However, additional anesthetic risks are present associated with the prone position [2, 6, 28].
Relevant anatomy – The sacroiliac joint is the primary anatomical landmark. Just below the joint, the gluteus maximus muscle attaches to the triangular tubercle which measures approximately 3 x 4 cm. The superior and medial cluneal nerves arise from the dorsal rami of L1, L2 and L3 and lies approximately 6.5 cm from the posterior superior iliac spine (PSIS) [2, 6, 29]. Surgical approach to the posterior iliac graft begins in the prone position with 210-degree reverse hip flexion. The incision is designed 1 cm from the PSIS and carried 5–6 cm along the crest superolaterally to avoid injury to the cluneal nerves [2, 29]. Dissection is then carried out incising skin then subcutaneous tissues to the level of fascial attachments of the internal oblique and gluteus maximus muscles. The dissection is also performed between superior and middle cluneal nerves to expose the posterior iliac periosteam [6, 29]. Sharp incision of periosteum is then conducted using electrocautery taking care not to damage the sacroiliac ligaments. Depending on the graft volume requirement, an osteotomy may be made approximately 4 to 5 cm inferior to the iliac crest.
A 2012 study by Abramowicz et al. demonstrated that bone graft from the posterior iliac crest benefits from decreased blood loss and fewer post-op morbidities when compared to the anterior graft. On the contrary, intraoperative and anesthesia times were significantly lower in the anterior graft [30].
The most commonly documented complications in anterior iliac graft harvest are hematoma, seroma, gait disturbance, pelvic instability, persistent pain, abdominal pain, and infection [31, 32]. In their ten years of analysis, Antonio et al. reported predominantly minor complications that would frequently self-correct within five weeks [33]. Another study by Manar et al. of 372 patients reported only two major complications consisting of fracture and seroma [34]. Various authors have recommended the use of a reciprocating saw and to maintain a clear margin of at least 3 cm posterior to ASIS to prevent fracture of the iliac spine [2, 4, 26, 29].
Posterior iliac graft harvesting tends to have fewer complications which can include bleeding, ureteral injury, abdominal hernia, paresthesia, seroma and infection [32, 35]. Studies by Elke Ahlmann et al., Nkenke et al., and Mazock et al. concluded that harvesting of the posterior iliac graft is associated with a significantly lower number of complications [28, 36, 37].
Overall, bone harvest from the iliac region is general safe and provides an adequate amount of good quality cortico-cancellous bone.
Historically, calvarial bone is one of the most commonly harvested grafts in the reconstruction of craniofacial defects [2]. The calvarium shares a common embryological origin as the other bones of the maxillofacial region and develop through intramembranous ossification [2, 18]. As a result, they demonstrate slower resorption rates than many other NVBGs. The calvarial grafts are also advantageous in that they are frequently obtained from the same surgical field and that they are anatomically distant from critical structures like vessels and nerves. This allows the graft to be harvested with decreased morbidity and technicality [2, 38].
However, potential complications do exist including dural tears, post-operative structural deformity, alopecia, and an inadequate amount of cancellous bone [39]. The calvarial bone graft is particularly indicated where structural integrity is needed in reconstructions of the maxilla, nasal dorsum, zygomatic pillars, orbital floors and the frontal bone [2, 38, 40].
Relevant anatomy and surgical technique: Anatomically, the calvarium comprises of singular frontal and occipital bones as well as paired parietal and temporal bones. Calvarial bone grafts are best harvested from the parietal region that measures approximately 8x10 cm. The skull is made up of the outer cortex (cortical bone), the medullary space (cancellous bone), and inner cortex (cortical bone) all of which may be harvested for use [18]. Surgeons must remain diligent when approaching the inner cortex to avoid tears to the underlying dura covering the brain [2, 18]. Inadvertent dural injuries can lead to hematoma and/or CSF leakage. In a case series of 23 patients, Harsha et al. reported three cases of perforation of the inner cortex, one of which incurred dural tear that required primary closure [41]. Another anatomical limit that must be taken into account is the temporoparietal suture, as any osteotomy below this line risks intracranial exposure because of the thinness of the bone.
