The various types of biosensors, some of their applications, and references.
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7012",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Biochemical Testing - Clinical Correlation and Diagnosis",title:"Biochemical Testing",subtitle:"Clinical Correlation and Diagnosis",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Clinical Correlation and Diagnosis highlights the improvements in methodological approaches for the purposes of disease diagnosis and health research. Chapters cover such topics as serum protein electrophoresis, urinary iodine measurement, blood collection tubes, semi-solid phase assay and advancement in analytical and bioanalytical techniques, and serological diagnostic tools for Zika virus, among other subjects. All these will not be possible without a proper laboratory management where this book also includes the Tissue Bank ATMP Production as a model. The chapters are expected to provide a new perspective in health science which may trigger a further exploration into the diagnostic and research field.",isbn:"978-1-78985-086-4",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-085-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-371-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73769",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"biochemical-testing-clinical-correlation-and-diagnosis",numberOfPages:172,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"1aa28a784b136633d827933ad91fe621",bookSignature:"Varaprasad Bobbarala, Gaffar Sarwar Zaman, Mohd Nasir Mohd Desa and Abdah Md Akim",publishedDate:"April 29th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7012.jpg",numberOfDownloads:11977,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:13,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:20,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 16th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 31st 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 29th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 18th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 16th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"207119",title:"Dr.",name:"Varaprasad",middleName:null,surname:"Bobbarala PhD",slug:"varaprasad-bobbarala-phd",fullName:"Varaprasad Bobbarala PhD",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/207119/images/system/207119.jpg",biography:"Varaprasad Bobbarala has a doctorate from Andhra University\nwith a specialization in Biochemistry, Medicinal Chemistry,\nand Microbiology. He is currently editor-in-chief, associate\neditor, editorial board member as well as reviewer of dozens of\nhigh-impact international periodicals. He has authored/co-authored research and review articles in numerous peer-reviewed\nnational and international journals in various subjects related\nto biomedicine, pharmacy, and microbiology. Dr. Varaprasad previously served as\nthe Chief Scientist of Research and Development at Krisani Innovations Pvt. Ltd.,\nbefore his current role as the Chief Scientist and Director of Adhya Biosciences Pvt.\nLtd., India. He is currently working in the area of clinical diagnostics, antimicrobial\nresistance, drug discovery, production of commercially important chemicals by\nbiotechnology routes, isolation of bio-active metabolites, and bio-efficacy studies.",institutionString:"Adhya Biosciences",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"203015",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaffar",middleName:"Sarwar",surname:"Zaman",slug:"gaffar-zaman",fullName:"Gaffar Zaman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/203015/images/system/203015.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Zaman obtained an MD in Biochemistry from Assam Medical College & Hospital, Srimanta Sankaradeva University of Health Sciences (formerly under Dibrugarh University), India. He completed a Fellowship in Diabetes (FID) at Royal Liverpool Academy, United Kingdom, and a Fellowship in Applied Nutrition (FIAN) at Medvarsity, Apollo Hospitals, India. Dr. Zaman obtained a Post Graduate Diploma in Clinical Research (PGDCR) from Symbiosis University, India. He has almost fifteen years of experience as an Associate Professor at King Khalid Government University, Saudi Arabia, and Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences, India. He has expertise in quality development and curriculum design and is trained in e-learning methods. He has more than fifty research publications to his credit in both national and international journals. He has also edited/co-edited books and authored many book chapters.",institutionString:"King Khalid University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:null},coeditorTwo:{id:"189666",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mohd Nasir",middleName:null,surname:"Mohd Desa",slug:"mohd-nasir-mohd-desa",fullName:"Mohd Nasir Mohd Desa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/189666/images/system/189666.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Nasir Mohd Desa currently serves as an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia. He was a former head for Laboratory of Halal Science Research at Halal Products Research Institute, Universiti Putra Malaysia. He holds a BSc in Microbiology from the University of Arizona, USA, Master of Medical Science and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology from the University of Malaya, Malaysia. He has authored/co-authored research articles in numerous peer-reviewed journals locally and internationally in various subjects related to biomedical science and food authentication. In addition, He has also been an active reviewer for papers from various journals. Apart from administrative, postgraduate supervision and research work, he teaches undergraduate courses in medical microbiology and laboratory management to health science students.",institutionString:"Universiti Putra Malaysia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Universiti Putra Malaysia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},coeditorThree:{id:"290714",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdah",middleName:null,surname:"Akim",slug:"abdah-akim",fullName:"Abdah Akim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/290714/images/system/290714.png",biography:"Abdah Md Akim is an Associate Professor in Biochemistry, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia. She obtained her bachelor’s degree in Biochemistry in the University of Cardiff, master’s degree and Ph.D. in Biochemistry in Universiti Putra Malaysia. Her International Atomic Energy Agency fellowship training was in the School of Pharmacy, University of London. She is a Chief Editor for Malaysian Journal of Microscopy. She reviewed papers from various local and international journals. She is an examiner for undergraduate and postgraduate research project in various universities in Malaysia. She teaches Clinical Biochemistry, Research Methodology and Laboratory Management.",institutionString:"Universiti Putra Malaysia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"914",title:"Biotechnology",slug:"materials-science-biochemistry-biotechnology"}],chapters:[{id:"69537",title:"Serum Protein Electrophoresis and Its Clinical Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88367",slug:"serum-protein-electrophoresis-and-its-clinical-applications",totalDownloads:2068,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter focuses on the principle of electrophoresis and its utilization in a clinical laboratory. A sincere attempt has been made to discuss about clinical applications of serum protein electrophoresis, throwing light on the significance of serum protein electrophoresis in the management of multiple myeloma. Emphasis has been made on quality assurance in terms of accuracy and precision in electrophoresis to ensure reliability of patient results. A note on issues with lack of standardization of reporting of electrophoresis and an insight into global efforts to standardize the reporting of the assay has been included in this chapter.",signatures:"Satish Ramanathan and Chakravarthy Narasimhachar Srinivas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69537",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69537",authors:[{id:"229011",title:"Dr.",name:"Satish",surname:"Ramanathan",slug:"satish-ramanathan",fullName:"Satish Ramanathan"}],corrections:null},{id:"66237",title:"Urinary Iodine: Biomarker for Population Iodine Nutrition",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84969",slug:"urinary-iodine-biomarker-for-population-iodine-nutrition",totalDownloads:1139,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Many reports or manuals had focused on the implementation of iodine deficiency disorder (IDD) elimination programme from the point of view of the programme managers. In this chapter, we will focus on the importance of urinary iodine testing, its related diagnosis and further biomarker testing suggested for further diagnosis related to thyroid health. This chapter will be relevant for the respondents to the monitoring programme, particularly the 8–10-year-old schoolchildren and pregnant women, i.e., the vulnerable targeted groups from either the iodine-deficient areas or the Universal Salt