Market Available ARV drugs for HAART.
\r\n\tNotably, the book encourages academic scholars and researchers to contribute to the modern concepts of CSR. Fundamentally, it speaks for well-developed literature for entrepreneurs and managers, thus assisting them in the decision-making process.
\r\n\tFurthermore, this book is of great value to policymakers, practitioners, and corporations, thus contributing to various disciplines (e.g., social science and management).
\r\n\tThese proposed themes encourage future researchers and professionals to share their ideas, concepts and work concerning these subject domains. All these suggested topics had recommended under the rubrics of CSR. Perhaps, all the professionals, researchers, and scholars are welcome to submit their piece of work, in particular to the suggested topics.
\r\n\tIndeed, the recommended topics include the following but are not limited to these only.
\r\n\t• Corporate Governance and Sustainability
\r\n\t• Green Innovation and CSR
\r\n\t• Social Entrepreneurship
\r\n\t• Green Economy and Social and Environmental Sustainability
\r\n\t• Sustainable Development and Industrialization
One of the most severe public health issues in the world is the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), the virus that causes Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. HIV-AIDS remains one of the most difficult conditions to treat in the 21st century. However, multiple antiretroviral medications are present in the present situation, rendering the disease chronic rather than worse, which helps to improve the survival rate. According to the Statistical survey of WHO 2019 (World Health Organization), there are 38 million people living with HIV infection from that 1.7 million people newly added with HIV- infection in 2019 and 6.9 million people died from this 68% people accessed to Antiretroviral therapy [1]. In the late 20th century, it was reported that two strains of HIV diverge from SIV (Simian immunodeficiency Virus) from which HIV-1 spread across the world, and HIV-2 is more prominent in Africa [2]. HIV invades the mucosal membrane, destroys the immune system, leaving a wide variety of bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa vulnerable to infection in the host body. By exchanging body fluids due to blood transfusion, organ transplantation, physical intercourse, from affected parent to offspring, HIV infection propagates. One of the key sources of entry through the mucosal surfaces is the sexual transmission. The primary path of heterosexual HIV transmission is the female genital tract [3]. Sexual transmission via the rectal route is also a major issue that, due to its physiology, renders it more vulnerable to HIV infection [4]. Immune cells, i.e. macrophages and dendritic cells found in the sub-epithelial layer of the vagina or cervix mucosa are the main targets of HIV infection [5] in Figure 1.
Pictorial representation of HIV particle invasion.
During copulation, it moves by semen or other biological fluids that penetrate the stratified squamous epithelium or vaginal columnar epithelium to invade the target cell. HIV has a glycoprotein called gp120 on the surface of the viral coat, which attaches to the T-helper lymphocyte transmembrane protein receptor CD4 or chemokine receptor CCR5, CXCR4, and infects the cell [6]. Through endocytosis, HIV infects the host cell and fuses with the host cell membrane and releases into the host cytoplasm, it undergoes reverse transcription by incorporating proviral DNA into the host genomes. It then releases new viral particles that come out of it to infect the other cells. It infects macrophages and depletes the quantity of CD4+ cells that are the distinctive characteristics of an infection with HIV [7]. The use of multiple genes by HIV viruses (a) Main genes: gag, pol, and env (b) regulatory genes: tat, rev, nef, vif, vpr, and vpu, boost the productivity and hijacking the host’s cellular system and develops its offspring to infect other cells [8]. Viral particles linger in the key after active infection in anatomical location such as dendritic cells, macrophages, bone marrow, lymph nodes, spleen, lung, Central nervous system (astrocytes, microglial cells) [9, 10, 11]. When it remains in the CNS and induces a major loss in neural networks and eventually it leads to severe problems, such as HIV-associated dementia (HAD) If the patient is not, Well treated, it’s going to die in 5–10 years (Figure 2) [12].
Pictorial art representing ligand receptor/co-receptor interaction between the HIV virus and Cd4 cell.
Various antiretroviral medications are used in the present scenario. Accessible in the market in a different mix, depends on the point of infection. High antiretroviral activity Therapy (HAART) is used to treat HIV/AIDS. It was introduced in 1996 and requires a mixture of at least three antiretroviral (ARV) medications. This treatment has been used to prolong the lifespan of HIV-infected patients [13]. However, this treatment is used to treat some of the infections Extension, but complete recovery has not yet been achieved as these ARV medications have certain drawbacks, such as mild water solubility, limited controlled release, low half-life reactivity, reduced blood barrier permeability, poor bioavailability is one of the major issues [14, 15]. ARV operates on the theory of blocking and inhibiting pathways, depending on the stage of the HIV cycle. Inhibitor of reverse transcriptase Blocks the action of the reverse transcriptase enzyme that prevents the conversion of viral RNA to DNA. Various nucleotide analogs drugs which incorporated in between the reverse Tran scripting chain in the host cytoplasm and terminate the process and non-nucleotide analogs drug bind to the reverse transcription enzyme and block the life cycle [16]. Various forms of AIDS treatment regimens are available that are available on the market. It has been prescribed. However, it is difficult to choose the right mixture of ARV products because of different considerations such as drug properties, drug tolerance status, patient reactivity, drug costing, drug toxicity, or some other adverse drug effect [17]. The biggest downside of the ARV treatment is the shorter period of availability in the bloodstream of the body in such a way that the viral particle at the location of reservoirs such as CNS, lymph nodes, and lungs is less exposed to the drug, such that higher doses of the viral particle are needed for a sustained period of time that develops resistance to the HIV strain [18]. The reservoir also includes latently infected cells, including CD4+ T-cells, Monocytes, macrophage lineage carrying incorporated transcription of the provirus silencing within the genome that might also re-infect the patient due to activation of the proviral genome [19]. In order to resolve such problems and drawbacks, nano-based drug delivery technologies, nano-medicines, and other nano-based strategies play a key role in drug effectiveness, drug reactivity, drug target accuracy, minimizing drug toxicity and negative impacts, and various major challenges currently facing ARV drugs in the present context.