The calvarial bone graft may be taken at three different levels [38, 42]
Partial-thickness outer cortex: only a strip of the outer cortex is harvested. It is suitable for children between 4 to 6 years of age, especially in the reconstruction of craniofacial anomalies.
Full-thickness outer cortex: whole outer cortex is harvested. This is more suitable for adult patients.
Inner cortex: in some cases, where craniotomy has previously been performed, the inner cortex can be harvested leaving the outer cortex behind.
In cases where a broad area of reconstruction is required, the bicortical technique is preferred, where the two cortices are split, thereby doubling the graft’s available surface area [42].
Surgical technique – The coronal incision is the most preferred technique as it allows a wide area of visualization to the underlying parietal bone. The incision starts from one helical crus to the other, approximately 2 to 3 cm posterior to hairline [2, 7, 42, 43]. Once the scalp flap is raised, an avascular plane is created between the pericranium and the galea, and the external surface of the skull is then exposed through subgaleal dissection. All osteotomies must be made at least 2 cm away from the temporoparietal and sagittal sutures. Venturing beyond these landmarks leads to increased risks of perforating the dural layer [38, 43, 44]. Based on the technique mentioned above, the surgeon may make the harvest using a Gigli saw and osteotome. Once a strip of bone is harvested, the defect may be filled with an alloplastic substitute that helps maintain the natural contour of the skull. The closure is then performed in layers, and a pressure pack is applied for 48–72 hours [2, 38, 43, 44].
Complications related to calvarial harvests are few and depend on the technique performed. The bi-cortical harvesting technique significantly increases the risk of complications because it interferes with the inner cortex, which lies close to the dural layer [2, 42]. In a study by Frodel et al. 3 cases of dural tear were reported in 121 patients who underwent bicortical grafts, of which 2 were less than 1 cm and required minimum intervention. In one case, however, there was an intracerebral injury, requiring neurosurgical intervention [38]. In another study of 511 cases by Sandrine Touzet et al., 13 cases of immediate complications were noted, including 2 cases of hematoma of the scalp and 11 cases of dural exposure. Late complications occurred in 12 patients with alopecia, 2 with residual pain, 8 with dysesthesia, and 420 with skull depression [45].
Most dural complications may be avoided via the use of pre-operative computed tomography to measure the thickness of the parietal bones [2, 7, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44]. Post-op skull depressions may also be addressed via secondary alloplastic grafting [46]. With increasing sophistication of practice, the number of complications associated with calvarial bone grafts has dropped significantly in the past few years.
Bone harvested from the proximal tibia is an excellent source of cancellous bone, which is helpful in addressing “spacial defects” like pneumatized maxillary sinuses and 3 to 4 osseous wall defects [47]. This procedure is generally indicated in adults where skeletal maturity has been achieved [2, 47, 48]. The amount of cancellous bone obtained from the tibia is approximately 20 cc, somewhat less than the bone obtainable at the anterior iliac crest. Bone grafts from the tibia can be harvested either from the medial or the lateral side, but the lateral approach is preferred because of a decreased rate of complications [2, 47].
Relevant anatomy – The most important anatomical landmark for the lateral approach of harvesting tibial bone graft is Gerdy’s tubercle [2, 7, 47, 49]. It is the insertion site of the iliotibialis tract on the proximal and the lateral aspects of the tibia. Gerdy’s tubercle is a bony prominence and is a key marker to be noted before placing an incision [49]. Other anatomical landmarks include the patella, patellar ligament, tibial tuberosity, and the fibular head, which includes Gerdy’s tubercle. The lateral cutaneous branch of the sural nerve frequently crosses over Gerdy’s tubercle and the surgeon must remain diligent while dissecting along the course of this nerve. Small terminal branches of the inferior genicular and the recurrent anterior tibial arteries may also cross Gerdy’s tubercle, which can be readily cauterized during surgery [47]. Avoidance of major neurovascular structures is done with relative ease, rending the proximal tibia a safe alternative harvest site [7, 47].