Iodization (USI) gazetted areas. USI has been proposed by the World Health Organization (WHO) as the most cost-effective programme to eliminate IDD, and it is also a way to increase the intelligent quotient (IQ) of the world population for the future. This chapter had been laid out so that the readers will know briefly the rationale behind the testing of urinary iodine among schoolchildren and pregnant women under the implementation of the USI programmes in their countries and their benefits, especially the utilisation of urinary iodine as the biomarker to portray the population iodine status. Diagnosis including iodine-induced thyroid diseases and further biomarkers measurement besides urinary iodine is also discussed briefly.",signatures:"Husniza Hussain, Rusidah Selamat, Lim Kuang Kuay, Fuziah Md Zain and Muhammad Yazid Jalaludin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66237",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66237",authors:[{id:"219402",title:"Dr.",name:"Husniza",surname:"Hussain",slug:"husniza-hussain",fullName:"Husniza Hussain"},{id:"239718",title:"MSc.",name:"Rusidah",surname:"Selamat",slug:"rusidah-selamat",fullName:"Rusidah Selamat"},{id:"289785",title:"Dr.",name:"Fuziah",surname:"Md Zain",slug:"fuziah-md-zain",fullName:"Fuziah Md Zain"},{id:"289787",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Yazid",surname:"Jalaludin",slug:"muhammad-yazid-jalaludin",fullName:"Muhammad Yazid Jalaludin"},{id:"295170",title:"Dr.",name:"Lim Kuang",surname:"Kuay",slug:"lim-kuang-kuay",fullName:"Lim Kuang Kuay"}],corrections:null},{id:"67668",title:"Advancement in Analytical and Bioanalytical Techniques as a Boon to Medical Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80279",slug:"advancement-in-analytical-and-bioanalytical-techniques-as-a-boon-to-medical-sciences",totalDownloads:975,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The most important objectives frequently found in analytical and bioanalytical chemistry involve advancement of analytical techniques and its application to relevant medical/clinical problems. Keeping in view to these aspects, the present chapter is primarily focused on the development of advanced analytical techniques applied in the medical field. For example, N-acetyl-beta-D-glucosaminidase (NAG) enzyme is a specific biomarker of acute kidney injury. A biomarker is an entity that is purposely measured and estimated as an indicator of normal biological process, pathogenic process, or pharmacological responses to a therapeutic intervention. Hence, successive measurements of urinary NAG may enhance its clinical use as an indicator of ongoing tubular injury. Hence, in order to obtain information for selective monitoring of biomarker, the development of a practical and valid analytical method is important. Experimentation is driven by the need to know more about the medical effects and safety features of the biologically active analyte. It is therefore more important to evaluate the information that is already available for that particular analyte and to quantify the level of uncertainty for the proposed technique.",signatures:"Khushaboo Pandey and Om Prakash Mishra",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67668",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67668",authors:[{id:"256521",title:"Dr.",name:"Dr. Khushaboo",surname:"Pandey",slug:"dr.-khushaboo-pandey",fullName:"Dr. Khushaboo Pandey"},{id:"265530",title:"Prof.",name:"Om Prakash",surname:"Mishra",slug:"om-prakash-mishra",fullName:"Om Prakash Mishra"}],corrections:null},{id:"63692",title:"Pre-Analytical Within-Laboratory Evacuated Blood-Collection Tube Quality Evaluation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80685",slug:"pre-analytical-within-laboratory-evacuated-blood-collection-tube-quality-evaluation",totalDownloads:1090,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pre-analytical steps contribute to an overall quality of the results of laboratory trials. The volume of blood drawn into the blood-collection tube and the anticoagulant amount introduced into the tube during its production should ensure the anticoagulant level in the recommended range; otherwise, the results can be altered. In evacuated blood-collection tubes, the internal under-pressure at the instant of the blood specimen collection affects the draw volume. During the shelf life, the internal under-pressure deteriorates. With no testing procedures in place, inappropriate anticoagulant levels can pass unnoticed. The chapter details testing procedures ensuring that the tubes are used only if, and only until, they are of the adequate quality. The reasoning behind the methodology is fully explained, and the case studies of the quality evaluations are discussed.",signatures:"Nataša Gros",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63692",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63692",authors:[{id:"171229",title:"Dr.",name:"Nataša",surname:"Gros",slug:"natasa-gros",fullName:"Nataša Gros"}],corrections:null},{id:"71434",title:"In Silico Proteomics EVOO Therapy for Lipid Lowering in the Patients of Diabetes Mellitus",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82294",slug:"in-silico-proteomics-evoo-therapy-for-lipid-lowering-in-the-patients-of-diabetes-mellitus",totalDownloads:685,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Diabetes mellitus is a chronic disease caused by inherited and/or acquired deficiency in the production of insulin by the pancreas, or by ineffectiveness of the insulin produced. Diabetes is a life-long disease marked by elevated levels of sugar in the blood. It is considered as the second progressing cause of color blindness and kidney defects throughout the world. There are four times higher chances of getting heart disease and strokes suffering with diabetes than other ailments. Type-2 diabetes has approximately 90% cases in Pakistan and need to be checked out for its therapy. Olive oil could be helpful in diabetes via many of ways, as prolonged inflammation plays a role as an enhancer of diabetes and other diabetes problems. This study reports identification of some of the cheapest ways to lower the cholesterol in the diabetes mellitus in the local population by using advanced technologies. In this work, the main focus of the research was to use olive oil as a therapy, and as a lipid lowering agent, to improve and reduce the chance of blood pressure, lipids, and hence diabetes and cardiovascular diseases.",signatures:"Muhamamd Suhail and Samreen Riaz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71434",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71434",authors:[{id:"172958",title:"Dr.",name:"Samreen",surname:"Riaz",slug:"samreen-riaz",fullName:"Samreen Riaz"},{id:"259652",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhamamd",surname:"Sohail",slug:"muhamamd-sohail",fullName:"Muhamamd Sohail"}],corrections:null},{id:"64585",title:"ZIKV Diagnostics: Current Scenario and Future Directions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82373",slug:"zikv-diagnostics-current-scenario-and-future-directions",totalDownloads:855,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Since the discovery of the Zika virus in Uganda in 1947, diagnostic challenges remain, especially when we take into account the epidemiological context of the surveyed population. Genetic similarities with other flavivirus are responsible for cross-reactivity during serological evaluation that would often be the only resources to confirm the infection in asymptomatic cases or samples collected after the short window of viral RNA detection. The importance of Zika virus infection diagnosis is undoubtedly useful for pregnant women. This statement became evident after 2015 Brazil’s Zika outbreak when a significant increase in cases of newborn with microcephaly was observed. Reverse transcriptase real-time PCR is the most reliable tool for Zika virus infection diagnosis. It detects viral RNA in both biological fluids and tissues and contributes to clinical case classification for initial description of developmental changes observed in neonates exposed congenitally to Zika virus. In conclusion, advances in serological diagnostic are urgent. The safest pathway for these studies requires laborious, subjective, and low throughput PRNT evaluations. Consequently, critical public health questions remain unanswered: how serum prevalent is the general population and pregnant women; can we define risk for congenital Zika syndrome (CZS) and Guillain-Barré syndrome; and how to assess vaccine efficacy and long-term protection.",signatures:"Zilton Vasconcelos, Renata Campos Azevedo, Andrea Zin, Luiza Neves and Daniela Prado Cunha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64585",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64585",authors:[{id:"268210",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zilton",surname:"Vasconcelos",slug:"zilton-vasconcelos",fullName:"Zilton Vasconcelos"},{id:"269903",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniela Prado",surname:"Cunha",slug:"daniela-prado-cunha",fullName:"Daniela Prado Cunha"},{id:"269904",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",surname:"Zin",slug:"andrea-zin",fullName:"Andrea Zin"},{id:"269905",title:"MSc.",name:"Luiza",surname:"Neves",slug:"luiza-neves",fullName:"Luiza