In present situation, HAART (Highly active anti-retroviral Therapy) regimen work on the principles by blocking replication process, reverse transcription, protein maturation process and viral-DNA integration process in to the host chromosomes. To inhibit this all process various class of drugs are available in the market which include Nucleotide reverse transcription inhibitors (NRTI), Non nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNTRI), integrase inhibitors, protease inhibitors as mention below in Error: Reference source not found (Table 1):
Efavirenz | EFV | Sustiva® | Bristol-Myers Squibb |
Etravirine | TMC125 | Intelence® | Tibotec |
Nevirapine | NVP | Viramune® | Boehringer Ingelheim |
Delavirdine | DLV | Rescriptor® | ViiV Health care. |
Didanosine | ddI | Videx® | Bristol-Myers Squibb |
Zalcitabine | ddC | HIVID® | Roche |
Lamivudine | 3TC | Epivir® | GlaxoSmithKline |
Abacavir | ABC | Ziagen® | GlaxoSmithKline |
Zidovudine | AZT | Retrovir ® | GlaxoSmithKline |
Tenofovir | TDF | Vemlidy® | Gilead Sciences |
Stavudine | d4T | Zerit® | Bristol-Myers Squibb |
Raltegravir | Isentress® | Merck | |
Dolutegravir | Tivicay® | ViiV Health care. | |
Saquinavir | SQV | Invirase® | Roche |
Atazanavir | ATV | Reyataz® | Bristol-Myers Squibb |
Indinavir | IDV | Crixivan® | Merck |
Nelfinavir | NFV | Viracept® | Agouron Pharmaceuticals |
Lopinavir + Ritonavir | Kaletra® | Abbott Labs | |
Lamivudine + Zidovudine | Combivir® | GlaxoSmithKline | |
Abacavir + Lamivudine | Trizivir® | GlaxoSmithKline | |
Tenofovir + Emtricitabine | Truvada® | Gilead Sciences | |
lamivudine + tenofovir disoproxil fumarate | Temixys® | Celltrion |
Market Available ARV drugs for HAART.
The field of Nanobiotechnology that emerges with the great modern manufacturing for higher performance of drug due the scope of the Nanoscale process (1-100 nm). With the advent of nanotechnologies, it revolutionizes drug delivery in the field of pharmaceuticals. The fundamental theory is to modulate the pharmacokinetics of the chemical molecule that has deserved to eliminate HIV from the body without damaging the body. It also increases the bio-distribution and bioavailability of the drug to expose the virus particle for a longer duration with a higher goal precision. Being Nano-sized, the Nano-material drug reacts differently than the conventional drugs, because of their decrease in scale and, they have a healing impact within the living environment. The encased drug carried by the Nano-systems governs its, absorption, distribution, and excretion on the basis of its surface charges present on the Nano-systems due to its physical and chemical properties [20, 21]. Application of nanotechnology to the delivery of ARV drugs Holds the potential to treat AIDS and it could be beneficial Drugs at the anatomical reservoir site and also raise the half-life of drugs [22]. It has become possible to use nanotechnology for increased delivery of badly water-soluble drugs, selective delivery of drugs to particular cells or tissues, Intracellular transmission of macromolecules [23]. Nano-carriers give a range of advantages, such as control of drugs degradation, drug specificity and delivery of biological products molecules, such as proteins, peptides, oligopeptides, oligonucleotides, etc. Nanocarriers are now using it to solve the limitation of therapeutic uses, such as drug delivery, bioavailability of drugs, drug conformation stability, physicochemical stability, improved transmission permeability, drug clearance, cellular absorption, reduction of immunogenic reaction (Figure 3) [24, 25].
Pictorial representation of Different Nano-systems.
Different Nano-system strategies can be utilized as shown in the Error: Reference source not found for ARV drug entrapment which holds to cure HIV infection.
Liposomes became the first type of Nanomaterial in 1976, functionalized for drug delivery applications [26]. A liposome is a tiny microscopic vesicle that is made up of the phospholipid bilayers that are normally encircled by the watery centre. It is beneficial to hold hydrophilic drugs by trapping with in the centre, while the hydrophobic drug is inserted into the lipid bilayer [27]. The scale of the liposomes can be between 25 nm and multiple microns, offering the benefit of permeability (Figure 4).
Pictorial art of Liposomes for targeted drug delivery.
Human or synthetic phospholipids, along with cholesterol and additionally lipids, protein or peptide fragments, are used in their preparation. Liposomes, upon entering the living organism, realize that they are alien particles surrounded by mononuclear phagocytic cells, such as macrophages, so that liposomes are a beneficial carrier of the anti-HIV drug to the infected cell. As a result, liposomes can increase the effectiveness of the anti-HIV medication by lowering its side effect [28]. There are three types of liposomes, namely small uni-lamellar vesicles, large uni-lamellar vesicles, and multi-lamellar vesicles. In their natural form, liposomes are trapped by the reticulo-endothelial system and easily clear from circulation. Liposomes interact with the cell surface in a number of ways. The first is lipid exchange, which helps to exchange lipid molecules between liposomes and cell membranes. The second is adsorption, which diffuses across the cell membrane in the encapsulated substance within the liposome. Third, liposomes can, by fusion, transfer their encapsulated material to the cell membrane [29]. And foremost important characteristic of liposomes, it is engulfed up by the cell through endocytosis [30].
Zidovudine drug is reverse transcriptase inhibitor which is amphiphilic drug, loaded into liposomes resulted in major improvements in the pharmacokinetic properties and distribution of tissues, including higher levels of distribution in reticulo-endothelial system and brain organs, longer half-life and lower average clearance of it relative to conventional zidovudine solution. Therefore, the approach to pro-drug liposomes can lead to reduced toxicity and improved efficacy of zidovudine-based HIV therapy [28]. The liposomal loaded zalcitabine system (2′,3′-dideoxycytidine, ddc) was examined in a mouse macrophage cell line that demonstrates high intracellular absorption due to anionic loading of liposomes [31]. The liposome of the phosphorylated form of zalcitabine, tested it in a murine-acquired immunodeficiency syndrome model that arrays chemical stability, improved retention entrapment, and decreased viral load in the mononuclear phagocyte system in both spleen and bone marrow [32]. Several in vitro and in vivo experiments have been undertaken by trapping ARV drugs such as acyclovir, indinavir, zidovudine, and lamivudine into the permuted liposomal structure, which shows 12 folds higher amount in blood plasma as compare to conventional drug by utilizing elastic liposomes in rat model, skin permeation of zidovudine improved 18-fold relative to simple drugs, this indicates a high effectiveness of transdermal flux relative to free drugs and higher deposition in the reticulo-endothelial organ system following the launch of zidovudine-loaded elastic liposomes trans-dermal. This suggests a greater permeability of the liposomal composition in rat model [33]. For lymphatic’s targeting, the surface of liposomes was coordinated by charges and site-specific ligands to facilitate lymphatic, prominently lymph node and spleen localization. The particle-charged liposomes were formed using stearylamine, dicetyphosphate, and mannose conjugate. Evaluating these three compounds, fluorescent microscopy indicates a greater position of mannose conjugate than negative or positive liposomes, this shows the enhanced targeting of lymphatic’s in AIDS chemotherapy [34]. Liposomes are