Various microbial pathogens causing foodborne illness.
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8170",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Chemical Properties of Starch",title:"Chemical Properties of Starch",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book is about the chemical properties of starch. The book is a rich compendium driven by the desire to address the unmet needs of biomedical scientists to respond adequately to the controversy on the chemical properties and attendant reactivity of starch. It is a collective endeavor by a group of editors and authors with a wealth of experience and expertise on starch to aggregate the influence of qualitative and quantitative morphological, chemical, and genetic properties of starch on its functionalities, use, applications, and health benefits. The chemical properties of starch are conferred by the presence, amount and/or quality of amylose and amylopectin molecules, granule structure, and the nature and amounts of the lipid and protein molecules. The implication of this is comprehensively dealt with in this book.",isbn:"978-1-83880-116-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-115-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-697-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78119",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"chemical-properties-of-starch",numberOfPages:164,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"0aedfdb374631bb3a33870c4ed16559a",bookSignature:"Martins Emeje",publishedDate:"March 11th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8170.jpg",numberOfDownloads:13959,numberOfWosCitations:20,numberOfCrossrefCitations:41,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:91,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:152,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 25th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 4th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 3rd 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 22nd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 22nd 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Nigeria"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"324",title:"Food Chemistry",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences-bromatology-food-chemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"68278",title:"Chemically Modified Starches as Excipients in Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88210",slug:"chemically-modified-starches-as-excipients-in-pharmaceutical-dosage-forms",totalDownloads:629,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Excipients play a great role in ensuring that pharmaceutical dosage form meets the required specifications of quality approved by the relevant authorities. Starches are the most widely used excipients in dosage form development, but their use is enhanced by several modification methods (such as chemical degradation, physical alteration, enzymatic modifications or crystalline-genetic transformation), all aimed at restructuring the starch granules, thus ensuring that the reactive polymers are accessible to reactants. Chemical modification of starch usually follows the pathway of substitution, degradation or cross-linking. The most common approaches to chemical modification of starches for pharmaceutical use include oxidation, esterification and etherification, which are employed to optimize the structural and nutritional properties for targeted applications. The oxidant type, botanical origin of starch, and process conditions are all determinants of how effective the oxidation is. Esterification improves the hydrophobicity of starch usually via acetylation and phosphorylation, while etherification is a derivatization technique that involves the use of various alkylation agents such as dimethyl sulphate, diethyl sulphate, alkylene oxides (epoxides) and alkyl halides. Chemically modified starch enhances thermoplasticity, solubility and flow properties. In conclusion, chemically modified starches have shown excellent potentials and are, thus, incorporated as core excipients in several pharmaceutical drug formulations.",signatures:"Oladapo Adewale Adetunji",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68278",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68278",authors:[{id:"299661",title:"Dr.",name:"Oladapo",surname:"Adetunji",slug:"oladapo-adetunji",fullName:"Oladapo Adetunji"}],corrections:null},{id:"68720",title:"Physical and Chemical Modifications in Starch Structure and Reactivity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88870",slug:"physical-and-chemical-modifications-in-starch-structure-and-reactivity",totalDownloads:2318,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:23,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Starch is a naturally occurring glucose homo-polysaccharide of nutritional, pharmaceutical, and industrial importance. The complex polymeric structure and poor solubility of native starch in water limits their importance at pharmaceutical and industrial level. The structure, reactivity, and functionality of the native starch can be modified by physical, chemical, enzymatic, and biotechnological methods. Various physical modifications techniques, including the thermal, radio-thermal, freezing and thawing, annealing, high-pressure, ultrasonic, and pulsed electric field treatment, and chemical modifications, including oxidation, etherification, esterification, cationization, cross-linking, and graft polymerization, have been found to change the surface properties, polarity and linearity of the molecular chains, the degree of substitution, the polymeric, granular, and crystalline structure, amylose to amylopectin ratio, solubility, viscosity, pasting, gelatinization, swelling, water absorption, and emulsifying properties of starch. The structural changes have resulted in the improvement of thermal and freeze-thaw stability, viscosity, solubility, water binding capacity, swelling power, gelling ability, and enzymatic digestibility of starch. The exposure of reactive functional groups after physical or chemical modification modifies the reactivity of starch toward water, oil, acids, enzymes, and other chemical species. These modification techniques have led to some revolutionary changes in reactivity, functionality, and application of starch in various fields.",signatures:"Haq Nawaz, Rashem Waheed, Mubashir Nawaz and Dure Shahwar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68720",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68720",authors:[{id:"230900",title:"Mr.",name:"Haq",surname:"Nawaz",slug:"haq-nawaz",fullName:"Haq Nawaz"},{id:"301871",title:"Ms.",name:"Rashem",surname:"Waheed",slug:"rashem-waheed",fullName:"Rashem Waheed"},{id:"301872",title:"Mr.",name:"Mubashir",surname:"Nawaz",slug:"mubashir-nawaz",fullName:"Mubashir Nawaz"},{id:"309769",title:"Ms.",name:"Dure",surname:"Shahwar",slug:"dure-shahwar",fullName:"Dure Shahwar"}],corrections:null},{id:"70289",title:"Starch Source and Its Impact on Pharmaceutical Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89811",slug:"starch-source-and-its-impact-on-pharmaceutical-applications",totalDownloads:1309,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Starch can be obtained from a variety of plant sources. The specific source of starch, the environmental conditions during starch maturation, and the age of the plant affect the physicochemical composition of the starch. This is because of the effect they have on critical factors especially the amylose amylopectin content of the starch as well as their relative quantities. These factors also affect the starch granule size and size distribution and the levels of minor components such as phosphates, lipids, and the nature of these interactions with amylose and amylopectin. In its wide use as a pharmaceutical excipient especially as binder and disintegrant, unmodified starch is affected in its functionality by the physicochemical properties of the starch. These factors especially by their influence on the swelling power and gelatinization as well as granule size and shape determine the properties of dosage forms in which the starches are used. This results in dosage forms that, although meeting compendial standards, differ in specific properties. The source of starches therefore affects the properties of pharmaceutical dosage forms. This should be taken into consideration in the choice of excipients in drug formulation and before the substitution of one starch for another in a formulation.",signatures:"Olobayo O. Kunle",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70289",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70289",authors:[{id:"308617",title:"Prof.",name:"Olobayo",surname:"Kunle",slug:"olobayo-kunle",fullName:"Olobayo Kunle"}],corrections:null},{id:"70548",title:"Studies on the Property and Application of Starch Sugar Ester Dodecenylsuccinic",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89744",slug:"studies-on-the-property-and-application-of-starch-sugar-ester-dodecenylsuccinic",totalDownloads:601,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this study, we have prepared starch and Brown algae sugar ester dodecenylsuccinic, and by using infrared rays, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), we studied the structures and properties of the starch and Brown algae sugar ester dodecenylsuccinic. In addition, we studied the possibility of using this modified starch and Brown algae as emulsifier that can be used in ice cream.",signatures:"Liu Zhongdong, Liu Boxiang, Wei Guohua, Zhu Xin and Wang Huabin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70548",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70548",authors:[{id:"56574",title:"Prof.",name:"Liu",surname:"Zhongdong",slug:"liu-zhongdong",fullName:"Liu Zhongdong"},{id:"58697",title:"Mr.",name:"Liu",surname:"Boxiang",slug:"liu-boxiang",fullName:"Liu Boxiang"}],corrections:null},{id:"68437",title:"Chemical Properties of Starch and Its Application in the Food Industry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87777",slug:"chemical-properties-of-starch-and-its-application-in-the-food-industry",totalDownloads:4824,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:50,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Starch is an important food product and a versatile biomaterial used world-wide for different purposes in many industrial sectors including foods, health, textile, chemical and engineering sector. Starch versatility in industrial applications is largely defined by its physicochemical properties and functionality. Starch in its native form has limited functionality and application. But advancements in biotechnology and chemical technological have led to wide-range modification of starch for different purposes. The objective of this chapter is to examine the different chemical reactions of starch and expose the food applications of the modification products. Several literatures on starch and reaction chemistry including online journals and books were analyzed, harmonized and rationalized. The reactions and mechanisms presented are explained based on the principles of reaction chemistry. Chemical modification of starch is based on the chemical reactivity of the constituent glucose monomers which are polyhydroxyl and can undergo several reactions. Starch can undergo reactions such as hydrolysis, esterification, etherification and oxidation. These reactions give modified starches which can be used in baked foods, confectionaries, soups and salad dressings. This chapter discusses the different chemical reactions of starch, the associated changes in functionality, as well as the applications of chemically modified starches in the food industry.",signatures:"Henry Omoregie Egharevba",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68437",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68437",authors:[{id:"300976",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Henry",surname:"O. Egharevba",slug:"henry-o.