Factors influencing poultry meat color [58].
\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8837",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Human Teeth - Key Skills and Clinical Illustrations",title:"Human Teeth",subtitle:"Key Skills and Clinical Illustrations",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book provides information on nomenclature, tooth numbering systems, tooth morphology, and anatomy and stages of tooth formation. It continues with root canal morphology and anatomy of incisors, canines, premolars, and molars. External and internal anatomies of mandibular permanent incisors and maxillary permanent first molars are presented according to a literature review. Orofacial structures affecting tooth morphology are discussed in detail. The book ends with the evolution of dental implant shapes and today�s custom root analog implants.",isbn:"978-1-78923-840-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-839-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78984-522-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81278",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"human-teeth-key-skills-and-clinical-illustrations",numberOfPages:258,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"ac055c5801032970123e0a196c2e1d32",bookSignature:"Zühre Akarslan and Farid Bourzgui",publishedDate:"January 22nd 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8837.jpg",numberOfDownloads:16369,numberOfWosCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitations:10,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:15,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:29,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 3rd 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 24th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 23rd 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 11th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 12th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Gazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:{id:"52177",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid",middleName:null,surname:"Bourzgui",slug:"farid-bourzgui",fullName:"Farid Bourzgui",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/52177/images/system/52177.png",biography:"Prof. Farid Bourzgui obtained his DMD and his DNSO option in Orthodontics at the School of Dental Medicine, Casablanca Hassan II University, Morocco, in 1995 and 2000, respectively. Currently, he is a professor of Orthodontics. He holds a Certificate of Advanced Study type A in Technology of Biomaterials used in Dentistry (1995); Certificate of Advanced Study type B in Dento-Facial Orthopaedics (1997) from the Faculty of Dental Surgery, University Denis Diderot-Paris VII, France; Diploma of Advanced Study (DESA) in Biocompatibility of Biomaterials from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2002); Certificate of Clinical Occlusodontics from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2004); University Diploma of Biostatistics and Perceptual Health Measurement from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2011); and a University Diploma of Pedagogy of Odontological Sciences from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2013). He is the author of several scientific articles, book chapters, and books.",institutionString:"University of Hassan II Casablanca",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"7",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Hassan II Casablanca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Morocco"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"174",title:"Dentistry",slug:"dentistry"}],chapters:[{id:"68734",title:"Can Orofacial Structures Affect Tooth Morphology?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88807",slug:"can-orofacial-structures-affect-tooth-morphology-",totalDownloads:879,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter presents how orofacial muscles can affect teeth positioning, occlusion, and also the size/shape of teeth. Pressures exerted on teeth will be discussed in specific cases such as mouth breathing, chronic mastication disorders, oral habits, like thumb sucking or tongue thrust, and also when there is hyperfunction of masticatory muscles during sleep or wakefulness. In these situations, the imbalance of muscle forces brings undesirable consequences to the dentition. Each condition will be explained, showing which muscle is affected, how it changes, and what consequences to the teeth it brings. It is a chapter that shows how close the relationship is between dentistry and speech language pathology (orofacial myology).",signatures:"Amanda Valentim, Renata Furlan, Mariana Amaral and Fernanda Martins",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68734",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68734",authors:[{id:"106418",title:"BSc.",name:"Amanda",surname:"Valentim",slug:"amanda-valentim",fullName:"Amanda Valentim"},{id:"113857",title:"MSc.",name:"Renata",surname:"Furlan",slug:"renata-furlan",fullName:"Renata Furlan"},{id:"274941",title:"MSc.",name:"Mariana",surname:"Amaral",slug:"mariana-amaral",fullName:"Mariana Amaral"},{id:"274942",title:"BSc.",name:"Fernanda",surname:"Guimarães",slug:"fernanda-guimaraes",fullName:"Fernanda Guimarães"}],corrections:null},{id:"66644",title:"Embryological Development of Human Molars",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85703",slug:"embryological-development-of-human-molars",totalDownloads:1089,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Dental development is a complex process by which teeth from embryonic cells grow and erupt into the mouth. It is governed by epithelio-mesenchymal interactions. The biological mechanism is the same for all teeth; however, epithelial signaling and homeogenous combinatorics are different from one type of tooth to another. The primary dental