Surgical technique – Identification of Gerdy’s tubercle is the key step of this technique. Once identified and confirmed with palpation, a 3–4 cm incision is made directly over the tubercle. The incision is then continued to the periosteum, which is then elevated to gain access to the cortical plate [47, 49]. A cortical window is made with an osteotome or surgical drill to gain access to the cancellous component of the bone. The required cancellous bone is then harvested until the inferior component of the cortical bone is reached [49]. The wound is then closed in a layer, with the iliotibial tract approximated with resorbable sutures.
Apart from the common post-operative surgical complications like infection, wound dehiscence, pain, gait disturbance, and paraesthesia, proximal tibia fractures have seldomly been reported in the literature [2]. A study by O’Keeffe et al. of 230 patients reported only one case of fracture [50]. Hughes et al. reported 2 cases of proximal tibial fracture out of 75 cases, but these fractures were associated with alleged external injuries [51]. In a retrospective study by Ana Lucia et al. on 31 patients who underwent tibial bone harvesting, only 5 cases of minor complications were noted which all self-resolved within three weeks [52]. Kushner reported a complication rate of just 1.4% in a series of 141 patients [49]. In a meta-analysis, Shmidt et al. reported 63 complications out of 1,137 cases. Most of the complications were minor, but there were 5 cases of fracture and 1 case of osteomyelitis [48].
Despite its safety and ease, the proximal tibial harvest has not attained the same level of popularity as the iliac crest or calvarial grafts possibly as a result of unfamiliarity [47, 48, 49]. A review of the current literature nonetheless demonstrates that the tibia may be an appropriate alternative.
The costochondral graft was arguably the first developed autogenous graft used to reconstruct a segmental defect of the mandible. A unique advantage of rib grafts is that they can be harvested with their cartilage, active growth, and bony components, and that it may continue to grow even after application. This makes the costochondral graft a possible option for reconstruction in growing patients [53]. Anatomically, the rib’s is long, curvilinear shape makes it an adequate replacement for lateral defects of the mandible involving the angle and the ramus. The cartilaginous portion can function in the temporomandibular joint even in growing individuals [54, 55]. Maxillofacial surgeons have also incorporated costochondral grafts to reconstruct the nasal dorsum and septum in cleft individuals [56, 57]. Reports of using free rib graft to reconstruct the medial and orbital floor also exist [58]. A study by Tetsuji et al. demonstrateed no significant complications after in an 8 week cohort [59].
However, the growth potential of a harvested rib is difficult to predict, as is its tendency to resorb. Literature recommends the use of relatively shorter cartilage portions (2–3 mm) [60] to limit unwanted growth [5, 61].
Relevant anatomy and surgical technique - The fifths, sixth, and seventh ribs are commonly selected for the harvesting. The cartilaginous component makes up approximately 1/3rd of the total length. An incision is placed 5 mm above the inframammary fold, and the incision is carried to the muscle level. The costochondral perichondrium lies immediately deep to the muscular fascia and must be exposed with care [2, 7, 53]. Then bony and the cartilaginous components of the ribs must be clearly identified so that the incision is placed along the longitudinal axis, and to safeguard the cartilage from any inadvertent injury [53]. The perichondrium is then reflected until the posterior aspect of the rib is exposed. Continuous palpation of the rib is essential to prevent pleural injury leading to the pneumothorax. The last step involves dividing the cartilaginous rib medially at the sternum and proximally at the bony rib [7, 53]. The graft is then shaped into the desired form by multiple osteotomies and fixated at the recipient site. Layered closure is executed at the donor site, ensuring tight closure of the perichondrium to decrease postoperative pain. A valsalva maneuver should be conducted to check for any air leakage that can lead to post-op pneumothorax. A surgical drain is usually placed to reduce the risk of pleuritis [53, 62].