-egharevba",fullName:"Henry O. Egharevba"}],corrections:null},{id:"68410",title:"Application of Starch and Starch Derivatives in Pharmaceutical Formulation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88273",slug:"application-of-starch-and-starch-derivatives-in-pharmaceutical-formulation",totalDownloads:1050,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Starch is a homo-glucose unit connected with glycosidic linkage. It is well known for its biodegradability, renewability, low cost, flexibility, and availability. However, to reach its potential in the pharmaceutical application, modification is necessary to solve the problem of solubility, retrogradation, and loss of viscosity. In this chapter, we discuss the different physical, chemical, enzymatic, and biotechnological modifications and their subsequent pharmaceutical application both as an excipient and directly as drug delivery vehicles. Overall, there were different characteristics conferred in a modification which were exploited in pharmaceutics, drug delivery, and antimicrobial preparation. We, however, believe that collation of the data on modification would go a long way toward standardizing the application of the modified products.",signatures:"Christian Chibuogwu, Ben Amadi, Zikora Anyaegbunam, Benjamin Emesiani and Sabinus Ofoefule",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68410",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68410",authors:[{id:"302049",title:"Mr.",name:"Ben",surname:"Amadi",slug:"ben-amadi",fullName:"Ben Amadi"},{id:"302052",title:"Mr.",name:"Christian",surname:"Chibuogwu",slug:"christian-chibuogwu",fullName:"Christian Chibuogwu"},{id:"302053",title:"Ms.",name:"Zikora",surname:"Anyaegbunam",slug:"zikora-anyaegbunam",fullName:"Zikora Anyaegbunam"},{id:"302054",title:"Mr.",name:"Emesiani",surname:"Benjamin",slug:"emesiani-benjamin",fullName:"Emesiani Benjamin"},{id:"302055",title:"Prof.",name:"Ofoefule",surname:"Sabinus",slug:"ofoefule-sabinus",fullName:"Ofoefule Sabinus"}],corrections:null},{id:"68679",title:"Resistant Starch from Exotic Fruit and Its Functional Properties: A Review of Recent Research",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88816",slug:"resistant-starch-from-exotic-fruit-and-its-functional-properties-a-review-of-recent-research",totalDownloads:935,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Resistant starch is a functional food ingredient that can resist enzymatic digestion in the small intestine and fermentation in large intestine. Resistant starch has many benefits to human health by promoting a balanced blood sugar and beneficial gut bacteria. This review highlighted the sources of different exotic fruit starch, such as banana, jackfruit, cempedak, durian, and breadfruit. The functional properties of these exotic fruit resistant starches were covered in this review. The effect of resistant starch on glycaemic index of food was revealed. This review also discussed on the applications of resistant starch in the production of food products and their effects on food quality. The provided information through the overall review could especially benefit the food industry in producing functional food products with great consumer acceptability.",signatures:"Lee-Hoon Ho and Shi-Yun Wong",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68679",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68679",authors:[{id:"305265",title:"Dr.",name:"Lee Hoon",surname:"Ho",slug:"lee-hoon-ho",fullName:"Lee Hoon Ho"}],corrections:null},{id:"70196",title:"Resistant Starch",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90159",slug:"resistant-starch",totalDownloads:757,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Not all starch that is ingested into the human body is digested into D-glucose – the portion that defies this process is referred to as resistant starch (RS) where chemically and mechanically, five different forms have been identified. Regardless of the form, an extensive breadth of health benefits has been associated with the consumption of RS. These include the potential of RS becoming part of weight and diabetes management plans as well as improved colon health and prevention of colon cancer. Therefore, in the past decade, there has been a significant amount of research into how RS concentrations can be increased in various food systems, which have had varying degrees of success; however, are limited to either enzymatic, thermal, or acidic alterations to starch. In a similar fashion, chemical methods of RS measurement have also received a considerable amount of change and enhancement over time, though with most of them to some extent attempting to replicate human carbohydrate digestion.",signatures:"William Russell Sullivan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70196",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70196",authors:[{id:"303498",title:"Dr.",name:"William",surname:"Sullivan",slug:"william-sullivan",fullName:"William Sullivan"}],corrections:null},{id:"68959",title:"Value of Starch in Indian Traditional Food System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89086",slug:"value-of-starch-in-indian-traditional-food-system",totalDownloads:685,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In India, food habit is profoundly influenced by traditions, cultural choices, and religions. For years traditional Indian foods have been prepared, and preparation varies across the country. The wisdom about processing of food, its preservation techniques, and their therapeutic effects has been established for many generations. Starch is the most commonly consumed type of carbohydrate which is found deposited in many crops, such as wheat, corn, rice, and potato, and it serves as the most important source of energy for humans. Starch is classified as complex carbohydrates, and traditionally, complex carbohydrates have been viewed as healthier options. India harbors many plants, out of which traditional starchy tubers and roots which have the potential to be used as sources of flours and starch are also recognized as functional foods because of the presence of functional components such as body-healing chemicals, antioxidants, dietary fibers, and probiotics.",signatures:"Shyamalima Gogoi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68959",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68959",authors:[{id:"304810",title:"Dr.",name:"Shyamalima",surname:"Gogoi",slug:"shyamalima-gogoi",fullName:"Shyamalima Gogoi"}],corrections:null},{id:"70335",title:"Micrometrics and Morphological Properties of Starch",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90286",slug:"micrometrics-and-morphological-properties-of-starch",totalDownloads:854,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Starch occurs in form of granules and constitutes a primary manner in which of carbohydrates are stored chiefly in seeds and underground organs and sparingly in other morphological parts such as leaf and bark parts of plants. Grains of transitional starch can be found in the stroma of chloroplast and cytoplasm in leaf parts when exposed to the sun and transferred to organs for storage at dark times. The shape and size, ratio of amylose and amylopectin content of starch grains are peculiar to different biological sources. A literature survey was carried out using various search engines. Journals were searched for using keywords such as microscopy, amylopectin, starch granules etc. The relative qualitative and quantitative properties of starches from various morphological parts of 35 species from 15 families were studied. The qualitative features of shape and size as observed from microscopy were not specific or peculiar to each genus and family as similar shapes and sizes cut across different species. Amylopectin and amylose contents varied considerably among all the species and can be used as one of the means of identification for medicinal plants and the delineation of plant species along with other genetic and physicochemical properties.",signatures:"Omolola Temitope Fatokun",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70335",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70335",authors:[{id:"301098",title:"Mrs.",name:"Omolola",surname:"Fatokun",slug:"omolola-fatokun",fullName:"Omolola Fatokun"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:{id:"15",series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",issn:"2632-0983",editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. 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Food poisoning, often known as foodborne illness, is caused by consuming infected food or beverages. Foodborne diseases are to blame for global morbidity and mortality. The gastrointestinal tract of the consumer is the primary organ affected by food infections, but few can target the neurological system, brain, or spinal cord. The researchers discovered more than 250 foodborne illnesses. During 2009–2015 Foodborne Disease Outbreak Surveillance System (FDOSS), received reports of 5760 outbreaks that resulted in 100,939 illnesses, 5699 hospitalizations, and 145 deaths in Columbia. Outbreaks caused by Listeria, Salmonella, and Shiga toxin-producing
FBD is expected to cause 76 million illnesses, 325,000 hospitalizations, and 5000 fatalities in the United States per year, as well as 2,366,000 cases, 21,138 hospitalizations, and 718 deaths in England and Wales. Foodborne Disease Outbreak Surveillance System (FDOSS) received reports of 5760 outbreaks in Columbia between 2009 and 2015, resulting in 100,939 illnesses, 5699 hospitalizations, and 145 fatalities. Listeria, Salmonella, and Shiga toxin-producing
The global burden of foodborne disease (DALYs per 100,000 population) by hazard groups and by subregion (Food systems and diets: Facing the challenges of the twenty first century, Lukasz Aleksandrowicz, Publisher: Global Panel on Agricultural and Food Systems for Nutrition).