Neves"},{id:"269907",title:"Dr.",name:"Renata Campos",surname:"Azevedo",slug:"renata-campos-azevedo",fullName:"Renata Campos Azevedo"}],corrections:null},{id:"64152",title:"Semi-Solid Phase Assay for the Alternative Complement Pathway Activity Assessment (AP100)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81743",slug:"semi-solid-phase-assay-for-the-alternative-complement-pathway-activity-assessment-ap-sub-100-sub-",totalDownloads:741,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Since the introduction of the most expensive drug in the world (Eculizumab) in the therapeutic arsenal of many diseases involving the alternative complement pathway (ACP) in their pathophysiology, the unmet need to perform simple ACP assays affordable for all countries has become one of the major challenges of the contemporary medicine. The assay currently used is AH50, despite it still challenging for several laboratories. This educational chapter consists on a detail protocol of standardized hemolytic assay AP100 and aims to help clinical laboratories over the world and especially those of the developing and low incomes countries to perform it. The procedure is essentially the same as for the timed lysis assay and dilution methods (AP50) except the concentration of ACP buffer and the chicken erythrocyte density used to make the gels. In clinical field, AP100 has at least nine applications in disease diagnosis and follow-up. AP100 has many advantages over the AH50 as it is more reliable for the Eculizumab monitoring and more practical with a purpose to be stored and transported for several weeks. AP100 is a portable and easy to use device both at the bedside and in the companion medical care.",signatures:"Kheir Eddine Kerboua and Kamal Djenouhat",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64152",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64152",authors:[{id:"217341",title:"Dr.",name:"Kheir Eddine",surname:"Kerboua",slug:"kheir-eddine-kerboua",fullName:"Kheir Eddine Kerboua"}],corrections:null},{id:"66048",title:"Amino Acids Profiling for the Diagnosis of Metabolic Disorders",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84672",slug:"amino-acids-profiling-for-the-diagnosis-of-metabolic-disorders",totalDownloads:3317,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Inborn errors of metabolism (IEM) represent a group of inherited diseases in which genetic defect leads to the block on a metabolic pathway, resulting in a single enzyme dysfunction. As a downstream consequence of the residual or full loss of the enzymatic activity, there is an accumulation of toxic metabolites in the proximity of the metabolic block and/or a deficiency of an essential metabolic product which leads to the clinical presentation of the disease. While individually IEMs are rare, a collectively estimated incidence of metabolic inherited disorders is 1:800. The genetic basis of IEMs can involve abnormalities such as point mutations, deletions or insertions, or more complex genomic rearrangements. Categorization of IEM can be simply made on the basis of the affected metabolic network: fatty acids oxidation disorders, protein/amino acids metabolism disorders, disorders of carbohydrate metabolism, lysosomal storage diseases, peroxisomal disorders, and mitochondrial diseases. This chapter will overview amino acid metabolism-related inherited disorders and amino acid analysis for the diagnosis and routine monitoring of this category of IEMs.",signatures:"Yana Sandlers",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66048",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66048",authors:[{id:"285558",title:"Dr.",name:"Yana",surname:"Sandlers",slug:"yana-sandlers",fullName:"Yana Sandlers"}],corrections:null},{id:"67429",title:"Resource-Based View of Laboratory Management: Tissue Bank ATMP Production as a Model",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86561",slug:"resource-based-view-of-laboratory-management-tissue-bank-atmp-production-as-a-model",totalDownloads:1111,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Modern health care organizations, e.g., tissue banks, require a resource-based view (RBV) for an efficient stimulation of innovation, productivity, and performance, especially in the context of laboratory management and new product development. High quality advanced therapy medicinal products (ATMPs) are expected to bring important health benefits; therefore, their production has to be performed in accordance with good manufacturing practice (GMP). Although there are no precisely defined criteria for quality control/evaluation methods of obtained ATMPs, all aspects of pharmaceutical quality of ATMPs’ development, manufacturing, distribution, inspection, and review processes ought to be strictly fulfilled. 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Fotiadi, Oleg L. Antipov and Patrice Mégret",authors:[{id:"4725",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrei",middleName:null,surname:"Fotiadi",fullName:"Andrei Fotiadi",slug:"andrei-fotiadi"},{id:"107849",title:"Prof.",name:"Patrice",middleName:null,surname:"Mégret",fullName:"Patrice Mégret",slug:"patrice-megret"},{id:"133847",title:"Prof.",name:"Oleg",middleName:null,surname:"Antipov",fullName:"Oleg Antipov",slug:"oleg-antipov"}]},{id:"8437",title:"Polarization Coupling of Light and Optoelectronics Devices Based on Periodically Poled Lithium Niobate",slug:"polarization-coupling-of-light-and-optoelectronics-devices-based-on-periodically-poled-lithium-nioba",signatures:"Xianfeng Chen, Kun Liu, and Jianhong Shi",authors:[{id:"4180",title:"Professor",name:"Xianfeng",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Xianfeng Chen",slug:"xianfeng-chen"},{id:"133851",title:"Prof.",name:"Kun",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",fullName:"Kun Liu",slug:"kun-liu"},{id:"133853",title:"Prof.",name:"Jianhong",middleName:null,surname:"Shi",fullName:"Jianhong Shi",slug:"jianhong-shi"}]},{id:"8438",title:"All-Optical Wavelength-Selective Switch by Intensity Control in Cascaded Interferometers",slug:"all-optical-wavelength-selective-switch-by-intensity-control-in-cascaded-interferometers",signatures:"Hiroki Kishikawa, Nobuo Goto and Kenta Kimiya",authors:[{id:"4400",title:"Professor",name:"Nobuo",middleName:null,surname:"Goto",fullName:"Nobuo Goto",slug:"nobuo-goto"},{id:"133356",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroki",middleName:null,surname:"Kishikawa",fullName:"Hiroki Kishikawa",slug:"hiroki-kishikawa"},{id:"133358",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenta",middleName:null,surname:"Kimiya",fullName:"Kenta Kimiya",slug:"kenta-kimiya"}]},{id:"8439",title:"Nonlinear Optics in Doped Silica Glass Integrated Waveguide Structures",slug:"nonlinear-optics-in-doped-silica-glass-integrated-waveguide-structures",signatures:"David Duchesne, Marcello Ferrera, Luca Razzari, Roberto Morandotti, Brent Little, Sai T. Chu and David J. 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Maxwell, Pavel Klang, Werner Schrenk and Gottfried Strasser",authors:[{id:"4537",title:"DI",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Benz",fullName:"Alexander Benz",slug:"alexander-benz"},{id:"135394",title:"Prof.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Deutsch",fullName:"Christoph Deutsch",slug:"christoph-deutsch"},{id:"135395",title:"Prof.",name:"Gernot",middleName:null,surname:"Fasching",fullName:"Gernot Fasching",slug:"gernot-fasching"},{id:"135396",title:"Prof.",name:"Karl",middleName:null,surname:"Unterrainer",fullName:"Karl Unterrainer",slug:"karl-unterrainer"},{id:"135397",title:"Prof.",name:"Aaron",middleName:null,surname:"Maxwell",fullName:"Aaron Maxwell",slug:"aaron-maxwell"},{id:"135398",title:"Prof.",name:"Pavel",middleName:null,surname:"Klang",fullName:"Pavel Klang",slug:"pavel-klang"},{id:"135399",title:"Prof.",name:"Werner",middleName:null,surname:"Schrenk",fullName:"Werner Schrenk",slug:"werner-schrenk"},{id:"135400",title:"Prof.",name:"Gottfried",middleName:null,surname:"Strasser",fullName:"Gottfried Strasser",slug:"gottfried-strasser"}]},{id:"8448",title:"High-Power and High Efficiency Yb:YAG Ceramic Laser at Room Temperature",slug:"high-power-and-high-efficiency-yb-yag-ceramic-laser-at-room-temperature",signatures:"Shinki Nakamura",authors:[{id:"4143",title:"Dr.",name:"Shinki",middleName:null,surname:"Nakamura",fullName:"Shinki Nakamura",slug:"shinki-nakamura"}]},{id:"8449",title:"Polarization Properties of Laser-Diode-Pumped Microchip Nd:YAG Ceramic Lasers",slug:"polarization-properties-of-laser-diode-pumped-microchip-nd-yag-ceramic-lasers",signatures:"Kenju Otsuka",authors:[{id:"4259",title:"Professor",name:"Kenju",middleName:null,surname:"Otsuka",fullName:"Kenju Otsuka",slug:"kenju-otsuka"}]},{id:"8450",title:"Surface-Emitting Circular Bragg Lasers – A Promising Next-Generation On-Chip Light Source for Optical Communications",slug:"surface-emitting-circular-bragg-lasers-a-promising-next-generation-on-chip-light-source-for-optical-",signatures:"Xiankai Sun and Amnon Yariv",authors:[{id:"4201",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiankai",middleName:null,surname:"Sun",fullName:"Xiankai Sun",slug:"xiankai-sun"},{id:"122981",title:"Dr.",name:"Amnon",middleName:null,surname:"Yariv",fullName:"Amnon