quickly phagocytised by macrophages, in order to improve the extended circulation time and bioavailability of the drug the surface is changed by hydrophilic molecules such as polyethene glycol, PEGylated liposomes with targeting ligand derived from HIV gp120 guided monoclonal antibody F10 and seen as novel approaches to the battle against HIV-1. These Nano-immuno-liposomes display greater and longer antiviral efficacy than free drugs or drugs that encapsulate non-targeted liposomes [35]. Magnetic liposomes containing azidothymidine 5′-triphosphate, the average size of these magnetic liposomes 150 nm, are prepared using phosphatidylcholine and cholesterol with a magnetite loading efficiency of 54 per cent and 45.3 per cent. It is researched to verify transmigration through the in vitro blood–brain barrier model and monocyte mediated transport by adding external magnetic field. The outcome of the apparent permeability of magnetic azidothymidine liposomes was 3 times higher than free azidothymidine [36]. Indinavir filled with mannosylated liposomes containing βD-1 Thiomannopyranoside residues covalently coupled to dimyristoyl Phosphatidyl ethanolamine (DMPE), which was also incorporated with di-steroylphosphatidylcholine and cholesterol, was used to attack the mononuclear phagocyte function (J774.A1 macrophage cell line). This liposome showed approximately 88.7 per cent of entrapment efficacy. Important levels of the drug have been identified in macrophage rich tissues such as the liver, spleen, and lungs relative to liposomes and free drugs [37]. Cell-derived liposomes demonstrate greater and more effective targeting. It is orchestrated from the cytoplasmic membranes of the cell expressing CCR5, the human receptor for gp120 located mainly on the surface of HIV-infected cells and HIV-virion, which display a substantial 60% reduction in the viability of the HIV-infected model cell due to binding and nullifying infectivity [38]. PEGylated liposomal transmission to mammalian cells in culture demonstrated sustained release with encapsulation efficiency of approximately 33 per cent. In cell viability tests of Jurkat T- cell, lower cytotoxicity was found relative to non-PEGylated liposomes [39]. Immune-liposomes filled with heparin active serine Antithrombin III (hep-AIII) protease inhibitor injected into the non-human primate system model. The outcome indicates a steady decrease of more than 1(10) log in plasma viral load that concludes hep-AIII as a rescue or replacement agent for HIV strain immune to standard ARV drugs [40]. Glycan-Modified HIV NFL Envelope Trimer-Liposome vaccine formulation showed broad generation of neutralizing Antibody in modal, which hold proof for immunogenic vaccine development to combat AIDS [41]. The use of liposomes to prevent the spread of HIV through sexual transmission has been confirmed. The structure of the mixture consisted of liposomes that acted as decoys allowing the HIV virus to bind to liposomes instead of host cells. Some formulations contain un-conjugated liposomes whose physicochemical properties make it possible to bind to the HIV virus or to change the ligand that binds to the HIV virus has also been documented. The liposomes were created from lipids picked from the community consisting of cationic lipids, anionic lipids, neutral lipids, zwitter ionic lipids, and various combinations.
The dendrimer consists of Dendron’s, a small branching unit that includes an internal and a periphery end group, a polymeric nanostructure consisting of multiple branching units in a layer by layer pattern that characterizes the size, growth and microenvironment within it (Figure 5) [42].
Pictorial art of dendrimer complex for drug delivery.
Dendrimer contains space within the Dendron that can be used for drug trapping, selective drug release, defense against environmental destruction, precise targeting. Dendrimer with significant numbers of peripheral groups and inner cavities are possible vectors for chemical drugs, peptides and HIV inhibition genes. These compounds are either capable of interacting with peripheral groups or are encased in dendrimer cavities with hydrogen bonds, electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions [43, 44]. Dendrimers can improve the stability of chemical drugs and encourage cellular absorption by functional end-groups. In the case of gene therapy, Dendrimers can take the place of viruses to transfer interference genes to target cells to suppress replication of HIV. The scale of the dendrimer is less than 100 nm with less poly dispersity and higher functionality than the traditional polymer with the 3-Dimensional architecture. The kernel can be synthesized by ammonia and ethylene diamine encircling highly branched repeaters such as polyether, porphyrins, poly-amido-amines, polyphenyl and polyamine acids. Core shell properties are mainly based on multivalent surfaces that contain targeting or functional groups. Dendrimers have been engineered to interact with unique functional end-groups preferably with HIV envelope proteins and receptors on host cells in order to inhibit the combination of HIV and host cells and later stages of HIV replication.
Following the discovery of the HIV inhibition process, two poly anionic Dendrimers BRI2932 (SPL2923) and BRI6195 (SPL6195) were found to inhibit the replication of HIV (strain IIIB) in the EC50 at 0.1 and 0.3 μg/mL, respectively, with exceptionally low cytotoxicity in the host cells. The gp120 binding assay and the virus adsorption assay showed that both substances had an effect on the docking of HIV in the host cells. In addition, higher concentrations of SPL2923 (500–2500 times EC50) could also block later stages of HIV infection. Correspondingly, the findings of cellular uptake studies revealed that SPL2923 was capable of intrusion into the host cell, while SPL6195 was not [45].
Anti-HIV medication Efavirenz loaded with tuftsin-conjugated fifth-generation poly (propylene imine) (T5PP) dendrimer, which reveals the prolonged action of the treatment in 24 hours, negligible cytotoxicity and cellular absorption 34.5-fold stronger than the free in vitro drug in infected macrophages [46]. Dendriplexes produced by 2G-NN16 and siRNAs were used for brain targeting. Transfection efficiency assessment and transcytosis by means of an in vitro blood–brain barrier (BBB) model on astrocytoma cells (U87MG). Unexpectedly, Dendriplexes developed at a ratio of 2G-NN16/siRNA of 8 displayed the highest transfection efficiency. The siRNAs-dendriplexes have been shown to effectively cross the monolayer barrier. Dendriplexes demonstrated a dose-dependent HIV inhibition of up to 85 per cent of HIV infected U87MG cells [47].
Water-stable cationic carbosilane dendrimers, which are used for drug distribution in the HepG2 cell line and PBMC, display greater interaction with nucleic acid through the development of nanoconjugates in different stable pH ranges. Nanoconjugates also display a high degree of transfection with oligonucleotide anti-HIV in laboratory settings [48]. SPL7013 is one of the anionic dendrimers that contains the divalent benzhydryl amide of L-lysine as the nucleus of naphthalene sulfonic acid. Efficacy tests of 5% w/w SPL7013 as an aqueous gel found that the single intravaginal dose of the formulation shielded pigtailed macaques from infection with the intravaginal (SIV) simian-human immunodeficiency virus [49]. Multivalent phosphorous-containing catanionic dendrimers with galactosyl ceramide analogs have a significant affinity to the V3 loop of the HIV-1 viral envelope protein gp120, which inhibits viral fusion with the plasma membrane and thus serves as an entry inhibitor [50]. Dendrimer may also be considered a potent factor in the selective expulsion of HIV.