Food can be contaminated by infectious organisms or their poisons at any step during processing or manufacture. Food contamination can occur at any stage of production, including growing, harvesting, processing, storage, transporting, and preparation. Cross-contamination is a common cause, with hazardous organisms being transferred from one surface to another. Food poisoning can also be caused by eating raw or undercooked meat and poultry, seafood, or raw shellfish [7]. Nausea, vomiting, watery or bloody diarrhea, stomach pain and cramps, and fever are the most prevalent symptoms. The majority of symptoms are gastrointestinal, although they can also manifest as neurological, gynecological, malignant, and immunological disorders.
Foodborne pathogens are mainly bacteria, viruses, or even parasites that are present in the food and are the cause of major diseases such as food poisoning. Table 1 showed the various common pathogens causing foodborne illness and its symptoms.
S. no. | Foodborne pathogens or their toxins | Predominant symptoms |
---|---|---|
1. | Nausea, vomiting, retching, diarrhea, abdominal pain, prostration | |
2. | Vomiting or diarrhea, depending on whether diarrheic or emetic toxin present; abdominal cramps; nausea | |
3. | Norovirus | Nausea, vomiting, watery non-bloody diarrhea, dehydration |
4. | Abdominal cramps, diarrhea, putrefactive diarrhea ( | |
5. | Fever, abdominal cramps, diarrhea, vomiting, headache | |
6. | Abdominal cramps, diarrhea, vomiting, fever, malaise, nausea, headache, dehydration | |
7. | Enterohaemorrhagic | Diarrhea (often bloody), abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, malaise, fever (uncommon with |
8. | Rotavirus, Astrovirus, enteric Adenovirus | Fever, vomiting, watery non-inflammatory diarrhea |
9. | Fever, diarrhea, abdominal pain | |
10. | Abdominal pain, diarrhea, constipation, headache, drowsiness, ulcers, variable—often asymptomatic | |
11. | Nervousness, insomnia, hunger pains, anorexia, weight loss, abdominal pain, sometimes gastroenteritis | |
12. | Vertigo, double or blurred vision, loss or light reflex, difficulty in swallowing, dry mouth, weakness, respiratory paralysis | |
13. | Gastroenteritis, fever, edema around eyes, perspiration, muscular pain, chills, prostration, labored breathing | |
14. | Malaise, headache, fever, fever, cough, nausea, vomiting, constipation, abdominal pain, chills, rose spots, bloody stools | |
15. | Fever, headache, myalgia, rash | |
16. | Fever, chills, headache, arthralgia, prostration, malaise, swollen lymph nodes, and other specific symptoms of disease in question |
Various microbial pathogens causing foodborne illness.
One of the most effective strategies to manage and prevent human foodborne diseases is to monitor and detect foodborne pathogens quickly and precisely. Traditional microbiological detection and identification procedures for foodborne pathogens are well known for being time-consuming and labor-intensive, and they are increasingly being seen as unable to fulfill the demands of rapid food testing. As a result, new approaches are needed to detect small quantities of viable bacterial cells in a given volume of food in near real-time. For foodborne pathogens, several types of quick detection, identification, and monitoring technologies, such as nucleic-acid-based methods, immunological methods, and biosensor-based methods, have recently been developed. Occasionally, false-negative or false-positive results are obtained, necessitating further investigation. ELISA is a very reliable and precise method for detecting a wide range of proteins in a complex matrix in both qualitative and quantitative terms. The use of biosensor technology in the food business offers promising solutions for portable, quick, and sensitive detection of microorganisms. The straightforward and easy-to-use immunomagnetic separation of
Various detection methods of foodborne pathogens.
Food microbiological testing has always been an important aspect of the food production process, but it is most commonly used for end-product control. Microbiological testing has two main goals: determining the absence of pathogens or their toxins to ensure food safety, and determining the overall microbial load to determine product quality and shelf-life stability.
Traditional culture methods cultivate, isolate, and enumerate the target microbe while simultaneously preventing the growth of other microorganisms contained in the food using selective liquid or solid culture media. Pre-enrichment growth, selective enrichment culture, and selective plating are used to identify foodborne pathogens, followed by biochemical identification and serological confirmation of the results. Culture approaches are available in both qualitative and quantitative formats [8].
When only the presence or absence of a pathogen in a food sample must be determined, qualitative procedures are used, in which presumptive colonies are grown on selective media from a known amount of food. Pure cultures are raised, and the pathogen is identified using various biochemical or serological tests.
The plate count method or the most probable number method, both of which are based on serial dilution procedures, are used to count the microorganisms present in the food sample by culture method. Although these methods are reasonably affordable, sensitive, and still considered gold standards, their main disadvantage is their lengthy analysis time and labor-intensive nature. The entire operation usually takes between 7 and 10 days [9, 10, 11].
Various approaches based on microscopic and optical traits of the suitably stained microbial cells have been developed for ensuring microbiological safety of foods and food products, these include:
It is a rapid way of enumerating microbial foodborne pathogens and is used commonly in the dairy sector for raw foods, milk and milk products, beverages, and snacks, among other things. Bacterial cells are captured on the surface of polycarbonate membrane filters, then stained with a fluorochrome like acridine orange and visualized using epifluorescence microscopy. The DEFT count is quick and precise, but it is very labor-intensive and is only useful when there are roughly 103 to 104 CFU/g of bacteria in the sample [12, 13].