Yariv",slug:"amnon-yariv"}]},{id:"8451",title:"Novel Enabling Technologies for Convergence of Optical and Wireless Access Networks",slug:"novel-enabling-technologies-for-convergence-of-optical-and-wireless-access-networks",signatures:"Jianjun Yu, Gee-Kung Chang, Zhensheng Jia and Lin Chen",authors:[{id:"8503",title:"Dr.",name:"Jianjun",middleName:null,surname:"Yu",fullName:"Jianjun Yu",slug:"jianjun-yu"},{id:"133376",title:"Prof.",name:"Gee-Kung",middleName:null,surname:"Chang",fullName:"Gee-Kung Chang",slug:"gee-kung-chang"},{id:"133378",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhensheng",middleName:null,surname:"Jia",fullName:"Zhensheng Jia",slug:"zhensheng-jia"},{id:"139599",title:"Prof.",name:"Lin",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Lin Chen",slug:"lin-chen"}]},{id:"8452",title:"Photonic Crystal Multiplexer/Demultiplexer Device for Optical Communications",slug:"photonic-crystal-multiplexer-demultiplexer-device-for-optical-communications",signatures:"Sahbuddin Shaari and Azliza J. M. Adnan",authors:[{id:"19951",title:"Dr.",name:"Sahbudin",middleName:null,surname:"Shaari",fullName:"Sahbudin Shaari",slug:"sahbudin-shaari"}]},{id:"8453",title:"Improvement Scheme for Directly Modulated Fiber Optical CATV System Performances",slug:"improvement-scheme-for-directly-modulated-fiber-optical-catv-system-performances",signatures:"Hai-Han Lu, Ching-Hung Chang and Peng-Chun Peng",authors:[{id:"4684",title:"Professor",name:"Hai-Han",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",fullName:"Hai-Han Lu",slug:"hai-han-lu"},{id:"62688",title:"Prof.",name:"Peng-Chun",middleName:null,surname:"Peng",fullName:"Peng-Chun Peng",slug:"peng-chun-peng"}]},{id:"8454",title:"Optical Beam Steering Using a 2D MEMS Scanner",slug:"optical-beam-steering-using-a-2d-mems-scanner",signatures:"Yves Pétremand, Pierre-André Clerc, Marc Epitaux, Ralf Hauffe, Wilfried Noell and N.F. de Rooij",authors:[{id:"5054",title:"Dr.",name:"Yves",middleName:null,surname:"Petremand",fullName:"Yves Petremand",slug:"yves-petremand"},{id:"135512",title:"Prof.",name:"Pierre-Andre",middleName:null,surname:"Clerc",fullName:"Pierre-Andre Clerc",slug:"pierre-andre-clerc"},{id:"135514",title:"Prof.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Epitaux",fullName:"Marc Epitaux",slug:"marc-epitaux"},{id:"135516",title:"Prof.",name:"Ralf",middleName:null,surname:"Hauffe",fullName:"Ralf Hauffe",slug:"ralf-hauffe"},{id:"135518",title:"Prof.",name:"Wilfried",middleName:null,surname:"Noell",fullName:"Wilfried Noell",slug:"wilfried-noell"},{id:"135519",title:"Prof.",name:"N.F.",middleName:null,surname:"De Rooij",fullName:"N.F. De Rooij",slug:"n.f.-de-rooij"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3360",title:"Current Developments in Optical Fiber Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"834b9a9593a62b116d2101815fd94dd3",slug:"current-developments-in-optical-fiber-technology",bookSignature:"Sulaiman Wadi Harun and Hamzah Arof",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3360.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"17617",title:"Dr.",name:"Sulaiman Wadi",surname:"Harun",slug:"sulaiman-wadi-harun",fullName:"Sulaiman Wadi Harun"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4494",title:"Advances in Optical Communication",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8cd5ba4d56db55598d255b1d4f9e9519",slug:"advances-in-optical-communication",bookSignature:"Narottam Das",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4494.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15357",title:"Dr.",name:"Narottam",surname:"Das",slug:"narottam-das",fullName:"Narottam Das"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4607",title:"Optoelectronics",subtitle:"Materials and Devices",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e72724ec0d3faf1ec705cb92fa03c32",slug:"optoelectronics-materials-and-devices",bookSignature:"Sergei L. Pyshkin and John Ballato",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4607.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"43016",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergei",surname:"Pyshkin",slug:"sergei-pyshkin",fullName:"Sergei Pyshkin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10415",title:"Application of Optical Fiber in Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"665046cdf24d3e32a07a4ea354bc34b9",slug:"application-of-optical-fiber-in-engineering",bookSignature:"Sulaiman Wadi Harun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10415.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14201",title:"Dr.",name:"Sulaiman Wadi",surname:"Harun",slug:"sulaiman-wadi-harun",fullName:"Sulaiman Wadi Harun"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11049",title:"Thin Films Photovoltaics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2da6baae76c6fa2f7e62f32cebe249f2",slug:"thin-films-photovoltaics",bookSignature:"Beddiaf Zaidi and Chander Shekhar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11049.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"230574",title:"Dr.",name:"Beddiaf",surname:"Zaidi",slug:"beddiaf-zaidi",fullName:"Beddiaf Zaidi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[{type:"book",id:"4607",title:"Optoelectronics",subtitle:"Materials and Devices",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e72724ec0d3faf1ec705cb92fa03c32",slug:"optoelectronics-materials-and-devices",bookSignature:"Sergei L. Pyshkin and John Ballato",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4607.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"43016",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergei",surname:"Pyshkin",slug:"sergei-pyshkin",fullName:"Sergei Pyshkin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"82122",title:"Recent Advances in Biosensing in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104922",slug:"recent-advances-in-biosensing-in-tissue-engineering-and-regenerative-medicine",body:'The biosensor is an analytical device or probe that combines biological elements (enzymes or antibodies) with an electronic component to produce signals that can easily be measured. It can also be defined as an integrated single device with the capacity to provide results by recognizing a biological element that is in direct contact with a transducer [1]. This electronic device identifies, processes, and communicates data about the physiological changes of an analyte and the presence of various chemical or biological materials in the environment.
All these biosensors are produced in a variety of sizes and shapes. They can detect and measure even low levels of infections, harmful chemicals, and pH values. On the other hand, biosensing is the act of measuring or detecting the presence of particular chemicals in a physiological activity with the aid of a biosensor device. The major components of the biosensor including the transducer are displayed in Figure 1, and they are briefly defined in the following section.
The main components of a biosensor arranged in chronological order. It begins with the analyte and ends with the end user.
The concept of biosensors has gone through a series of evolution in terms of what is referred to as a “biosensor.” Accordingly, biosensing devices have metamorphosed into complex systems since their first invention.
The premier reported idea of biosensing rather than its “term” began in 1906 by M. Cremer. He emphasized that the concentration of an acid suspended in an aqueous solution is equal to the electric potential produced between sections of the solution when separated by a glass membrane [2]. Cremer’s discovery led to the introduction of pH by Soren Peder Lauritz Sorensen in 1909. After the invention of an electrode to measure the pH was achieved by Hughes in 1922, 34 years later, an oxygen probe was developed by Leland C. Clark who eventually became the father of biosensors after building what is described as a “real biosensor” in 1959 [3]. Based on this study, he described how “to make electrochemical sensors (pH, polarographic, potentiometric, or conductometric) more intelligent ‘by incorporating’ enzyme transducers as membrane-enclosed sandwiches” at a conference in New York in 1962 [4].
The term “enzyme electrode” which was originally used to describe the first biosensor was adopted by Updike and Hicks to describe a similar device in 1967 [5]. Guilbault & Montalvo [6] used glass electrodes coupled with urease to measure urea concentration by potentiometric measurement instead of the amperometric method.
In the electrochemical community during that period, the research on ion ion-selective electrodes (ISEs) was very active, and the idea of extending the range of sensors to non-electrochemical active compounds had been widely accepted, even for nonionic substances like glucose [5, 7]. Since then, great strides have been made in developing highly sensitive and selective biosensing devices where biological elements are combined with electrochemical sensors [5, 8]. Some of these changes are listed as follows:
The first change took place by Clemen’s team where they developed a “bedside artificial pancreas” that included an electrochemical glucose biosensor. This was performed in 1976 and was sold by Miles (Elkhart) as the Biostator Glucose-Controlled Insulin Infusion System shortly after [5].