Complications associated with the rib graft can be categorized into early and delayed. Early complications include pneumothorax, pleuritis, and infection; while examples of delayed complications are graft resorption and unpredictable graft growth [63, 64]. In a meta-analysis, Wee et al. studied 458 patients who underwent rhinoplasty with rib cartilage and reported 42 cases of unpredictable growth of the nasal dorsum, 4 cases of resorption, and 19 cases of hypertrophic scar formation. A systematic review by Kiran et al. reported similar findings as well [65]. A long-term study of 55 patients by Awal et al. reported that after 10 years, there were 58.9% of cases with unpredictable growth and graft resorption, 12.9% of cases with pneumothorax, and 1.8% of cases warranted immediate tracheostomy [66]. In fact, a 2015 study concluded that evidence for costochondral growth may not be sufficient. Sidebottom advises avoiding these grafts altogether due to scar tissue formation, which reduces vascular supply [67]. However, most studies stipulate that costochondral grafting is an acceptable procedure with adequate outcomes in repairing craniofacial anomalies [2, 4, 7, 53, 54, 56, 57, 58, 59, 62, 68, 69, 70].
Bone healing remains unique because it relies on cellular regeneration of a calcified matrix. In NVBGs, regeneration of the graft relies entirely on recipient site vasculature, which typically initiates neo-angiogenesis starts after three days of consolidation [19, 71]. The surgeon must therefore maintain the integrity of the periosteal envelope at the recipient site as this serves as the sole nutritional source to the graft until vascularization.
There are three possible mechanisms by which bone grafts heal or integrate, and in most cases, these mechanisms work synergistically to form a new bone [19].
Direct osteogenesis – In direct osteogenesis, new bone forms from the surrounding periosteum and the endosteum. Surviving osteocytes within the graft play a crucial role in direct osteogenesis by recruiting new osteoblasts. Generally, the cancellous component of the bone graft heals by direct osteogenesis.
Osteoconduction – Here, the grafted material serves as a scaffold for the production and extension of the osseous matrix from the surrounding host bone. This matrix then serves as a conduit for additional osteoblasts and the periosteum.
Osteoinduction – Signaling molecules within the graft trigger osteoinduction by stimulating the osteoprogenitor cells within the surrounding host bone. Once triggered, the osteoprogenitor cells transform into osteoblasts which initiate osteogenesis. Bone morphogenic proteins are some of the most well-studied and widely utilized osteoinducing compounds in maxillofacial surgery today.
The mechanism of NVBG osteointegration remains similar irrespective of the donor site. However, the rate and amount of final bone formation differ in each case, as other factors such as recipient site integrity, nature of disease, and other patient factors also play crucial roles in final healing. In general, cortical bone heals by a method called creeping substitution [72], in which osteoclasts begin to resorb the graft material as a response to direct injury to donor’s bone. These osteoclastic cells subsequently allow fibroblasts to grow and form a matrix, thereby enabling neo-vascularisation. The osteoclasts are soon occupied by osteoblastic cells from the osteoid [19, 72, 73, 74].
Further mineralization is initiated by osteoblastic cells. The synchronous activity of osteoblasts and osteoclasts forms a bone that is then remodeled prior to final maturation. The donor cortext never goes through complete resorption and remains intermixed with the new bone.
In cancellous bone, apposition precedes resorption by the ingrowth of scaffolds, on which osteoblasts form new bone [19, 74]. Structurally, cancellous bone contains marrow which allows it to revascularize rapidly. Unlike the cortices, cancellous bone undergoes complete resorption, which is then replaced by vasculature and mature bone [19, 73, 75].
Surviving osteoblasts secrete different growth factors at different periods, which expedite the healing process. Among the several growth factors, the most commonly identified ones include PDGF (plasma-derived growth factor), TGF (transforming growth factor), VEGF (vasculoendothelial growth factor), and EGF (extra-cellular growth factor). These growth factors are secreted during the second week of healing until maturation ceases [71]. Recently - with a better understanding of growth factors at the molecular level - surgeons have begun treating bone grafts with external sources of growth factor at the time of surgery. The growth factor is thought to promote healing even at the earlier stages of the graft as the host growth factors do not fully mobilize until the second week [73]. Moreover, these growth factors may promote new bone formation in the compromised recipient site which may lack healing potential as a result of devascularization or loss of embedded osteocytes.
Bone harvested from the craniofacial region usually has demonstrates lower rate of resorption than those from distant regions like the ileum, tibia, and rib. Many investigators hold that embryologic similarity in the donor and host bones allow the graft to perform better [19, 71, 72, 73, 74, 76]. This phenomenon may be a result of the congruence of the progenitor cells and signaling factors. Others show that craniofacial bones typically contain more vascular channels, which aid in early vascularization [77, 78].