It is applied to count the number of live bacteria in a sample and to analyze the viability, metabolic status, and antigenic markers of bacteria using fluorescent dyes. When cells are made to pass through a beam of light individually, this technique quantifies their optical properties. The procedure is quick, automatic, and specific if selectively discriminating dyes for specific species of bacteria are available. However, the detection limit for food samples is roughly105 to 107 CFU/g [13].
The principles of epifluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry are combined in this method. Microorganisms are trapped on a membrane filter, fluorescently labeled, and counted automatically using a laser scanner. An epifluorescence microscope coupled to a scanning instrument by a computer-driven moving stage can visually inspect each fluorescent spot. SPC is appropriate only if the count of bacteria is around 103 to 104 CFU/g [13, 14].
Antigen-antibody reactions underpin all immunological approaches for detecting foodborne infections. These responses are diverse and specific, but the immunoassay’s success is determined by the antibody’s specificity. With the emergence of hybridoma technology, monoclonal antibodies that specifically react just to one pathogen have been created. Immunoassays have a detection limit of approximately 104 to 105 CFU/g [13]. Immunoassays are offered in a variety of configurations.
Antibody-coated colored latex beads that agglutinate the target antigens (specific pathogen) and generate a visible precipitate are used to identify the food-borne pathogens. The latex agglutination assay is easy and quick, but it is not very sensitive and requires about 107 bacterial cells for the reaction to happen [15, 16].
Antibody-coated colored beads are used to agglutinate soluble antigens or toxins in place of microbiological cells to identify pathotoxins. The inert or carrier particle is attached to a known antibody rather than an antigen in this case. The active site of the antibody must be oriented to face outward. It’s used to detect antigens from bacteria like Group A and B Streptococcus,
Antigen diffusion is allowed through an antibody-impregnated gel, and the formation of a precipitation line shows the presence of a certain foodborne pathogen or antigen.
It is one of the most widely used and quick methods for detecting foodborne pathogenic bacteria. Most commercially available immunological kits use double antibody sandwich assays, which use commercially available antibody-coated microtiter plates (primary antibody) or other solid matrices to capture antigen (pathotoxin or pathogen) from target food samples, and then add a second antibody (secondary antibody) conjugated with an enzyme to form an antibody-antigen-conjugate “sandwich” [19].
These methods rely on the detection of certain gene sequences (signature sequences) in the target organism’s genotype. The sequences can be chosen to detect a certain group, genus, species, or even strain of the microbe. There are many other types of DNA-based assays, but probes and nucleic acid amplification techniques are the most common and have been commercially developed for identifying foodborne infections.
Because probe-based tests are simple to apply, they are frequently employed in the food business. Nucleic acid probes are immobilized to inorganic substrates in these experiments so that they can be easily manipulated (e.g., washing out unhybridized DNA) without being damaged or lost. The use of DNA probes is based on a basic idea. It entails the use of a known DNA probe (labeled DNA) to hybridize the DNA sequence of an unknown microbial pathogen. Any microbial cells in the food sample that must be tested for pathogen presence are lysed, releasing their DNA, which is denatured, and the probe is added. The single-stranded DNA probe then hybridizes (annealing of complementary strands) with single-stranded DNA released from pathogenic bacteria present in the food. The signal is obtained by the hybridization of the labeled probe if the desired targeted sequence is present. The probe will not bind if the intended sequence is missing, and no signal will be obtained [15, 16].
PCR is currently a widely used and incredibly potent technology that allows for rapid exponential amplification of a specific target sequence, reducing the need for culture enrichment. With respect to a single pathogen in food, this approach can detect a single copy of a target DNA sequence. For the identification of microbial infections, PCR provides various benefits over culture and other traditional procedures, including sensitivity, specificity, accuracy, speed, and the ability to detect minute amounts of target nucleic acid in a sample. For the detection of food pathogens, PCR comes in a variety of formats [20, 21].
LCR is a new technology that uses DNA amplification to detect the nucleic acid sequence of bacteria. It’s comparable to PCR, except that only probe molecules amplify by nucleotide polymerization. To make a single probe, two probes for each DNA strand are ligated together. The reaction is driven by thermostable DNA polymerase and a DNA ligase enzyme in LCR. This method has one drawback in terms of food pathogen detection: it can detect DNA from dead species. It is one of the newest amplification approaches for finding point mutations in microbial pathogens. This method uses a thermostable ligase to distinguish between DNA sequences that differ only by a single base pair. LCR assay is commonly used for the specific recognition of
NASBA was created primarily to detect RNA. It’s a transcription-dependent amplification technique that uses promoter primers to recognize specific target sequences and synthesize RNA amplicons. Reverse transcriptase, Rnase H, and T7 RNA polymerase are three viral enzymes that work together to amplify RNA targets. A primer attaches to the target RNA sequence, and a reverse transcriptase produces a cDNA strand. The template RNA is subsequently digested by RNase H, and a second primer binds to cDNA, allowing the reverse transcriptase to generate double-stranded cDNA. Finally, T7 RNA polymerase is used in an amplification process to generate RNA transcripts. The main advantage of this approach is that it is isothermal, which eliminates the need for expensive thermal cyclers., NASBA diagnostics were originally developed for the identification of viruses, but they have also been used in food testing to detect
Strand Displacement Amplification (SDA), is an isothermic amplification technique that uses four different primers, each with a Hind II exonuclease restriction site, DNA as a template, and an exonuclease-deficient fragment of
Nested polymerase chain reaction is a revision of polymerase chain reaction. Because it decreases non-specific binding in products caused by the amplification of unanticipated primer binding sites, this approach is more sensitive and specific than traditional PCR. Two sets of primers are utilized in two separate polymerase chain reaction runs in this procedure. The first set of primers is used to amplify a target sequence, which is subsequently employed as a template for a second amplification. The second primer set remains internal to the first amplicon. As a result, if the first amplification is nonspecific, secondary amplification does not occur. This innovative PCR approach has been used to detect a variety of foodborne pathogens, including
Real-time polymerase chain reaction, also known as a quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, is a technique for amplifying and quantifying a specific DNA molecule in real-time. It has the ability to detect as well as quantify. The quantity can be either a perfect number of copies or a relative amount when normalized to DNA input or additional normalizing genes. The amplified DNA is detected in real-time as the process progresses. In real-time PCR, there are two main methods for detecting products: (1) non-specific fluorescent dyes, such as SYBR-green I, EtBr, and others, that intercalate with any double-stranded DNA. (2) Sequence-specific DNA probes, such as TaqMan, Molecular Beacons, Scorpions, and others, are comprised of oligonucleotides tagged with a fluorescent reporter that allows detection only after hybridization of the probe with its complementary DNA target. For the identification and characterization of food-borne diseases, a number of commercial kits based on real-time PCR technology are now available on the market [28, 29, 30].
In the food industry, the expense and restricted volume of test samples are the most important factors to consider when evaluating quality. Multiple sets of primers are included in a single reaction tube in multiplex PCR, allowing more than one target sequence to be amplified in a single reaction system. A single test run can yield more information if numerous genes are targeted at the same time. The main benefit is that less reagent and enzyme (Taq DNA polymerase) are used. Another advantage is that, because pathogens are evaluated individually, sample preparation and findings are completed in a short amount of time. The only drawback is that amplified fragments of the same length cannot be distinguished, and a smaller amount of amplified product may not show up on an agarose gel. This could be solved by developing primers that are longer and have a higher melting temperature (Tm) than those used in conventional PCR [22, 24].