A tropical microbicides, first dendrimer-based drug called VivaGel® has been submitted to the US FDA as an investigational novel drug, an aqueous-based polyacrylic acid gel containing SPL7013 buffered to physiological pH, a nanoscale dendrimeric molecule that binds to viruses and stops them from affecting the body’s cells [51] as mention in Figure 6.
Pictorial representation of working function of Viva gel, a tropical microbicide.
Nanoparticles are small colloidal particles of size ranges (10-100 nm) [52]. They have the ability for precise targeting of drugs with controlled release, depending on their size and polymer structure. Nanoparticles are expected to improve the composition and effectiveness of medications with some physiochemical weakness of low stability and solubility [53]. Owing to their scale, nanoparticle-based therapies can conveniently be performed using a range of methods (i.e., intravenous, subcutaneous, intraperitoneal) and can pass body barriers [54]. Nanoparticles have increasingly experimented with selective delivery of ARV drugs to achieve modulated pharmacokinetics, improved potency, reduced systemic toxicity, and adverse effects.
A polymeric nanoparticle can be produced as per a favorable approach to the targeted delivery of ARV drugs. Various polymers are used for the construction of anti-HIV polymeric nanoparticles such as poly (lactic acid) (PLA), poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA), poly (alkyl) cyanoacrylate, poly (ethylene glycol-co- (lactic-glycolic acid)), poly(caprolactone), and poly(methyl) methacrylate. PLA and PLGA have been evaluated and considered safe for human use by the FDA. Various drugs can be integrated into these polymers on the basis of their hydrophilicity or hydrophobicity, and release properties can easily be changed on the basis of specifications.
Zidovudine-loaded polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP)/stearic acid (SA)-polyethylene glycol (PEG) nanoparticles (PSNPs) have been formed using a solvent-emulsifying evaporation process. And tested in vitro murine neuro-2a and HeLa cells, which display substantial change in cell internalization, stable colloidal suspension, enhanced cell absorption, increased half-life, with no cytotoxicity [55]. Saquinavir-loaded poly (ethylene oxide)-modified poly (epsilon-caprolactone) (PEO-PCL) nanoparticle method using a solvent displacement technique. Cellular absorption and bio-distribution of PEO-PCL are studied in vitro in human monocyte/macrophage (Mo/Mac) THP-1 cell line, which results in a higher accumulation of drugs than in aqueous phase form [56].
Electromagnetic intrusion in the permeability of Saquinavir charged nanoparticles studied in human brain micro vascular endothelial cells. Here Nanoparticles are used as polybutylcyanoacrylate (PBCA), metylmethacrylate-sulfopropylmethacrylate (MMA-SPM) for the study of a human blood–brain barrier model that offers higher permeability coefficient across the blood–brain barrier [57]. The Chitosan-based nanoparticles loaded with tenofovir were developed to optimize its muco adhesion. By decreasing the size from 900 nm to 188 nm of nanoparticle, non-cytotoxicity to the vaginal epithelial cell line with improved muco adhesion 6 percent to 12 percent was reported [58]. This represents polymeric nanoparticles demonstrate successful drug delivery in the fight against HIV (Figure 7).
Pictorial art of Solid lipid Nanoparticle carrying embedded drug.
SLN is a thin microscopic structure consisting of physiological lipids that form stable Nanoparticles of aqueous surfactant solution. SLN provides a great opportunity to mount ARV drugs because of its small scale, high drug loading ability, slow degradation of lipid matrices, large surface reactivity. SLN also promotes sustained release, minimizing drug toxicity, dosing frequency and fluctuation of plasma drug levels. SLN shows biphasic drug release due to its composition, initial burst due to its surface adsorption, and steady release from its lipid center due to progressive degradation [59, 60]. SLN of atazanavir-name protease inhibitors was developed by Chattopadhyay et al. to verify permeability and, a blood–brain barrier model was tested on the human brain micro vascular cell line (hCMEC/D3) that successfully results from a higher accumulation of the drug by endothelial cell monolayer than the aqueous drug solution with obvious permeability across the barrier membrane [61]. Zidovudine palmitate loaded SLN, which accommodates tri laurin as a lipid center with a combination of dimyristoyl phosphatidylglycerol resulting in neutral charging. It is then modified with polyethene glycol moieties and higher surface phospholipids resulting in better plasma circulation with increased drug half-life [62]. Various changes were made to adjust the surface area of the SLN using various techniques to achieve higher drug concentration and substantial permeability through the blood–brain barrier. Lopinavir SLN was modified using a hot self-nano-emulsion technique that involves a hot isotropic mixture of stearic acid, poloxamer and polyethene glycol in water with rapid cooling, which results in increased bioavailability relative to bulk lopinavir [63]. In a perfusion trial, a high level of positively charged or negatively charged SLN will result in a high cerebrospinal cortical volume that loses the stability of the brain membrane in rats. This helps to draw attention to the fact that a high amount of surface load change in the SLN will improve the adverse impact on health (Figure 8) [64].
Pictorial art of nanostructured lipid carrier carrying drug.
NCL is a fashioned or customized SLN with a solid lipid matrix incorporated with liquid lipids with different fatty acid chains in a compromised ordered crystalline form that provides higher drug capacity. NCL consists of low-toxic lipid molecules that have hydrolytic and oxidative stability. It also indicates the biphasic drug release potential for a liquid lipophilic surface containing a drug and a solid center with a higher melting point for drug release through diffusion and matrix erosion [65, 66]. Preferential in vitro adsorption of proteins such as Apo E to the surface of DDI-loaded NLC stabilized using Solutol® HS 15 alone or a ternary surfactant method consisting of Solutol® HS 15, Tween® 8.0 and Lutrol® F68 in vitro suggests that these NLCs can be used to target Didanosine-loaded to the brain [67]. This approach can be a big advancement and is expected to greatly change the treatment of HIV. In fact, the ability to administer ARV medications to the CNS will make it easier to treat the AIDS dementia complex of HIV/AIDS patients and thereby improve their quality of life.
This class of Nanoparticles contains metal elements such as iron, gold, silver, titanium and silica that are currently used in anti-cancer treatment, molecular labeling of biomarkers, clinical methods, bioimaging, biosensors. Noble metal nanoparticles such as gold, silver, and platinum have been formulated using a range of techniques, such as chemical bio-reduction, rough mold, solution-phase synthesis, gas-phase deposition, and sol–gel. Silver nanoparticles are becoming more common due to their antimicrobial and antiviral effects against hepatitis B, herpes simplex virus, respiratory syncytial virus, monkeypox virus and HIV-1 in vitro, including clinical isolates and resistant strains [68, 69, 70, 71, 72]. Silver nanoparticles can bind to the gp120 protein and prevent viral entry, inhibit CD4-mediated viral fusion, and interfere with post-invasion phases of the HIV life cycle. Silver nanoparticles cause higher antiviral potency and therapeutic index relative to silver ion sulfadiazine salts [72]. Conjugated gold nanoparticle with TAK-779 and SDC-1721 which allow for better anti-HIV activity than its aqueous solution. Inorganic nanoparticles have limitations such as cytotoxicity, DNA damage, cellular apoptosis triggered by membrane leakage assay and LDH assay [73]. Inorganic nanoparticles usually harm the mammalian cells, because elimination of such particles from the living system is difficult and create cytotoxicity to the normal health cells with the infected cells. Some scientists are seeking to solve this issue with new ways to minimize cytotoxicity.