The second change that occurred was performed by Pharmacia researchers. They began collaborating with physics and biochemistry academics at Linkoping University in 1982 to develop a novel bioanalytical device capable of monitoring biomolecule interactions. Pharmacia biosensor was founded in 1984 and in 1990, the business launched BIA core, a new instrument [5].
In 1984, Cass and his colleagues published a scientific paper demonstrating the use of ferrocene and its derivatives as mediators for amperometric biosensors. A few years later, the Medisense Exac Tech Glucose Meter was launched on the market and became the world’s bestselling biosensor product. The initial product was a pen-shaped meter with a disposable screen-printed electrode [5].
From 1999 till the present, research in biosensing has led to the development of a nanoelectromechanical biosensor (BioNMES), quantum dots, nanoparticles, nanocantilever, nanowire, and nanotube. The biosensor’s “driving force” exploits the selectivity of the biological element. [4, 7].
This is usually the most important feature of a biosensor. A bioreceptor detects a specific analyte in a sample containing other admixtures and contaminants. The interaction of an antigen with the antibody depicts an example of this selectivity of a biosensor. Antibodies act as bioreceptors and are immobilized on the surface of the transducer. A solution (usually a buffer containing salts) containing the antigen is then exposed to the transducer where antibodies interact only with the antigens [2].
This is the ability of the biosensor to produce identical results in different experimental setups. Reproducibility is characterized by the precision and accuracy of the transducer and electronics in a biosensor. Precision is the ability of the sensor to provide reproducible results every time a sample is measured and accuracy indicates the sensor’s capacity to provide a mean value close to the true value when a sample is measured more than once [2]. Reproducible signals provide high reliability and robustness to the inference made on the response of a biosensor.
This is the degree of susceptibility to ambient disturbances in and around the biosensing system [2]. These disturbances can cause a drift in the output signals of a biosensor under measurement. An error can occur in the measured concentration and can affect the precision and accuracy of the biosensor, and stability is the most crucial feature in applications where a biosensor requires long incubation steps or continuous monitoring [2]. The response of transducers and electronics can be temperature-sensitive, and this may likely influence the stability of a biosensor. Therefore, appropriate tuning of electronics is required to ensure a stable response of the sensor. Another factor that can affect the stability is the affinity of the bioreceptor, which is the degree to which the analyte binds to the bioreceptor. Bioreceptors with high affinities encourage either strong electrostatic bonding or covalent linkage of the analyte that fortifies the stability of a biosensor. Also, the degradation of the bioreceptor over some time is another factor that affects the stability of measurement [2].
The minimum amount of analyte that can be detected by a biosensor defines its limit of detection (LOD) or sensitivity. In several medical and environmental monitoring applications, a biosensor is required to detect analyte concentrations as low as nanogram/milliliter (ng/ml) or even femtogram/milliliter (fg/ml) to confirm the presence of traces of analytes in a sample [2]. For instance, a prostate-specific antigen (PSA) concentration of 4 ng/ml in the blood is associated with prostate cancer for which doctors suggest biopsy tests. Hence, sensitivity is considered to be an important property of a biosensor [2].
Linearity is the feature that shows the accuracy of the measured response (for a set of measurements with different concentrations of the analyte) to a straight line, mathematically represented as y = mc, where c is the concentration of the analyte, y is the output signal, and m is the sensitivity of the biosensor [2]. Linearity of the biosensor can be associated with the resolution of the biosensor and the range of analyte concentrations under test. The resolution of the biosensor is defined as the smallest change in the concentration of an analyte that is required to bring a change in the response of the biosensor. Depending on the application, a good resolution is required as most biosensor applications require not only analyte detection but also the measurement of concentrations of the analyte over a wide working range. Another term associated with linearity is a linear range, which is defined as the range of analyte concentrations for which the biosensor response changes linearly with the concentration [2]. These features are essential for the biosensors’ proper functioning, which can be used for various applications.
The use of biosensors aims to improve the quality of life, for environmental monitoring, disease detection, food safety, defense, drug discovery, and many more. One of the main applications of biosensors is the detection of biomolecules that are either indicators of a disease or targets of a drug. For example, electrochemical biosensing techniques can be used as clinical tools to detect protein cancer biomarkers [9, 10].
Biosensors can also be used as platforms for monitoring food traceability, quality, safety, and nutritional value [11, 12]. Furthermore, an application such as pollution monitoring [12, 13] requires a biosensor to function from a few hours to several days. Such biosensors can be termed as “long-term monitoring” analysis tools. Long-term monitoring biosensors find their use as technologically advanced devices both in resource-limited settings and sophisticated medical setups. Some examples are as follows:
For the detection of several chemical and biological agents that are considered to be toxic materials of defense interest [16];
For use in artificial implantable devices such as pacemakers [17];
Used in prosthetic devices [18];
Sewage epidemiology [19].
A range of electrochemical, optical, and acoustic sensing techniques have been utilized, along with their integration into analytical devices for various applications. Figure 2 depicts the various applications of biosensors. This book chapter will focus on tissue engineering, regenerative medicine, and mobile health (mHealth) technologies.
Applications of Biosensors in different areas of specialization.
Biosensors are grouped based on the type of transducer deployed. They are as follows:-
Electrochemical biosensors;
Calorimetric/thermal detection biosensors;
Optical biosensors;
Piezoelectric biosensors.
Electrochemical biosensors are simple devices that use bioelectrodes to measure electric current, ionic, or conductance changes. These biosensors have different types according to the transducer deployed and also based on the measurements of electrical parameters including potentiometric, amperometric, and voltammetric biosensors. The electrochemical biosensor has three electrodes namely reference, working, and counter electrodes [1]. A typical example of the electrochemical biosensor is shown in Figure 3.
A schematic representation of an electrochemical biosensor illustrating its application in enzyme, antibody, or aptamer measurements [
They produce an electrical signal based on the principle of acoustics (sound vibrations) when mechanical force is applied. Quartz crystals are a common piezoelectric material used in biosensors. Figure 4 displays a commonly used piezoelectric biosensor.
A schematic representation of a piezoelectric sensor. (a) Target antigen and antibody on a piezoelectric material before and after binding, (b) voltage-time curve before and after binding in a piezoelectric sensor and (c) amplitude of a piezoelectric sensor before and after binding concerning frequency [
Optical biosensors are used for analyte detection by absorption, fluorescence, or light scattering. They can also detect microscopic changes when cells bind to receptors immobilized on the transducer surface. They utilize the changes that occur in mass, concentration, or several molecules to direct changes in the characteristics of light [22, 23]. Here, both catalytic and affinity reactions can both be assessed. Figure 5 depicts a type of optical biosensor.
A schematic representation of an optoelectrical arrangement of an optical biosensor [
They are made up of a heat-insulated box with a heat exchanger (calorimetric cylinder), and the reaction takes place in a tiny enzyme-packed bed reactor. The substrate is transformed into a product and heat is created as it enters the bed. Figure 6 shows a typical example of an optical biosensor.
A schematic diagram of an optical biosensor showing its components [
A summary of types of biosensors and some of their applications that can be used in tissue engineering, regenerative medicine, or mhealth technology are shown in Table 1.
S/N | Types of biosensors | Some applications | References | |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Electrochemical biosensors | Potentiometric biosensor | Detection of urea in blood serum | [26] |
Amperometric biosensor | Detection of ethanol, glucose, and lactate | [27] | ||
Impedimetric biosensor | Detection, identification, and quantification of bacteria in the field of microbiology | [28] | ||
Immuno-sensor | Detection of several pathogens such as viruses like COVID-19 and influenza. | [29] | ||
Voltammetric biosensor | It can be used for analyzing paracetamol | [30] | ||
2 | Piezoelectric biosensor Example is micromembrane biosensor | They are able to detect the presence of cells and their masses, used in the rapid detection of HIV in biological fluids | [31, 32] | |
3 | Thermal biosensor Examples are micro-electromechanical systems (MEMSs) biosensors | Low-cost integration of miniaturized devices, allow-cost batch fabrication, and measurement of multiple samples in parallel. It is used to measure enzyme activity, clinical monitoring, environmental monitoring, etc. | [33, 34] | |
4 | Optical biosensor Examples are evanescent wave fluorescence biosensors and bioluminescent optical fiber biosensors | For the rapid, sensitive, and highly selective detection of 17β-estradiol, an endocrine-disrupting compound is frequently detected in environmental water samples. It enables the multi-detection of genotoxins and is used in the study of transferrin-binding proteins, lipooligosaccharide (LOS)-antibody interactions, and serum responses to experimental vaccines | [35, 36, 37] |
The various types of biosensors, some of their applications, and references.