Low-stringency Single-Specific-Primer PCR (LSSP-PCR) is a straightforward PCR technique for detecting single or multiple mutations in gene-sized DNA fragments. The first of the two steps are specific PCR (sPCR), which is used to obtain the DNA template, and the second is LSSP-PCR, which uses low-stringency conditions, and only one primer, which is commonly utilized in the sPCR. It’s utilized to identify infectious pathogens like the Human Papilloma Virus (HPV), Trypanosoma cruzi, Trypanosoma rangeli, and Leishmania infantum by their genetic typing [30, 31].
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) is a very simple approach that involves the digestion of genomic DNA with certain restriction enzymes. It is used to compare the number and size (mass) of fragments produced by restriction endonucleases cutting at a certain recognition site of the target DNA molecule. Electrophoretic separation is used to examine the resultant DNA fragments. Presence, absence, or changes in the weight of the resultant DNA fragments are evidence of altering DNA sequences. For the species-level differentiation of bacteria, this approach requires pure culture. For the accurate detection of Staphylococcus and Listeria spp., RFLP in conjunction with PCR has been employed [32, 33].
Another genotyping approach is AFLP, which is based on the selective amplification of restriction segments of DNA molecules. The approach comprises digestion of whole pure genomic DNA using restriction endonucleases, followed by ligation of the resultant fragments with a double-stranded oligonucleotide adaptor complementary to the restriction site’s base sequence. Primers corresponding to the contiguous base sequences in the adaptor, the restriction site, and one or more nucleotides in the original target DNA are used to selectively amplify sets of these fragments in PCR. Gel electrophoresis is used to examine the PCR-amplified DNA fragments. AFLP can be used to identify contamination sources, especially in cases involving live stocks [34, 35].
The Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) approach is a PCR experiment that can be used to distinguish races, strains, and pathogenic or non-pathogenic isolates using arbitrary primers. The primers used in this procedure are very short bits (10 or fewer bases) of DNA from a known source. It’s very likely that these primers will be able to discover some complementary sequences in the target DNA, resulting in a variety of different-sized DNA fragments. When the results of such a reaction are studied using gel electrophoresis, various banding patterns emerge, some of which may be unique to certain species, varieties, or strains. Some pathogenic fungi may be detected and diagnosed using the patterns alone [36].
The loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) approach for detecting target genes in food samples is a fast, accurate, and cost-effective method. Under isothermal circumstances, LAMP is a single-step amplification reaction that amplifies a target DNA sequence with high sensitivity and specificity. LAMP approach involves three phases, an initial phase, a cycling amplification step, and an elongation step. It uses a strand-displacement DNA polymerase, as well as two inner primers and two outer primers that recognize six different locations inside a target DNA. Because the amplification reaction happens only when all six areas inside a target DNA are appropriately recognized by the primers, the LAMP test is exceedingly specific. Visual judgment, rather than post-amplification electrophoresis, simplifies detection. LAMP has been used to detect a variety of pathogens that cause foodborne illnesses. LAMP kits have been commercially produced for detecting Legionella, Salmonella, Campylobacter Listeria, and verotoxin-producing
Because of the many typing methods employed in terms of time, accuracy, and cost, rep-PCR may be able to obtain rapid, accurate, and higher resolution findings among the various strains involved in the hospital outbreak. REP PCR was recently utilized in Italy to identify and classify
The key benefit of this technology is that it avoids the issues that PCR-based techniques have with the quick detection of foodborne pathogens. The challenge of testing a single organism at a time was solved by using a multiplex PCR approach. To discover a solution to the problem of false-positive results acquired by amplification of DNA from dead cells, DNase I enzyme treatment followed by PCR (that is DTD-PCR) was tried. When the multiplex procedure was examined for specificity, no interferences or non-specific amplification were identified. As a result, this DTD multiplex PCR technique may be practically used to identify viable cells of four major pathogens, including
The manipulation of matter on an atomic, molecular, and supramolecular scale is known as nanotechnology (“nanotech”). Bacteria, poisons, proteins, and nucleic acids can now be bound to these nanoparticles thanks to advancements in nanomaterial manipulation. One of the most significant advantages of employing nanomaterials for bio-sensing is their enormous surface area, which allows a greater number of biomolecules to be immobilized, increasing the number of reaction sites accessible for interaction with a target species. This characteristic, in combination with strong electrical and optical properties, makes nanomaterials ideal for “label-free” detection and the development of biosensors with higher sensitivity and faster response times. AuNPs (gold nanoparticles) have been employed in a variety of optical and electrical tests. Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have been employed in a variety of optical and electrical assays because of their high conductivity.
Pathogenic microbes have been found in common foods such as milk, cheese, pork, chicken, raw vegetables, and fruits. The pathogens can be determined using standard procedures in about 1–2 days. Biosensors are the most promising new tool for combating this problem. A biosensor is an analytical instrument that translates biological signals and responses into electrical signals. This comprises two key components: a bioreceptor that recognizes the event and a transducer that converts the recognition event into a quantifiable sensitive electrical signal. A bioreceptor can be a microbe, organelle, cell, tissue, antibody, enzyme, nucleic acid, biomimic, or a combination of the above, and the transduction can be thermometric, electrochemical, optical, piezoelectric, or magnetic.
Biosensors based on the interactions of specific antibodies with a specific antigen are known as immunosensors. Antigens detect antibody binding by immobilizing the reaction on the surface of a transducer, which translates surface change parameters into detectable electrical impulses. Bioreceptors can be monoclonal, polyclonal, or recombinant, depending on their qualities and the method they are synthesized. In eggs and chicken meat, a sandwich immunoassay was developed for two Salmonella species (
On fluorescent and radiolabeled compounds, enzyme as a bio receptor provides a number of advantages. The enzyme immunoassay reagents are non-hazardous, stable, and sensitive. By immobilization, the enzyme bio receptor is properly linked to the transducer. Enzymes are chosen based on their unique binding capabilities and catalytic activity, as well as a suitable substrate that allows for enough electron transport to the working. Storage stability, sensitivity, high selectivity, short reaction time, and great reproducibility are all advantages of enzyme immobilization. By labeling the antibody with enzymes, pathogenic bacteria such as
Biosensors that measure electrochemical responses are known as electrochemical biosensors. They convert the incoming electrical signal directly into an electronic field, allowing small system designs with simple instrumentation to be created. Electrochemical biosensors are categorized as impedimetric, potentiometric, amperometric, and conductometric biosensors. For the detection of
Electrochemical processes are studied using amperometric biosensors, which measure current changes in a constant potential. The biosensors’ reaction is proportional to the concentration of analyte in a solution. Amperometric biosensors can be set up using two or three electrodes. The researchers developed an amperometric immunosensor for detecting