Polymer micelles are nano-engineered block polymer materials that have core shells much like surfactant-based micelles and have been used to enhance permeability, aqueous solubility, chemical corrosion safety, controlled drug release, provide hydrophobic surface modification. Polymeric micelles are engineered as a hydrophobic heart and a hydrophilic shell that allows anti-HIV drugs to be trapped depending on their polarity. In addition, the surface properties of polymeric micelles, such as hydrophilic blocks, may be changed by docking antibodies or other chemical ligands unique to receptors found in diseases such as HIV-AIDS (Figure 9) [74].
Pictorial art of Polymeric micelles.
A number of pharmaceutical scientists have formulated polymeric ARV-loaded mice, such as lamivudine conjugated with stearic acid-g-chitosan oligosaccharide mice, by esterification process that results in pH-dependent drug release, low cytotoxic activity, higher cell absorption of HepG2.2.15-infected hepatitis B virus-infected tumor cells [75]. Efavirenz polymeric micelles show substantial absorption rate and 3-fold improvement in the pharmacokinetic parameters of C-max from 1789 and 2657 ng/ml to 2856 and 7056 ng/ml in single doses between 20 and 80 mg/kg for healthy adult volunteers [76].
Copolymer: Poly (ethylene glycol) monomethyl ether and poly (ethylene phosphoric acid) (mPEG-
Nanocrystal drug itself may be a nano-sized drug particle that could be dispersed in aqueous or non-aqueous media. Drug Nanocrystals are mostly developed using approaches that promote a top-down approach or a bottom-up approach. Top-down techniques, such as media milling and high-pressure homogenization, are the most favored methods for the generation of nanocrystals because they are ideal for large-scale processing. Nanocrystal medication has longer colloidal stability, prolonged and continuous targeting due to expanded surface area. Nanoscale pure drug engineering is produced by means of an extremely hydrophobic drug that is strenuous to administer as an intravenous solution or by means of drugs with a rate of dissolution-limited oral bioavailability. Using a media milling procedure, Baret et al. formulated Rilpivirine nanocrystals of 200, 400 and 800 nm and inserted into mice and dogs via intramuscular and intra subcutaneous route and their pharmacokinetic activity was controlled. Experimentally, each therapy results in substantial detectable levels of rilpivirine up to 90 days in dogs and 3 weeks in mice suggesting success in long-term HIV prophylaxis. The author’s analysis also indicates that the intra-subcutaneous route of administration shows a steady plasma concentration while the intramuscular route shows a criterion have been met as well as higher clearance. Rilpivirine amounts have also been observed in lymphoid tissues during treatment, promoting the absorption of nanocrystals by macrophages [78, 79]. Cabotegravir (CAB) is a newer drug class in the list of Viral Integrase Inhibitors, nearing to FDA approval, nano-formulated fatty acid ester CAB prodrugs administered to different strains of rats, monkey and various invitro model which,results better sustained plasma level for one year, increased drug accumulation at lymph nodes, blood plasma, liver, enhanced cellular uptake and nanocrystal prodrug stability in macrophages, slow drug dissolution rate which suggest better half-life [80].
An empirical application for anti-HIV therapy in drug delivery system lies in the potentiality of a nanotechnology. Development of ARV drugs through nanotechnology-based system such as Liposomes, dendrimers, Nanoparticles, Polymeric Micelles, Nanovesicles, Nanoemulsion offers efficient & wide targeted drug delivery with modulated pharmacokinetics, a higher therapeutic index as demonstrated by in vitro and animal’s in vivo studies. These nano-systems provide prolong drug circulation, high bioavailability, drug stability, better permeability, bioaccumulation in known reservoir sites for HIV-AIDS. It also demonstrated the application of ARV nanocarriers to deliver drugs across the blood–brain barrier and other impermeable tissue to kill HIV virus. On the basis of HIV lifecycle, diverse nanocarriers are surface modified with different moiety to prevent viral fusion with intended ARV drug delivery. The majority of works done in the field of nanocarrier ARV drug delivery system incorporate a single ARV agent. So, this chapter tends to notice about the multidrug delivery system which involves a combination of drugs can lead to tremendous efficacious treatment and downgrading of resistance profiles. Hence, nanotechnology provides a multifunctional system for scaling up therapeutic approaches with innovative formulation to fulfill diverse biological requirements.