There are many types of biosensors including electrochemical biosensors (potentiometric biosensors, amperometric biosensors, and conductometric biosensors). These biosensors are uniquely designed and fabricated based on their applications. This book chapter will explore the design and fabrication of two biosensors such as an amperometric electrochemical biosensor and a surface plasmon resonance (SPR) optical biosensor used for glucose level detection or measurement and bioprinting, respectively.
The design of the electrodes and chip is a crucial aspect in the development of an amperometric electrochemical biosensor. In general, designing electrochemical biosensor electrodes necessitate a thorough understanding of fluid flow, particularly its behavior in microscales. Furthermore, it also requires a detailed understanding of mass transport phenomena and microflow mass transport foundations.
Biosensors have been improved using a variety of designs. The design of electrodes in a microfluidic system is a crucial pillar for improved performance. Electrode design necessitates a thorough understanding of electron diffusion phenomena. In most current flows, electron diffusion is the limiting step. Diffusion is generally hampered by crucial parameters such as the electrode surface and the number of active sites available for the target. When a device with a microchannel is utilized as an analytical platform, the analyte is injected into the channel using two alternative methods namely pressure-driven flow and electrokinetic flow [38]. A pressure gradient induces flow in pressure-driven flow, and the nature of the flow is influenced by the channel geometry and flow rates. The Reynolds number is commonly used to express the ratio of inertial and viscous forces:
where Re is the Reynolds number, V is the characteristic velocity for the flow, D is the characteristic distance, ρ is the density of the fluid, and
Materials used in the design of amperometric electrochemical biosensors are classified as: (1) materials for the electrode and supporting substrate; (2) materials for the immobilization of biological recognition elements; (3) materials for the fabrication of the outer membrane; and (4) biological elements, such as enzymes, antibodies, antigens, mediators, and cofactors.
Solid electrode systems and supporting substrates are frequently constructed with metals and carbon. Due to their superior electrical and mechanical qualities, metals such as platinum, gold, silver, and stainless steel have long been employed as electrochemical electrodes [39]. Figure 7 depicts the various techniques used for the production of conductive supporting substrates.
A schematic diagram of the techniques used for the production of the conductive supporting substrate.
The basic elements of biosensors are the bioelement and the sensing element. Any organic organism that can detect specific analytes from the medium of interest while remaining unresponsive to any other potentially inquisitive/interfering species is referred to as a bioelement. The signal transducing section of the biosensor is known as the sensing element, and it can take the shape of any magnetic, optical, electrical, or electrochemical transducing mechanism [40].
A surface plasmon resonance biosensor can be designed and manufactured using a variety of periodic structural patterns. One of the structural patterns employed in the design and fabrication of a surface plasmon resonance biosensor is the nanohole creation procedure using thermal nanoimprint lithography which is discussed in this book chapter.
The stamps for the nanohole array are made by thermal nanoimprint lithography, residual layer etching, (titanium/gold) Ti/Au deposition, and lift-off procedures. For example, if a 10-cm thick glass wafer is utilized for the imprinting process and is coated with a 100-nm thermoplastic polymer layer, it has to be spin-coated at 3000 rpm for 30s to obtain this layer. A hot embossing system can be used to perform nanoimprint lithography. The leftover layer is then etched with oxygen (O2) plasma [41].
The polymer is etched uniformly in this procedure until the residual layer is completely removed and the pattern is transferred to the substrate. A metallic titanium (Ti) (adhesion layer, 5 nm)/gold (Au) (50 nm) layer is deposited using electron beam evaporation. Finally, the resist lift-off operation is carried out in an ultrasonic hot acetone bath to obtain the nanohole array structure [42].
Studying the target analyte and identifying how it reacts with biological molecules is the first phase in constructing a biosensing device.
Other phases include are as follows:
The sensitivity and selectivity of a biosensor to the analyte of interest are decided by the biological receptor used. As a result, a receptor with a high affinity for the analyte is suggested. It is critical to understand the benefits and drawbacks of various biological receptors in diverse biosensor applications when selecting an appropriate receptor [41, 43, 44].
Biological molecule must be attached to the surface of a transducer to function consistently as a biological receptor. Immobilization is the term for this procedure. This goal has been accomplished using a variety of techniques including adsorption, entrapment, covalent attachment, microencapsulation, and crosslinking [45, 46].
The efficiency of the biosensor device is heavily influenced by the transducer element. The use of an effective transducer will result in a device with greater efficiency, whereas the use of an ineffective transducer will result in a device with reduced efficiency [45, 47].
Biosensors are particularly useful in tissue engineering applications, such as maintaining three-dimensional (3D)-printed cell cultures [48] and developing “organs-on-chips” models, where biomolecule concentrations such as glucose, adenosines, and hydrogen peroxide levels play a key role in determining the fate of cells and tissues. Changes in oxygen consumption, pH, membrane potentials, ion concentrations, and the release of numerous metabolic chemicals and proteins are all well-known physical and chemical signals that living cells communicate [49]. Monitoring these analytes in real time can provide insight into cellular activity.
The deposition of a bioink (living cells and biomaterials) onto a printing surface is described as bioprinting, and it is a new approach for fabricating tissues and organs by accurately controlling the periodic arrangement of diverse biological materials, such as biomolecules and biocells. It has a wide range of characteristics that can be used in biosensing applications, such as fast deposition and patterning of proteins and other biomolecules [50]. A typical illustration of a 3D-printed tissue construct can be seen in Figure 8.
Stages in submerged bioprinting of a 3D tissue construct. A) The cell-laden hydrogel bioink is printed in droplets, layer by layer following the provided model. The printing nozzle is submerged in high-density perfluorocarbons that are immiscible in water and oil. Perfluorocarbons are suitable for submerged cells due to the presence of oxygen and carbon dioxide transport capability. B) The hydrogel droplets are printed in a vertical or lateral dimension to produce branching constructs without solid support [
There are a variety of bioprinting technologies that can be used to make biosensors, and they are basically grouped into two methods, namely contact-based and noncontact-based printing. Both biomaterials and bioinks are essential for biological signal transduction. For advanced extrusion-based bioprinting such as coaxial or triaxial, optimization of the bioink viscosity is a major consideration to prevent clogging. Other properties including pore size and cellular behavior may influence biosensing [52]. Using an electric field, some printing processes, such as electrodeposition, may be able to transfer thin films of metal nanoparticles [50] or nanowires [53] to a substrate. Creating circuits that could be an intrinsic part of a biosensor, as well as some immunoassays or microarrays, can be done by printing thin metal sheets [54, 55]. Even thin films of biological material, such as proteins, enzymes, nucleic acids, polysaccharides, and bacterial cells, have been printed using electrodeposition [56, 57, 58]. More work needs to be done on bioprinting techniques that may be utilized to deposit a wide range of biologics and mammalian cells in precise spatial positions, rather than thin films, which have been used for biosensing applications.
Diabetes is a serious chronic metabolic illness that affects over 400 million people globally. Uncontrolled chronic hyperglycemia damages and destroys various organs, resulting in significant morbidity and mortality [59]. Blood glucose control can help to reduce the frequency and severity of these problems [60]. By putting the glucose oxidase enzyme on an oxygen electrode, Clark and Lyons created the first biosensor for monitoring glucose levels in 1962 [61]. The care of diabetic patients was transformed when the first self-monitoring blood glucose (SMBG) gadget based on the glucose dehydrogenase enzyme was introduced in 1987 [62]. SMBG in Figure 9 is now widely used in the treatment of diabetes, particularly type I [64, 65].