Potentiometric biosensors rely on the detection of oxidation and reduction potential of an electrochemical reaction. As a result, a pH meter comprises an immobilized enzyme membrane around the probe, where the catalyzed process produces or absorbs hydrogen ions. Ion-selective electrodes are used in potentiometric biosensors to turn the biological reaction into an electrical signal. Potentiometric biosensors detect potential changes below zero degrees Celsius. Field-effect transistor (FET) devices are used in recent potentiometric devices. Potentiometric biosensors based on carbon nanotubes and aptamers were used to detect
Magnetoelastic sensors are constructed with amorphous ferromagnetic alloys. Remote sensing is a feature of magnetoelastic sensors, as the signal transmission takes place at a distance from the coil. The materials display a magnetoelastic resonance when triggered by a changing magnetic field, which may be detected using a noncontact signal collection coil. When a target comes into contact with the pathogen alloy sensor surface, the extra mass creates a shift in the resonance frequency, which the signal collector coil can detect from a distance. Magnetoelastic sensors, as a result, are wireless devices that can be highly useful for remote monitoring. The first wireless biosensors in biosensor platforms are magnetoelastic biosensors. A magnetoelastic biosensor with a working range of 5 × 101 to 5 × 108 CFU/mL was used to detect
PFGE (Pulse Field Gel Electrophoresis) employs restriction enzymes, which are molecular scissors that cut bacterial DNA at probable restriction sites. These molecular scissors create a DNA imprint that is segregated by size. The bacteria are first placed in an agarose slurry, which is comparable to gelatin, and then the bacterial cell is opened to allow the DNA to be released. Listeria, Salmonella,
MLST and Multi Locus Enzyme Electrophoresis (MLEE) are useful for determining population structures of non-bacterial haploid infectious agents and for portable molecular typing of those agents that are weakly or strongly cloned. MLEE is commonly used for typing and population genetic analysis of pathogenic fungi and parasites. MLST is a nucleotide-based typing approach that determines a sequence type by analyzing data from housekeeping genes. MLST provides highly selective molecular typing data that can be electronically transferred between laboratories, making it ideal for studying the genetic relationship of bacteria. Some significant pathogens, such as
Ribotyping is a DNA-based subtyping procedure in which restriction enzymes are used to break bacterial DNA into fragments. The restriction enzymes utilized include PFGE, which cut DNA into larger pieces, although genomic DNA is cut into a large number of smaller fragments ranging from 1 to 30 kb in size in the ribotyping assay. Electrophoresis is used to separate the pieces according to their size. Furthermore, in southern blotting, DNA probes are selectively bound to target DNA containing genes coding for rRNA synthesis and are hybridized (to probe specific) for the 16S to 23S rRNA genes. For the distinction of
The examination of plasmid DNA profiles has been utilized to type a variety of gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria. In the sphere of health care, it is applied and employed as a marker for comparing strains and assessing the potential spread of a resistance gene. Plasmids are unique in that they can be transferred to another strain by conjugation under selection pressure, but they can also be gained or lost spontaneously during the process. The acquisition or deletion of plasmid causes genetic relatedness to the isolate to become muddled, limiting short-term epidemiological research. This is particularly beneficial for species such as Staphylococcus spp. and enterobacteria [47].
Lipidomics is an emerging active topic of biomedical and molecular research that involves complex lipidome analysis. Lipidome is a quantitative and complete description of a total lipid moiety present in an organism. Thousands of networks in different species, as well as their interactions with other lipids, carbohydrates, proteins, and other moieties, are identified and quantified in vivo. Membrane-lipidomics (description of membrane lipid constituents) and mediator-lipidomics (description of low abundance bioactive lipid constituents) are two subtypes of lipidomics. The study of pathogen lipid profiles is not entirely new. Liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry are driving the study of lipidomics, allowing for the perception, characterization, and quantification of a wide range of lipid classes. Capturing the entire “lipidome” of a cell or tissue in a single experiment is a difficult endeavor. The research will pave the door for the discovery of pathogen-specific metabolic pathways. Cell and molecular biology will be used as a unique way to analyze the intricate lipid signaling during host-pathogen interactions for medication and biomarker development [55].
Traditional methods for detecting foodborne pathogens, which rely on culturing methods, are efficient and gold standard methods but time-consuming and labor-intensive. As a result, a variety of quick detection approaches like PCR, application microarray technology, biosensors, etc. have been developed to address the limitations of traditional detection methods. To avoid outbreaks of foodborne diseases and the transmission of foodborne pathogens, quick methods for detecting foodborne pathogens in food products are critical. Traditional methods are less sensitive, specific, time-efficient, labor-saving, and dependable than rapid detection approaches.
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The suspended sediment plays the most important role on the land-ocen sediment flux. On the other hand, the bedload should be considered in order to assess the impacts of dams on sediment transport and sediment yield. Recent effects of dam construction have been widely reported. The sediment load has been reduced by more than 75% for major rives, such as Nilo, Orange, Volta, Indus, Ebro, Kizil Irmark, Colorado, and Rio Grande and more than 40% of its lux is trapped within large dams. In addition, the multiple trapping through sequential dams has impacted the sediment transfer from terrestrial to coastal zone, triggering the coastal erosion. In terms of sediment retention and transport, China stands out the most impacted country by dams, followed by United States, and continents such as Europe, Africa, and South America. Based on the foregoing, the impact of dams on sediment transport and yield of an important Brazilian watershed with multiple dams will be the focus of this chapter. Thus, a three years field sampling (2009-2011) was carried out to measure the sediment yield of Capibaribe Watershed, and also its contribution to coastal erosion. The ratio between QB and SSQ ranged from 0.12% to 27.3% with 76% of all values lower than 5%. Usually, the bedload transport rate of a river is about 5–25% of the suspended sediment transport. This ranging sheds light on the lack of bedload reaching the coastal zone and it is likely one of the reasons to yield coastal erosion. The low rates can be attributed to the presence of dams which have been admitted to have a strong effect on sediment transport. The sediment yield was equal to 3.69, 4.36, and 6.7 t km-2 ano-1 in 2009, 2010, and 2011, respectively. In comparison with bedload yield, the suspended sediment yield was higher than 95% for all studied years. Therefore, the limited bedload supply – mainly responsible for construction of coastal landform – is likely contributing to the coastal erosion along part of the northeast region, Brazil. The multiple dams along the Capibaribe River watershed produce a deficit in sediment flux to coastal zone of Pernambuco State, Brazil, which relies on the low ratios between bedload and suspended sediment. As a result, it generates energy to coastal erosion of the Brazilian northeast.",book:{id:"4687",slug:"effects-of-sediment-transport-on-hydraulic-structures",title:"Effects of Sediment Transport on Hydraulic Structures",fullTitle:"Effects of Sediment Transport on Hydraulic Structures"},signatures:"Jose Ramon B. Cantalice, Wagner Luis da Silva Souza, Yuri Jacques\nAgra Bezerra Silva, Sergio M.S. Guerra, Alex Mauricio Araújo,\nDouglas Monteiro Cavalcante and Cinthia Maria Cordeiro Atanazio\nCruz Silva",authors:[{id:"174133",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose Ramon",middleName:"Barros",surname:"Cantalice",slug:"jose-ramon-cantalice",fullName:"Jose Ramon Cantalice"},{id:"174468",title:"Dr.",name:"Wagner Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Sousa",slug:"wagner-luis-sousa",fullName:"Wagner Luis Sousa"},{id:"174469",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuri",middleName:null,surname:"Silva",slug:"yuri-silva",fullName:"Yuri Silva"},{id:"174470",title:"Prof.