NVBGs taken from distant sites undergo post-op resorption that typically require over-compensation of volume by approximately 20%. Animal studies using zygomatic and the iliac donor sites showed significant loss of the iliac graft and minimal loss of the zygomatic graft [18]. Preservation of the periosteum also appears to play a similar role, as intact periosteal envelopes were associated with rapid revascularization and minimal graft site volume loss [79].
Reconstructive surgeries have undergone significant advancements over the last few decades, both in technique and technology. Intra-operative use of platelet-rich plasma and fibrin (PRP and PRF) have shown promise in increasing graft success at minimal cost [80, 81]. In fact, leukocyte rich plasma rich fibrin (L-PRF) may stimulate osteoblastic action even more so than the traditional PRF or PRP [81]. Other biological agents like bone morphogenic protein (BMP), transforming growth factor (TGF), and insulin growth factor (IGF) have also been associated with improved success rates albeit at a higher cost [82, 83]. BMP-2 in particular has received approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for its efficacy and stability [84].
Another notable advancement in the field of reconstructive surgery is intra-operative navigation. Navigation guided surgery begins by assisting surgeons in pre-operative planning and defect volume calculation in all the three planes. A spacial locator instrument is utilized intra-operatively so that the location of the instrument tip may be displayed on a rendering of the patient radiograph. With it, surgeons are able to harvest graft accurately according to the pre-operatively planned margins. Navigation also assists in ablative surgery by demonstrating the location of critical anatomical landmarks that are otherwise difficult to visualize. Surgeons can avoid nerves, arteries, and other structures without dissecting for them, reducing the risk of iatrogenic injury and subsequently the rate of graft failure [85].
NVBG remains the gold standard for managing small to mid-sized defects. Among NVBGs, the most common bone grafts used by oral and maxillofacial surgeons include the iliac crest, rib, tibia, and calvarium. With the advent of modern techniques, proximal or distal graft harvest has become a generally safe and successful component of craniofacial reconstruction.
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The eye is frequently affected in neurofibromatosis, and therefore ocular manifestations play a major role in the diagnosis of NF. This chapter aims to explore the spectrum of ocular manifestations found in neurofibromatosis highlighting the importance of ophthalmic exam in these patients. It will describe various intraocular manifestations involving the iris, lens, and retina. It will be focusing on glaucoma and the pathogenesis behind it in this group of patients. Moreover, periorbital and orbital involvement such as skin neurofibromas and optic nerve gliomas will be discussed along with some of their histopathological findings.",book:{id:"8729",slug:"neurofibromatosis-current-trends-and-future-directions",title:"Neurofibromatosis",fullTitle:"Neurofibromatosis - Current Trends and Future Directions"},signatures:"Hind M. Alkatan, Sawsan S. Bakry and Mohammad A. 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Meningiomas, nerve sheath tumors (NST), and ependymomas are the three most common subtypes, and due to their pathologically benign nature, surgical total resection plays the most important role in their management. These tumors have always been challenging entities to neurosurgeons, and many surgical techniques have been described in order to achieve gross total resection, and these techniques have continued to evolve over time. 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From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). 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He has taught at Thompson Rivers University, Canada; University of Paris-Est, France; Osnabruck University of Applied Science, Germany; and Shanghai Institute of Technology and Tianjin University of Technology, China. He has published research in Research Policy, Applied Economics, Review of Economic Philosophy, Strategic Change, International Journal of Logistics, Sustainability, Journal of Environmental Management, Journal of Global Information Management, Journal of Cleaner Production, M@N@GEMENT, and more. He is a member of CEDIMES Institut (France), Academy of International Business (AIB), Strategic Management Society (SMS), Academy of Management (AOM), Administrative Science Association of Canada (ASAC), and Canadian council of small business and entrepreneurship (CCSBE). He is currently the director of the Research Group on Contemporary Asia (GERAC) at Laval University. 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Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11404,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343"},editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",slug:"hitoshi-tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",slug:"marcus-vieira",fullName:"Marcus 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