Various parts of an electrochemical glucose biosensor for diabetes care [
Wound healing is a multistep process that necessitates the collaboration of numerous tissues and biochemical pathways [66]. Chronic wounds result from the failure of these processes to proceed in a timely and organized manner, possibly putting a huge financial strain on healthcare systems [67]. Uncontrolled inflammatory processes, bacterial infections, alterations in the acidic pH of the skin, oxygen levels, and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are all involved in such failures [67, 68]. Biosensors are being researched to allow doctors to closely monitor the healing process, as regular monitoring is crucial in chronic wound management [67]. Screen-printing electrodes with Ag/AgCl-conductive ink were used to create a wearable pH sensor [69]. Wearable sensors for biomarkers detection for wound infections can be shown in Figure 10.
Wearable Sensors for the detection of biomarkers for wound infection [
The use of biosensors in cancer diagnostics has a lot of promise. Cancer is the second biggest cause of mortality [71], and because biomarker concentrations in the early stages of tumor formation are relatively low, biosensor sensitivities or their LODs are critical for early diagnosis [72]. Early diagnosis of malignant cells before they spread has been shown to improve treatment outcomes and save lives. As a result, specialized, accurate, and rapid-response biosensors are in high demand in oncology, some of which can be seen in Figure 11. Recent biosensor advancements have greatly improved breast cancer diagnosis [74]. Breast cancer is the second most frequent cancer in women in the United States, after skin cancer, and the second most lethal, after lung cancer [75]. Traditional breast cancer diagnostic methods such as mammography, magnetic resonance imaging, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) have produced impressive results; however, many false-negative or false-positive results continue to occur, and the adverse effects of some invasive techniques necessitate the development of new highly sensitive, reliable, and noninvasive methods for detection and prognosis [74].
Common biosensors and biomarkers used in the detection of cancer [
Cardiovascular illnesses are the leading cause of death worldwide, and early identification could save tens of thousands of lives each year. Biosensors are being utilized to measure cardiac troponin (both T and I), C-reactive protein (CRP), creatine kinase (CK), myoglobin, and other cardiac indicators. One of the most significant indicators for detecting myocardial infarction is cardiac troponin [76]. Some implantable biosensors can be used for cardiovascular applications. A typical example can be seen in Figure 12.
Implantable biosensor: (a) head implant (
The potential of prostheses to restore human skin’s sensory capabilities would provide users of mechanical limbs with a more natural feeling [78]. The use of a pressure sensor on an artificial hand, for example, might change the amount of force applied by the fingers when gripping objects. This could protect the object from falling due to an underapplied force or breaking due to an overapplied force. A system with sensors for electromyography, temperature, and strain incorporated into stimulation electrodes was developed [79], and its practical use for prosthesis control with sensory input as well as electrical muscle stimulation was reported [80].
Biosensors serve as a control platform for other technologies, allowing for real-time monitoring of system behavior for improved efficiency. Biosensing technologies are used in regenerative medicine for a variety of purposes, including biomanufacturing (for example, product release requirements), organ-on-a-chip technologies, and therapeutic efficacy indicators.
Biomanufacturing is a relatively recent industrial strategy to produce economically relevant biological goods such as human tissues by leveraging biological systems. Industrial-scale bioproducts are made using additive manufacturing techniques such as 3D printing and other biofabrication technologies Figure 13 [81]. shows DNA biosensing with 3D printing technology.
DNA biosensing with 3D printing technology [
Biomanufacturing facilities may also use altered cells to manufacture chemical or molecular products, as well as mass culture cells for organ fabrication. Biomanufacturing may be used in a variety of industries, including healthcare, food production, and even agriculture. Controlling the quality and condition of the biological structure is crucial for producing trustworthy goods, and biosensing technologies can help with this. Electrochemical enzyme-based biosensors, for example, have been utilized to monitor metabolites in cell culture medium in real time [81].
Using microfluidic technology and organoids, organ-on-a-chip technologies have opened up a new biomedical research field. Organoids are tiny cell clusters of a certain tissue type that can mimic the behavior of regular tissues and organs more accurately. Organ-on-a-chip technology is utilized for a variety of purposes, including evaluating the response of organoids to medications and other external stimuli [83]. The use of biosensors for real-time monitoring of the behavior of microtissues and organoids has progressed the technique significantly. Damage to cardiac organoids was monitored using a new microfluidic aptamer-based electrochemical biosensor Figure 14 [84]. shows the use of biosensors to develop organs-on-a-chip technology.
Diagram showing the use of biosensors in organ-on-a-chip integration [
Given that most outcomes are observed visually (e.g. a regenerated tissue or a healed wound) or functionally (e.g. improved sensory ability), biosensors for detecting the efficacy of regenerative medicine-related therapies remain relatively unexplored. Biosensors, on the other hand, may play an increasingly essential role in therapeutic evaluation in the future. For example, with glucose sensors, patients undergoing treatment can make use of biosensors to self-monitor the efficacy of the treatment (for instance, the presence of the required growth factors in their bloodstream after undergoing treatment).
Also, biosensors that monitor stem cell differentiation status before transplantation for therapeutic purposes can be made with nanotechnology [86]. Small cellular surface proteins and neurotransmitters, for example, can be measured to validate the differentiation of stem cells into dopamine-producing brain cells before their implantation into Parkinson’s disease patients [87].
Future applications of biosensing can be seen in the monitoring of regenerative medicine therapies in patients, such as biosynthesized tissue preparation and posttreatment self-monitoring. With the advancement of technology and stem cell-related applications, physicians and patients will be able to use biosensors in new ways.
The pathbreaking spread of mobile technologies together with innovative application advancements has brought up deliberate attempts to address health-related matters using mobile devices. This has led to the evolution of a new pathway of electronic health (eHealth), known as mHealth. According to the International Telecommunication Union, there are about 5 billion mobile phone subscriptions in the world, with over 85% of the world’s population now covered by a commercial wireless signal [88]. Mobile phones have penetrated most low-income countries more than other infrastructures such as paved roads and electricity. The increasing quality of these networks which involves providing higher speeds of data transmission alongside cheaper and more powerful handsets is transforming the way health services and information are accessed, delivered, and managed. With increased accessibility comes a greater possibility of personalization and adoption in healthcare delivery [89].
The term “mobile” in mHealth connotes a sense of freedom and flexibility to function anywhere and at any time [90]. There is no one generally accepted definition for the term – mobile health, and how it is defined keeps changing with time, and as you move from one field to the other. However, World Health Organization Global Observatory for eHealth (WHO, GOe) has defined mHealth as a subdivision of eHealth (electronic health). This subdivision is referred to as medical and public health practice supported by mobile devices. The mobile devices include the following:
Mobile phones
Patient monitoring devices
Personal digital assistants (PDAs)
Other wireless devices
mHealth capitalizes on a mobile phone’s core utility of voice and short messaging service (SMS) as well as more complex functionalities and applications including general packet radio service (GPRS), third- and fourth-generation mobile telecommunications (3G and 4G systems), a global positioning system (GPS), and Bluetooth technology [89].
On the other hand, [91] it has described mHealth as wireless devices and sensors (which include mobile phones) which are meant to be carried or accessed by an individual throughout regular activities that are performed daily. This definition tells us that an important component of mHealth is the sensor that can monitor and measure physiological data; hence, the sensors can be used for various applications including monitoring and measuring physiological data in mHealth.
There are many types of biosensors employed in mHealth for telecare. For biosensors to fit into mobile devices, they have to be of high quality and miniaturized, and consume low power. This has been better achieved through innovation in materials and instrumentation [92, 93, 94, 95]. As biosensors gain more and more attachments with smart devices for mHealth, they become necessary for researchers to design biosensors with suitable functionalities and specifications to work flawlessly with accompanying hardware and software [96].