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Araujo",slug:"alex-araujo",fullName:"Alex Araujo"},{id:"174471",title:"MSc.",name:"Douglas",middleName:null,surname:"Cavalcante",slug:"douglas-cavalcante",fullName:"Douglas Cavalcante"},{id:"174472",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergio Monthezuma",middleName:null,surname:"Guerra",slug:"sergio-monthezuma-guerra",fullName:"Sergio Monthezuma Guerra"}]},{id:"49484",doi:"10.5772/61459",title:"Assessment of Reservoir Sedimentation Effect on Coastal Erosion and Evaluation of Sediment Removal Techniques for Its Reduction — The Case of Nestos River, Greece",slug:"assessment-of-reservoir-sedimentation-effect-on-coastal-erosion-and-evaluation-of-sediment-removal-t",totalDownloads:1811,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Nestos is one of the most important transboundary rivers flowing through Bulgaria and Greece. In the Greek part of the river, two reservoirs, the Thisavros Reservoir and the Platanovrysi Reservoir, have already been constructed and started operating in 1997 and 1999, respectively. In the first part of the chapter, the reservoir sedimentation effect on the coastal erosion is investigated, for the case of the Nestos River delta and the adjacent shorelines, through a combination of mathematical modeling, modern remote sensing techniques, and field surveying, while in the second part, the mechanical removal as well as the flushing of sediment from the reservoir of Platanovrysi and its disposal in the subbasin downstream of the Platanovrysi Dam up to the Nestos River delta are investigated as potential treatment methods of reducing coastal erosion, using a modification of the same mathematical model that is utilized in the first part of the chapter. The overall findings and conclusions arising from the work presented and discussed in the present chapter contribute to the overall need to thoroughly understand the direct effect of dam construction on coastal erosion, as well as to examine the effectiveness of potential sediment management treatments.",book:{id:"4687",slug:"effects-of-sediment-transport-on-hydraulic-structures",title:"Effects of Sediment Transport on Hydraulic Structures",fullTitle:"Effects of Sediment Transport on Hydraulic Structures"},signatures:"Manolia Andredaki, Anastasios Georgoulas, Vlassios Hrissanthou\nand Nikolaos Kotsovinos",authors:[{id:"37707",title:"Prof.",name:"Vlassios",middleName:null,surname:"Hrissanthou",slug:"vlassios-hrissanthou",fullName:"Vlassios Hrissanthou"},{id:"113298",title:"Prof.",name:"Nikolaos",middleName:null,surname:"Kotsovinos",slug:"nikolaos-kotsovinos",fullName:"Nikolaos Kotsovinos"},{id:"174591",title:"Dr.",name:"Anastasios",middleName:null,surname:"Georgoulas",slug:"anastasios-georgoulas",fullName:"Anastasios Georgoulas"},{id:"174790",title:"Dr.",name:"Manolia",middleName:null,surname:"Andredaki",slug:"manolia-andredaki",fullName:"Manolia Andredaki"}]},{id:"49521",doi:"10.5772/61468",title:"The Impact of Ice Cover and Sediment Nonuniformity on Erosion Around Hydraulic Structures",slug:"the-impact-of-ice-cover-and-sediment-nonuniformity-on-erosion-around-hydraulic-structures",totalDownloads:1717,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Based on two case studies, the impact of ice cover on local scour around bridge piers is presented in this chapter. Bed material with different grain sizes is used and ice covers with different roughness is used to study the scour characteristics. The impact of nonuniformity of sediment is also investigated. Results show that with the increase in densimetric Froude number, there is a corresponding increase in the dimensionless scour depth. For nonuniform sediment, due to the formation of an armor layer, less maximum scour depth was noted around bridge foundation structures compared to uniformly distributed sediment. The increase in ice cover roughness results in a larger scour depth and geometry. The results indicate that it is imperative to pay attention to the impact of ice cover on the scour around hydraulic structures.",book:{id:"4687",slug:"effects-of-sediment-transport-on-hydraulic-structures",title:"Effects of Sediment Transport on Hydraulic Structures",fullTitle:"Effects of Sediment Transport on Hydraulic Structures"},signatures:"Peng Wu, Jueyi Sui and Ram Balachandar",authors:[{id:"36919",title:"Dr.",name:"Ram",middleName:null,surname:"Balachandar",slug:"ram-balachandar",fullName:"Ram Balachandar"},{id:"174497",title:"Prof.",name:"Jueyi",middleName:null,surname:"Sui",slug:"jueyi-sui",fullName:"Jueyi Sui"},{id:"174521",title:"Dr.",name:"Peng",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"peng-wu",fullName:"Peng Wu"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"49521",title:"The Impact of Ice Cover and Sediment Nonuniformity on Erosion Around Hydraulic Structures",slug:"the-impact-of-ice-cover-and-sediment-nonuniformity-on-erosion-around-hydraulic-structures",totalDownloads:1717,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Based on two case studies, the impact of ice cover on local scour around bridge piers is presented in this chapter. Bed material with different grain sizes is used and ice covers with different roughness is used to study the scour characteristics. The impact of nonuniformity of sediment is also investigated. Results show that with the increase in densimetric Froude number, there is a corresponding increase in the dimensionless scour depth. For nonuniform sediment, due to the formation of an armor layer, less maximum scour depth was noted around bridge foundation structures compared to uniformly distributed sediment. The increase in ice cover roughness results in a larger scour depth and geometry. The results indicate that it is imperative to pay attention to the impact of ice cover on the scour around hydraulic structures.",book:{id:"4687",slug:"effects-of-sediment-transport-on-hydraulic-structures",title:"Effects of Sediment Transport on Hydraulic Structures",fullTitle:"Effects of Sediment Transport on Hydraulic Structures"},signatures:"Peng Wu, Jueyi Sui and Ram Balachandar",authors:[{id:"36919",title:"Dr.",name:"Ram",middleName:null,surname:"Balachandar",slug:"ram-balachandar",fullName:"Ram Balachandar"},{id:"174497",title:"Prof.",name:"Jueyi",middleName:null,surname:"Sui",slug:"jueyi-sui",fullName:"Jueyi Sui"},{id:"174521",title:"Dr.",name:"Peng",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"peng-wu",fullName:"Peng Wu"}]},{id:"49484",title:"Assessment of Reservoir Sedimentation Effect on Coastal Erosion and Evaluation of Sediment Removal Techniques for Its Reduction — The Case of Nestos River, Greece",slug:"assessment-of-reservoir-sedimentation-effect-on-coastal-erosion-and-evaluation-of-sediment-removal-t",totalDownloads:1811,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Nestos is one of the most important transboundary rivers flowing through Bulgaria and Greece. In the Greek part of the river, two reservoirs, the Thisavros Reservoir and the Platanovrysi Reservoir, have already been constructed and started operating in 1997 and 1999, respectively. In the first part of the chapter, the reservoir sedimentation effect on the coastal erosion is investigated, for the case of the Nestos River delta and the adjacent shorelines, through a combination of mathematical modeling, modern remote sensing techniques, and field surveying, while in the second part, the mechanical removal as well as the flushing of sediment from the reservoir of Platanovrysi and its disposal in the subbasin downstream of the Platanovrysi Dam up to the Nestos River delta are investigated as potential treatment methods of reducing coastal erosion, using a modification of the same mathematical model that is utilized in the first part of the chapter. The overall findings and conclusions arising from the work presented and discussed in the present chapter contribute to the overall need to thoroughly understand the direct effect of dam construction on coastal erosion, as well as to examine the effectiveness of potential sediment management