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Ovarian hormones induce the cellular and biochemical changes in the oviducts during the egg formation and oviposition. Estradiol regulates the folliculogenesis, accumulation of yolk in the follicles, ovulation, and development of oviducts. Estradiol also induces glandular development and expression of the genes responsible for egg white proteins. Progesterone induces the ovulation of yolk from the ovary, and development of oviductal glands. In addition, several genes are spatiotemporally expressed in the magnum for albumen synthesis and deposition around the yolk, in the isthmus for shell membranes synthesis, and in the uterus for eggshell biomineralization. This chapter highlights the involvement of hormones, genes/proteins, and their interaction for egg formation in the oviduct of laying hens.",book:{id:"8470",slug:"poultry-an-advanced-learning",title:"Poultry",fullTitle:"Poultry - An Advanced Learning"},signatures:"Birendra Mishra, Nirvay Sah and Sanjeev Wasti",authors:[{id:"274927",title:"Dr.",name:"Birendra",middleName:null,surname:"Mishra",slug:"birendra-mishra",fullName:"Birendra Mishra"},{id:"290539",title:"Dr.",name:"Nirvay",middleName:null,surname:"Sah",slug:"nirvay-sah",fullName:"Nirvay Sah"},{id:"290540",title:"Dr.",name:"Sanjeev",middleName:null,surname:"Wasti",slug:"sanjeev-wasti",fullName:"Sanjeev Wasti"}]},{id:"65864",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83811",title:"Poultry Housing and Management",slug:"poultry-housing-and-management",totalDownloads:3109,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Majority of the people in the poorest regions of the tropics rely on poultry production as their major source of protein supply. However, poultry production is hindered by the harsh environmental conditions in this regions therefore, reducing the daily supply of protein. It is believed that understanding heat stress in birds by paying detail attention to the sources of heat generation in a poultry house can help manage the heat stress situation in this region. This text reviews the internal climatic conditions of the poultry houses, how the birds respond to them, and their implications for heat management in poultry production. Thus, it provides pertinent information for guidance on parameters for open poultry houses architectural design that ensures optimum climatic conditions that will alleviate heat stress problem in poultry production in hot and humid climate.",book:{id:"8470",slug:"poultry-an-advanced-learning",title:"Poultry",fullTitle:"Poultry - An Advanced Learning"},signatures:"Ayodeji Oloyo and Adedamola Ojerinde",authors:[{id:"273409",title:"Mr.",name:"Ayodeji",middleName:null,surname:"Oloyo",slug:"ayodeji-oloyo",fullName:"Ayodeji Oloyo"},{id:"274920",title:"MSc.",name:"Adedamola",middleName:null,surname:"Ojerinde",slug:"adedamola-ojerinde",fullName:"Adedamola Ojerinde"}]},{id:"52383",doi:"10.5772/65363",title:"Assessment of Maize (Zea mays) as Feed Resource for Poultry",slug:"assessment-of-maize-zea-mays-as-feed-resource-for-poultry",totalDownloads:4796,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Maize, also known as corn (Zea mays L), has been recognised worldwide as a major energy feed ingredient in the diets of poultry. Its major nutritional limitation has been the low protein content and poor protein quality, which necessitates the use of expensive high‐protein supplements or synthetic amino acids such as lysine in diets containing large proportion of maize. Therefore, extensive research has been conducted by maize breeders on the world maize germplasms collection with the aim of improving its nutritive value, particularly protein quality for monogastric animals. This chapter assesses the genetic upgrading of the nutritional quality of maize protein that culminated in the development of a new class of maize known as “Quality Protein Maize (QPM)”. Various studies on the nutritionally improved maize for poultry as well as future challenges confronting maize utilisation in poultry production are highlighted.",book:{id:"5315",slug:"poultry-science",title:"Poultry Science",fullTitle:"Poultry Science"},signatures:"Herbert K. Dei",authors:[{id:"28844",title:"Prof.",name:"Herbert Kwabla",middleName:"Kwabla",surname:"Dei",slug:"herbert-kwabla-dei",fullName:"Herbert Kwabla Dei"}]},{id:"62271",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77966",title:"Selection Methods in Poultry Breeding: From Genetics to Genomics",slug:"selection-methods-in-poultry-breeding-from-genetics-to-genomics",totalDownloads:4419,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Scientific and technological advancements have led to great expansion of poultry sector in last few decades. The development of genetically superior stocks capable of higher production, even under adverse climatic conditions, has transformed poultry from rural farming to full-fledged industry within 30–35 years. Increase in production volume and productivity per bird may largely be attributed to the combined crossbred and purebred selection (CCPS). The superior purebred lines were evaluated for their nicking ability by specialized cross-breeding program, and the best nicking male and female lines were used for developing four-way commercial crosses. With advancement in molecular techniques, the DNA marker technology emerged as a finer tool for assessing the genetic variability. Genome-wide scan using microsatellites led to identification of quantitative trait loci (QTL) for their use in marker-assisted selection (MAS). Subsequently, the single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were discovered as third generation of genetic markers. Recent “next-generation sequencing” technique led to the development of high-density SNP arrays as powerful tool for genetic analysis. Predicting genomic estimate of breeding value (GEBV) of individual using SNPs across the whole genome paved way to conceptualization of “genomic selection” which emerged as the most advanced technology to revolutionize the animal production.",book:{id:"6623",slug:"application-of-genetics-and-genomics-in-poultry-science",title:"Application of Genetics and Genomics in Poultry Science",fullTitle:"Application of Genetics and Genomics in Poultry Science"},signatures:"Vishesh Kumar Saxena and Gautham Kolluri",authors:[{id:"234356",title:"Dr.",name:"Gautham",middleName:null,surname:"Kolluri",slug:"gautham-kolluri",fullName:"Gautham Kolluri"},{id:"239339",title:"Dr.",name:"V.K",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"v.k-saxena",fullName:"V.K Saxena"}]},{id:"52592",doi:"10.5772/65679",title:"Genomics Tools for the Characterization of Genetic Adaptation of Low Input Extensively Raised Chickens",slug:"genomics-tools-for-the-characterization-of-genetic-adaptation-of-low-input-extensively-raised-chicke",totalDownloads:2169,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Evolutionary change emanating from differential contribution of genotypes to the next generation can determine success in survival and reproduction in chickens. For extensively raised chickens reared under low-input production systems in smallholder farming areas, conditions of resources deprivation and exposure to diverse and threatening natural selection pressures are common in many countries worldwide. Numerous studies have demonstrated that village chickens and other extensively raised chicken populations represent a valuable source of biodiversity adapted to the local production conditions and selection pressures. Manipulation of their acquired adaptive genetic diversity depends on unravelling the selection footprints in the genomes of these chickens that could point towards candidate genes for traits that enable the animals to survive under the harsh production environments. This chapter summarizes the evidence for chickens’ adaptation to extreme environments and describes an inventory of modern tools that could be used in characterizing the production systems of chicken genetic resources. The role of natural selection in shaping the biodiversity of chicken genetic resources is discussed. The continued advancement of biotechnological tools to assess chicken populations has been beneficial to research in genetic adaptation. Genomics tools, as evidenced by assays of whole genome and transcriptome sequences, and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotypes of chickens, now allow analyses of functional genomic regions that are linked to adaptation. The use of these methods to characterize and investigate signatures of selection in the chicken genomes is highlighted. This chapter looks at how information on the selection hotspots in the chicken genomes can be manipulated to improve genetic adaptation in indigenous chicken populations with the desire to transfer the benefits to other chicken breeds raised under similar production systems.",book:{id:"5315",slug:"poultry-science",title:"Poultry Science",fullTitle:"Poultry Science"},signatures:"Farai Catherine Muchadeyi and Edgar Farai Dzomba",authors:[{id:"183770",title:"Dr.",name:"Farai Catherine",middleName:null,surname:"Muchadeyi",slug:"farai-catherine-muchadeyi",fullName:"Farai Catherine Muchadeyi"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"52383",title:"Assessment of Maize (Zea mays) as Feed Resource for Poultry",slug:"assessment-of-maize-zea-mays-as-feed-resource-for-poultry",totalDownloads:4802,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Maize, also