Two features will remain immutable with mHealth devices: a sensing technology for sensing health parameters and processing software to transform the sensor data into useful information. Hence, biosensors will remain invaluable components of mHealth. In designing a biosensor for mHealth, the biosensor can be built as a distinct microfluidic chip to communicate with the smartphone via wired or wireless connectivity. Alternatively, the biosensing chip with computing features can be incorporated directly into the design of smartphones, and this will eliminate additional hardware, thereby improving portability and possibly bringing about overall cost reduction [97].
Regarding smartphone-based mHealth, recent smartphones lack some key health sensor modalities. An integrated smartphone biosensor has limitations in the types of health data it can collect. Yet, the presence of connectivity technology such as USB, Bluetooth, and WiFi that enable them to interface with a large number of external biosensors to expand their range of signal acquisition is a great advantage. In mHealth, data processing can either be local processing (on the smartphone or a standalone biosensing accessory) or server processing (taking place on the cloud or on a nearby computer that communicates with the smartphone or a standalone biosensing accessory) [97].
Smartphones are not very suitable for data processing that requires high computing power as they may take a long time to process the data into useful information. However, smartphones can take advantage of their built-in connectivity features to transfer sensor data to a more powerful server. After the processing is completed, the server can transmit the results back to the smartphone to be accessible to the user.
The biosensor has been employed in the detection of melanoma using a fully integrated smartphone application [98]. A 10x detachable lens is used to capture the image of the target site of the skin, and the image is then passed through a series of processing steps such as preprocessing, segmentation, and feature extraction. A support vector machine classifier is then used to determine whether the image is an indication of a malignant or benign lesion [98].
Orth et al. developed a dual-mode smartphone microscope. The system uses a camera flash or ambient light for brightfield and darkfield imaging [99]. They devised a clip-on 3D-printed attachment that easily attaches to the smartphone as shown in Figure 15. A cell nuclei imaging of unlabeled cells, cattle sperm, and zooplankton were demonstrated with this system. Another phone microscopy device called MoleScope is a commercially available smartphone attachment for dermoscopy that allows the user to obtain magnified images of the skin with controlled lighting. The images can be stored and viewed on a computer using a web platform and can be shared with a dermatologist, thereby facilitating teledermatology [97].
Dual-mode microscope attachment (left) designed for the smartphone [
Kanakasabapathy et al. developed a smartphone-based semen analyzer for point-of-care (POC) male infertility screening as shown in Figure 16. The system is composed of a disposable microfluidic device that handles the semen samples and an optical attachment for the smartphone that enhances image magnification and device alignment [100].
Semen analyzer for point-of-care male fertility screening [
An acoustic-based diagnostic biosensor used for lung function tests has been developed by researchers as shown in Figure 17. It uses the audio signal from the in-built microphone of the smartphone with a mouthpiece attachment. The mechanism is based on a variable frequency complex demodulation using lung function parameter estimation [101].
Smartphone device with mouthpiece attachment for lung function testing [
Ozcan and the group developed a smartphone-based microplate reader for performing enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays at the point of care [102]. The system is composed of a 96-well plate held by a 3D-printed attachment and an LED array for the illumination of the plate. The smartphone camera is mounted on the same attachment, connected with the optical fibers that carry the light to the camera as shown in Figure 18. The image taken is sent to online servers for analysis, and the results are sent back to the phone in about 1-minute time. [103] also developed injectable dermal tattoo biosensors for measuring pH, glucose, and albumin concentrations. The biosensors undergo a colorimetric change upon exposure to varying levels of these analytes, such as pH, glucose, and albumin concentrations [103].
Smartphone-based microplate reader for point-of-care enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays [
Guo devised a system for measuring blood ketones in order to detect diabetic ketoacidosis early. The concentration of blood ketone is detected using disposable test strips from fingerstick whole blood analysis on a smartphone-powered electrochemical analyzer. The -hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase integrated with the test strip converts -hydroxybutyrate to acetyl acetic acid after a drop of whole blood is added. The oxidation of NADH into NAD+ is then triggered by this cascade, which may be monitored amperometrically using an electrochemical analyzer. The results of mapping the current produced to the concentration of hydroxybutyrate are then sent to the smartphone through USB as shown in Figure 19 [104].
Amperometric-based system for blood ketone monitoring [
It can be used in real-time monitoring of bioanalytes [52, 81].
Development of “organs-on-chips” models in which concentrations of biomolecules such as glucose, adenosines, and hydrogen peroxide levels play important roles in determining the fate of the cells and tissues [48].
Biosensing can be employed for the early detection of cancer biomarkers from blood samples in a noninvasive manner. Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and electrochemical biosensors have been successfully used for the detection of carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) biomarkers in the early diagnosis of lung cancer in serum [105, 106, 107].
There are many challenges researchers face in biosensing research. These include the following:
Difficulties in translating academic research into commercially viable prototypes by industries.
Complex regulatory issues in clinical applications.
Difficulties in finding researchers with a background in biosensor technology or engaging researchers from different disciplines of science and engineering to work together.
Identifying a market that is interested in a biosensor for a specific analyte of interest.
Clear-cut advantages over existing methods for the analysis of that analyte.
Testing the performance of the biosensor both in use and after storage. Response of a biosensor after 6 months of storage is the absolute minimum for any practical commercial application.
Stability, costs, and ease of manufacturing of each component of the biosensor; hazards and ethics associated with the use of the developed biosensor [2].
The application of biosensing in tissue engineering, regenerative medicine, and mHealth has been fast growing. However, the growth has been limited even though some sensors including piezoelectric sensors have been described in previous research works and are already present in the market depicting high sensitivity and sensibility. The popularly known and successful ones among all are the electrochemical and mHealth, whereas some others cannot be used practically.
In tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, real-time monitoring of analytes is still at its early stage, and further research can bring enormous possibilities in the field. Future studies should focus on overcoming the challenges of miniaturization and integration of biosensors in microfluidic systems. Microfluidic technology with automated, sensitive, and real-time monitoring capabilities will play significant roles in translating to clinics. The use of microfluidic technology and many other mentioned technologies (methods) for global biosensing applications will need the utmost high standard of the systems and the whole process.
Incorporating biofabrication techniques into biosensing fields is important. For multiplexing signals and evaluating cellular responses in 2D and 3D, high-quality transducers could be used to separate and quantify analytes of interest. Future studies could be carried out by joining the recent biofabrication techniques (contact-based and noncontact-based), to yield better advances in biosensing technology, more particularly, in advanced extrusion-based bioprinting (noncontact-based printing method), to print living biosensing structures (as implantable therapeutics) with the use of coaxial and triaxial nozzles for various healthcare-related issues. The synergy of biofabrication and sensing will generate the next generation of biosensors possessing a high degree of sensitivity, throughput, and dynamic range in one sensor. In the end, the synergetic effect will yield a great impact on future sensing, monitoring of diseases, research, diagnostics, and therapeutic applications.
The authors would like to thank Mr. Ekwebelem George and Ms. Nwaigwe Ogochukwu for their great contributions to the areas of design and fabrication of a biosensor, and recent advances in biosensing.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
This book chapter was written by all authors. All authors have approved the final version of the book chapter. A.T.B (corresponding author): conceptualization, writing, editing, supervision, and review. C.A.N: co-ordination, writing, and editing. E.M.B: conceptualization and writing.
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He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"436430",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mesut",middleName:null,surname:"Işık",slug:"mesut-isik",fullName:"Mesut Işık",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/436430/images/19686_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bilecik University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"9",type:"subseries",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. 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The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",annualVolume:11423,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"275140",title:"Dr.",name:"Dinh Hoa",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",fullName:"Dinh Hoa Nguyen",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRbnKQAS/Profile_Picture_1622204093453",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kyushu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"20259",title:"Dr.",name:"Hongbin",middleName:null,surname:"Ma",fullName:"Hongbin Ma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRhDJQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-05-02T08:25:21.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"28640",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasushi",middleName:null,surname:"Kambayashi",fullName:"Yasushi Kambayashi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYOQxQAO/Profile_Picture_1625660525470",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nippon Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/14340",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"14340"},fullPath:"/chapters/14340",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()