treatments.",book:{id:"4687",slug:"effects-of-sediment-transport-on-hydraulic-structures",title:"Effects of Sediment Transport on Hydraulic Structures",fullTitle:"Effects of Sediment Transport on Hydraulic Structures"},signatures:"Manolia Andredaki, Anastasios Georgoulas, Vlassios Hrissanthou\nand Nikolaos Kotsovinos",authors:[{id:"37707",title:"Prof.",name:"Vlassios",middleName:null,surname:"Hrissanthou",slug:"vlassios-hrissanthou",fullName:"Vlassios Hrissanthou"},{id:"113298",title:"Prof.",name:"Nikolaos",middleName:null,surname:"Kotsovinos",slug:"nikolaos-kotsovinos",fullName:"Nikolaos Kotsovinos"},{id:"174591",title:"Dr.",name:"Anastasios",middleName:null,surname:"Georgoulas",slug:"anastasios-georgoulas",fullName:"Anastasios Georgoulas"},{id:"174790",title:"Dr.",name:"Manolia",middleName:null,surname:"Andredaki",slug:"manolia-andredaki",fullName:"Manolia Andredaki"}]},{id:"49294",title:"Simulation of Reservoir Siltation with a Process-based Soil Loss and Deposition Model",slug:"simulation-of-reservoir-siltation-with-a-process-based-soil-loss-and-deposition-model",totalDownloads:2220,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Soil erosion on arable land is the key driver of reservoir siltation in the German loess belt. In this regard, the Baderitz Reservoir suffers from deleterious sediment inputs and resulting siltation processes. In order to estimate the reservoir lifespan, the event-based soil erosion and deposition model EROSION 3D was applied. Simulations of sediment input and sediment deposition processes within the reservoir were realized using a typical crop rotation and a normal heavy rainfall year of the region. Model parameterization was enabled by existing data based on a large number of artificial rainfall simulations. Yearly soil losses of approximately 12 t/ha correspond to sediment inputs of nearly 8800 t. The mean annual increase of the reservoir bottom of 9 cm causes a 13% loss of reservoir storage in only 10 years. The model results are plausible and could be used for planning and dimensioning of mitigation measures.",book:{id:"4687",slug:"effects-of-sediment-transport-on-hydraulic-structures",title:"Effects of Sediment Transport on Hydraulic Structures",fullTitle:"Effects of Sediment Transport on Hydraulic Structures"},signatures:"Marcus Schindewolf, Constanze Bornkampf, Michael von Werner\nand Jürgen Schmidt",authors:[{id:"174672",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:null,surname:"Schindewolf",slug:"marcus-schindewolf",fullName:"Marcus Schindewolf"},{id:"174673",title:"Dr.",name:"Constance",middleName:null,surname:"Bornkampf",slug:"constance-bornkampf",fullName:"Constance Bornkampf"},{id:"174674",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Von Werner",slug:"michael-von-werner",fullName:"Michael Von Werner"},{id:"174675",title:"Prof.",name:"Jürgen",middleName:null,surname:"Schmidt",slug:"jurgen-schmidt",fullName:"Jürgen Schmidt"}]},{id:"49325",title:"Bedload and Suspended Sediment of a Watershed Impacted by Dams",slug:"bedload-and-suspended-sediment-of-a-watershed-impacted-by-dams",totalDownloads:1790,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Sediment transport relates to suspended sediment and bedload. The suspended sediment plays the most important role on the land-ocen sediment flux. On the other hand, the bedload should be considered in order to assess the impacts of dams on sediment transport and sediment yield. Recent effects of dam construction have been widely reported. The sediment load has been reduced by more than 75% for major rives, such as Nilo, Orange, Volta, Indus, Ebro, Kizil Irmark, Colorado, and Rio Grande and more than 40% of its lux is trapped within large dams. In addition, the multiple trapping through sequential dams has impacted the sediment transfer from terrestrial to coastal zone, triggering the coastal erosion. In terms of sediment retention and transport, China stands out the most impacted country by dams, followed by United States, and continents such as Europe, Africa, and South America. Based on the foregoing, the impact of dams on sediment transport and yield of an important Brazilian watershed with multiple dams will be the focus of this chapter. Thus, a three years field sampling (2009-2011) was carried out to measure the sediment yield of Capibaribe Watershed, and also its contribution to coastal erosion. The ratio between QB and SSQ ranged from 0.12% to 27.3% with 76% of all values lower than 5%. Usually, the bedload transport rate of a river is about 5–25% of the suspended sediment transport. This ranging sheds light on the lack of bedload reaching the coastal zone and it is likely one of the reasons to yield coastal erosion. The low rates can be attributed to the presence of dams which have been admitted to have a strong effect on sediment transport. The sediment yield was equal to 3.69, 4.36, and 6.7 t km-2 ano-1 in 2009, 2010, and 2011, respectively. In comparison with bedload yield, the suspended sediment yield was higher than 95% for all studied years. Therefore, the limited bedload supply – mainly responsible for construction of coastal landform – is likely contributing to the coastal erosion along part of the northeast region, Brazil. The multiple dams along the Capibaribe River watershed produce a deficit in sediment flux to coastal zone of Pernambuco State, Brazil, which relies on the low ratios between bedload and suspended sediment. As a result, it generates energy to coastal erosion of the Brazilian northeast.",book:{id:"4687",slug:"effects-of-sediment-transport-on-hydraulic-structures",title:"Effects of Sediment Transport on Hydraulic Structures",fullTitle:"Effects of Sediment Transport on Hydraulic Structures"},signatures:"Jose Ramon B. Cantalice, Wagner Luis da Silva Souza, Yuri Jacques\nAgra Bezerra Silva, Sergio M.S. Guerra, Alex Mauricio Araújo,\nDouglas Monteiro Cavalcante and Cinthia Maria Cordeiro Atanazio\nCruz Silva",authors:[{id:"174133",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose Ramon",middleName:"Barros",surname:"Cantalice",slug:"jose-ramon-cantalice",fullName:"Jose Ramon Cantalice"},{id:"174468",title:"Dr.",name:"Wagner Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Sousa",slug:"wagner-luis-sousa",fullName:"Wagner Luis Sousa"},{id:"174469",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuri",middleName:null,surname:"Silva",slug:"yuri-silva",fullName:"Yuri Silva"},{id:"174470",title:"Prof.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Araujo",slug:"alex-araujo",fullName:"Alex Araujo"},{id:"174471",title:"MSc.",name:"Douglas",middleName:null,surname:"Cavalcante",slug:"douglas-cavalcante",fullName:"Douglas Cavalcante"},{id:"174472",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergio Monthezuma",middleName:null,surname:"Guerra",slug:"sergio-monthezuma-guerra",fullName:"Sergio Monthezuma Guerra"}]},{id:"49551",title:"General Hydraulic Geometry",slug:"general-hydraulic-geometry",totalDownloads:1570,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Employing bed load formulae hydraulic geometry relations were derived for stream width, meander wave length, and bed slope. The relations are in terms of friction factor, bed load discharge, bed load diameter, and water discharge. The bed load formulae are those of Engelund and Hansen (1966) [1], Einstein (1950) [2], Shields (1936) [3], and Meyer-Peter and Muller (1948) [4].",book:{id:"4687",slug:"effects-of-sediment-transport-on-hydraulic-structures",title:"Effects of Sediment Transport on Hydraulic Structures",fullTitle:"Effects of Sediment Transport on Hydraulic Structures"},signatures:"Levent Yilmaz",authors:[{id:"19701",title:"Prof.",name:"Levent",middleName:null,surname:"Yilmaz",slug:"levent-yilmaz",fullName:"Levent Yilmaz"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"650",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/3.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 12th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"10",title:"Animal Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"133493",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/133493/images/3091_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Angel Catalá \r\nShort Biography Angel Catalá was born in Rodeo (San Juan, Argentina). He studied \r\nchemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where received aPh.D. degree in chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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