known as corn (Zea mays L), has been recognised worldwide as a major energy feed ingredient in the diets of poultry. Its major nutritional limitation has been the low protein content and poor protein quality, which necessitates the use of expensive high‐protein supplements or synthetic amino acids such as lysine in diets containing large proportion of maize. Therefore, extensive research has been conducted by maize breeders on the world maize germplasms collection with the aim of improving its nutritive value, particularly protein quality for monogastric animals. This chapter assesses the genetic upgrading of the nutritional quality of maize protein that culminated in the development of a new class of maize known as “Quality Protein Maize (QPM)”. Various studies on the nutritionally improved maize for poultry as well as future challenges confronting maize utilisation in poultry production are highlighted.",book:{id:"5315",slug:"poultry-science",title:"Poultry Science",fullTitle:"Poultry Science"},signatures:"Herbert K. Dei",authors:[{id:"28844",title:"Prof.",name:"Herbert Kwabla",middleName:"Kwabla",surname:"Dei",slug:"herbert-kwabla-dei",fullName:"Herbert Kwabla Dei"}]},{id:"61570",title:"Adenoviruses and Their Diversity in Poultry",slug:"adenoviruses-and-their-diversity-in-poultry",totalDownloads:1720,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"An investigation into the aetiology of fowl adenovirus strains and their distribution worldwide in populations of poultry flocks industry has been conducted. Pathogenic role of the viruses is not always clear. They can cause latent infection or several diseases and are the reason of economic losses in poultry flock industry. Ubiquity of adenovirus strains was commonly described, and stand-alone pathogenicity for a long time has been disputed. A globally emerging trend of adenoviruses and adenovirus-associated diseases has been increasing from year to year in all over the world. Mainly, type FAdV-4 is responsible for hydropericardium hepatitis syndrome (HP), type FAdV-1 for gizzard erosion and ulceration (GEU), and types FAdV-2, 8a, 8b, and 11 seem to be responsible for inclusion body hepatitis (IBH). Defining the spreading of the avian adenovirus strains in different types of fowl profile production, recognising their property and determining their types and molecular characterisation are very important from the epidemiological point of view and are considered as excellent basis for vaccine development and gene therapy implementation. This chapter provides a comprehensive review of FAdVs, including their epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnostic, detection, and molecular characterisation. This comprehensive review is needed to better understand the latest progress in study of the viruses and prospects regarding disease control and implementation of gene therapy.",book:{id:"6623",slug:"application-of-genetics-and-genomics-in-poultry-science",title:"Application of Genetics and Genomics in Poultry Science",fullTitle:"Application of Genetics and Genomics in Poultry Science"},signatures:"Jowita Samanta Niczyporuk",authors:[{id:"212649",title:"Dr.",name:"Jowita Samanta",middleName:null,surname:"Niczyporuk",slug:"jowita-samanta-niczyporuk",fullName:"Jowita Samanta Niczyporuk"}]},{id:"65864",title:"Poultry Housing and Management",slug:"poultry-housing-and-management",totalDownloads:3126,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Majority of the people in the poorest regions of the tropics rely on poultry production as their major source of protein supply. However, poultry production is hindered by the harsh environmental conditions in this regions therefore, reducing the daily supply of protein. It is believed that understanding heat stress in birds by paying detail attention to the sources of heat generation in a poultry house can help manage the heat stress situation in this region. This text reviews the internal climatic conditions of the poultry houses, how the birds respond to them, and their implications for heat management in poultry production. Thus, it provides pertinent information for guidance on parameters for open poultry houses architectural design that ensures optimum climatic conditions that will alleviate heat stress problem in poultry production in hot and humid climate.",book:{id:"8470",slug:"poultry-an-advanced-learning",title:"Poultry",fullTitle:"Poultry - An Advanced Learning"},signatures:"Ayodeji Oloyo and Adedamola Ojerinde",authors:[{id:"273409",title:"Mr.",name:"Ayodeji",middleName:null,surname:"Oloyo",slug:"ayodeji-oloyo",fullName:"Ayodeji Oloyo"},{id:"274920",title:"MSc.",name:"Adedamola",middleName:null,surname:"Ojerinde",slug:"adedamola-ojerinde",fullName:"Adedamola Ojerinde"}]},{id:"53276",title:"Mycotoxins in Poultry",slug:"mycotoxins-in-poultry",totalDownloads:3689,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Mycotoxins, the toxic secondary metabolites of fungi, particularly produced by many species of Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium, have affected animal and human health for over thousand years, whereas little has been discovered so far about these complex substances in poultry, which are generally very sensitive. Even though it varies by species and sex, some common effects are reduced feed intake, weight gain, feed efficiency, growth performance, immunity and hatchability along with increased mortality, organ damages (mainly kidney and liver), carcinogenicity, teratogenicity and decreased egg production. Besides their adverse health effects and the decrease in production rate, concerns over their importance in public health is still under debate. Decontamination approaches to reduce mycotoxins in feed are technologically diverse and based on chemical, biological and physical strategies. Chemical remediation strategies involve the conversion of mycotoxins via chemical reactions. Biological strategies involve various substances such as plant ingredients, enzymes and microorganisms. Physical processes include sorting, milling, dehulling, cleaning, heating, irradiation or combinational approaches. New strategies for the prevention and treatment of mycotoxicosis, including beneficial microorganisms/products, along with alternative treatments, including plant extracts/essential oils, are current hot topics in the poultry industry.",book:{id:"5315",slug:"poultry-science",title:"Poultry Science",fullTitle:"Poultry Science"},signatures:"Ayhan Filazi, Begum Yurdakok-Dikmen, Ozgur Kuzukiran and Ufuk\nTansel Sireli",authors:[{id:"152542",title:"Dr.",name:"Ayhan",middleName:null,surname:"Filazi",slug:"ayhan-filazi",fullName:"Ayhan Filazi"}]},{id:"52046",title:"Chemical Contaminants in Poultry Meat and Products",slug:"chemical-contaminants-in-poultry-meat-and-products",totalDownloads:2958,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Consumption of poultry meat and products has increased as a consequence of economic crisis, driven by several factors, while people keep away from high priced beef/lamb meat or meat products. Meanwhile, due to this increasing demand in industry resulting strict measures in disease control and environmental factors, these products may involve some chemical and natural compounds with hazardous properties at detectable or even very low concentrations. Among these compounds, residues are of concern, including veterinary drugs, environmental pollutants (such as dioxins, pesticides, and phthalates), natural contaminants (mycotoxins, etc), and/or phytosanitary substances accidentally contaminating poultry product during production or marketing stages. In order to keep the consumers safe from the harmful/undesirable effects due to these compounds, such as genotoxic, immunotoxic, carcinogenic, teratogenic, or endocrine disrupting effects, new strategies and concepts for poultry food security have been emerged and developed globally. 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He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. 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He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNVJQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-07T13:23:04.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. His research interests include biochemistry, oxidative stress, reactive species, antioxidants, lipid peroxidation, inflammation, reproductive hormones, phenolic compounds, female infertility.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Integral University. Currently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than 32 original articles published in reputed journals, 3 edited books, 5 book chapters, and a number of scientific articles published in ‘Ingredients South Asia Magazine’ and ‘QualPharma Magazine’. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs that aim to provide practical solutions to current healthcare problems.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"226275",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Budak",slug:"metin-budak",fullName:"Metin Budak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226275/images/system/226275.jfif",biography:"Metin Budak, MSc, PhD is an Assistant Professor at Trakya University, Faculty of Medicine. He has been Head of the Molecular Research Lab at Prof. Mirko Tos Ear and Hearing Research Center since 2018. His specializations are biophysics, epigenetics, genetics, and methylation mechanisms. He has published around 25 peer-reviewed papers, 2 book chapters, and 28 abstracts. He is a member of the Clinical Research Ethics Committee and Quantification and Consideration Committee of Medicine Faculty. His research area is the role of methylation during gene transcription, chromatin packages DNA within the cell and DNA repair, replication, recombination, and gene transcription. His research focuses on how the cell overcomes chromatin structure and methylation to allow access to the underlying DNA and enable normal cellular function.",institutionString:"Trakya University",institution:{name:"Trakya University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",biography:"Anca Pantea Stoian is a specialist in diabetes, nutrition, and metabolic diseases as well as health food hygiene. She also has competency in general ultrasonography.\n\nShe is an associate professor in the Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases Department, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She has been chief of the Hygiene Department, Faculty of Dentistry, at the same university since 2019. Her interests include micro and macrovascular complications in diabetes and new therapies. Her research activities focus on nutritional intervention in chronic pathology, as well as cardio-renal-metabolic risk assessment, and diabetes in cancer. She is currently engaged in developing new therapies and technological tools for screening, prevention, and patient education in diabetes. \n\nShe is a member of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, Cardiometabolic Academy, CEDA, Romanian Society of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, Romanian Diabetes Federation, and Association for Renal Metabolic and Nutrition studies. She has authored or co-authored 160 papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"279792",title:"Dr.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Cotas",slug:"joao-cotas",fullName:"João Cotas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279792/images/system/279792.jpg",biography:"Graduate and master in Biology from the University of Coimbra.\n\nI am a research fellow at the Macroalgae Laboratory Unit, in the MARE-UC – Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre of the University of Coimbra. My principal function is the collection, extraction and purification of macroalgae compounds, chemical and bioactive characterization of the compounds and algae extracts and development of new methodologies in marine biotechnology area. \nI am associated in two projects: one consists on discovery of natural compounds for oncobiology. The other project is the about the natural compounds/products for agricultural area.\n\nPublications:\nCotas, J.; Figueirinha, A.; Pereira, L.; Batista, T. 2018. An analysis of the effects of salinity on Fucus ceranoides (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae), in the Mondego River (Portugal). Journal of Oceanology and Limnology. in press. DOI: 10.1007/s00343-019-8111-3",institutionString:"Faculty of Sciences and Technology of University of Coimbra",institution:null},{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279788/images/system/279788.jpg",biography:"Leonel Pereira has an undergraduate degree in Biology, a Ph.D. in Biology (specialty in Cell Biology), and a Habilitation degree in Biosciences (specialization in Biotechnology) from the Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, Portugal, where he is currently a professor. In addition to teaching at this university, he is an integrated researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal. His interests include marine biodiversity (algae), marine biotechnology (algae bioactive compounds), and marine ecology (environmental assessment). Since 2008, he has been the author and editor of the electronic publication MACOI – Portuguese Seaweeds Website (www.seaweeds.uc.pt). He is also a member of the editorial boards of several scientific journals. Dr. Pereira has edited or authored more than 20 books, 100 journal articles, and 45 book chapters. He has given more than 100 lectures and oral communications at various national and international scientific events. He is the coordinator of several national and international research projects. In 1998, he received the Francisco de Holanda Award (Honorable Mention) and, more recently, the Mar Rei D. Carlos award (18th edition). He is also a winner of the 2016 CHOICE Award for an outstanding academic title for his book Edible Seaweeds of the World. In 2020, Dr. Pereira received an Honorable Mention for the Impact of International Publications from the Web of Science",institutionString:"University of Coimbra",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"61946",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Bernstein",slug:"carol-bernstein",fullName:"Carol Bernstein",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61946/images/system/61946.jpg",biography:"Carol Bernstein received her PhD in Genetics from the University of California (Davis). She was a faculty member at the University of Arizona College of Medicine for 43 years, retiring in 2011. Her research interests focus on DNA damage and its underlying role in sex, aging and in the early steps of initiation and progression to cancer. In her research, she had used organisms including bacteriophage T4, Neurospora crassa, Schizosaccharomyces pombe and mice, as well as human cells and tissues. She authored or co-authored more than 140 scientific publications, including articles in major peer reviewed journals, book chapters, invited reviews and one book.",institutionString:"University of Arizona",institution:{name:"University of Arizona",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"182258",title:"Dr.",name:"Ademar",middleName:"Pereira",surname:"Serra",slug:"ademar-serra",fullName:"Ademar Serra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182258/images/system/182258.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serra studied Agronomy on Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS) (2005). He received master degree in Agronomy, Crop Science (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2007) by Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados (UFGD), and PhD in agronomy (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2011) from Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados / Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (UFGD/ESALQ-USP). Dr. Serra is currently working at Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA). His research focus is on mineral nutrition of plants, crop science and soil science. Dr. Serra\\'s current projects are soil organic matter, soil phosphorus fractions, compositional nutrient diagnosis (CND) and isometric log ratio (ilr) transformation in compositional data analysis.",institutionString:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",institution:{name:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"91",type:"subseries",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",keywords:"Sustainable, Society, Economy, Digitalization, KPIs, Decision Making, Business, Digital Footprint",scope:"\r\n\tGlobally, the ecological footprint is growing at a faster rate than GDP. This phenomenon has been studied by scientists for many years. However, clear strategies and actions are needed now more than ever. Every day, humanity, from individuals to businesses (public and private) and governments, are called to change their mindset in order to pursue a virtuous combination for sustainable development. Reasoning in a sustainable way entails, first and foremost, managing the available resources efficiently and strategically, whether they are natural, financial, human or relational. In this way, value is generated by contributing to the growth, improvement and socio-economic development of the communities and of all the players that make up its value chain. In the coming decades, we will need to be able to transition from a society in which economic well-being and health are measured by the growth of production and material consumption, to a society in which we live better while consuming less. In this context, digitization has the potential to disrupt processes, with significant implications for the environment and sustainable development. There are numerous challenges associated with sustainability and digitization, the need to consider new business models capable of extracting value, data ownership and sharing and integration, as well as collaboration across the entire supply chain of a product. In order to generate value, effectively developing a complex system based on sustainability principles is a challenge that requires a deep commitment to both technological factors, such as data and platforms, and human dimensions, such as trust and collaboration. Regular study, research and implementation must be part of the road to sustainable solutions. Consequently, this topic will analyze growth models and techniques aimed at achieving intergenerational equity in terms of economic, social and environmental well-being. It will also cover various subjects, including risk assessment in the context of sustainable economy and a just society.
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