blade splits into the vestibular and primary dental blades opposite to the mesenchymal condensation. During dental development, three successive stages are described: bud, cup, and bell. The secondary dental blade responsible for the formation of germs in permanent teeth is formed from the primary dental blade in the bell stage. For the central incisor, lateral incisor, canine, first temporary molar, and second temporary molar, each primary dental blade gives rise to a single secondary dental blade for the corresponding permanent tooth. On the other hand, the primary dental blade of the second temporary molar will cause the formation of four secondary dental blades that will cause the formation of permanent germs of the second premolar, the first permanent molar, the second permanent molar, and the third permanent molar. The objective of this chapter is to focus on the cellular and molecular mechanisms explaining the normal development of molars by presenting the different current data and theories of science illustrating the human molar embryological development.",signatures:"Fatiha Rhrich and Hakima Aghoutan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66644",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66644",authors:[{id:"172240",title:"Prof.",name:"Hakima",surname:"Aghoutan",slug:"hakima-aghoutan",fullName:"Hakima Aghoutan"},{id:"288550",title:"Prof.",name:"Fatiha",surname:"Rhrich",slug:"fatiha-rhrich",fullName:"Fatiha Rhrich"}],corrections:null},{id:"68957",title:"Prologue: Tooth Anatomy and Morphology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89148",slug:"prologue-tooth-anatomy-and-morphology",totalDownloads:933,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Zühre Akarslan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68957",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68957",authors:[{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan"}],corrections:null},{id:"65806",title:"External and Internal Anatomy of Mandibular Permanent Incisors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84636",slug:"external-and-internal-anatomy-of-mandibular-permanent-incisors",totalDownloads:1206,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A clear understanding of dental root anatomy, external and internal, is an essential prerequisite to all dental procedures. In periodontology, the external root morphology has been proven to have a clinical significance in the predisposing factors of periodontal diseases. Orthodontic literature shows the importance of radicular anatomy in orthodontic mechanics through the concept of anchorage. The significance of internal root anatomy has been emphasized by studies demonstrating that variations in canal geometry before cleaning, shaping, and obturation procedures had a greater effect on the outcome than the techniques themselves. The mandibular central incisor is the smallest tooth in the mouth, but the buccolingual dimension of its root is very large. This tooth is usually single-rooted; however, the root canal system of this group is unpredictable. The incidence of two canals has been reported as low as 0.3% and as high as 45.3%. The wide range of variation reported in literature regarding the prevalence of a second canal has been related to methodological and racial differences. This chapter will summarize the morphological aspects of the root canal anatomy published in the literature of the anterior mandibular teeth. This will provide precious knowledge regarding root canal morphology and its variation among populations.",signatures:"Mohammed A. Aldawla, Abdulbaset A. Mufadhal and Ahmed A. Madfa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65806",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65806",authors:[{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa"},{id:"281125",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed A.",surname:"Aldawla",slug:"mohammed-a.-aldawla",fullName:"Mohammed A. Aldawla"},{id:"281126",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulbaset A.",surname:"Mufadhal",slug:"abdulbaset-a.-mufadhal",fullName:"Abdulbaset A. Mufadhal"}],corrections:null},{id:"67975",title:"Tooth Morphology Overview",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87153",slug:"tooth-morphology-overview",totalDownloads:1740,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter provides an overview of tooth morphology, including a review of tooth anatomy, tooth development, and associated nomenclature and numbering systems. First, basic tooth morphology nomenclature is presented. Next, various tooth numbering systems are described and discussed, and the Federation Dentaire Internationale (FDI) system is detailed. Third, tooth surfaces and ridges are explained along with terminology, followed by an explanation of tooth crown and root anatomy. Fourth, the stages of tooth formation are described, starting with the bud stage, and followed by the cap stage, bell stage, and maturation. Annotated diagrams are presented for clarity. Finally, two currently accepted hypotheses explaining tooth formation are presented.",signatures:"Abeer ALShami, Shatha ALHarthi, Munerah Binshabaib and Monika Wahi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67975",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67975",authors:[{id:"190958",title:"Ms.",name:"Monika M.",surname:"Wahi",slug:"monika-m.-wahi",fullName:"Monika M. Wahi"},{id:"280663",title:"Dr.",name:"Shatha",surname:"ALHarthi",slug:"shatha-alharthi",fullName:"Shatha ALHarthi"},{id:"280665",title:"Dr.",name:"Abeer",surname:"Alshami",slug:"abeer-alshami",fullName:"Abeer Alshami"},{id:"280666",title:"Dr.",name:"Munirah",surname:"Binshabaib",slug:"munirah-binshabaib",fullName:"Munirah Binshabaib"}],corrections:null},{id:"65711",title:"External and Internal Anatomy of Maxillary Permanent First Molars",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84518",slug:"external-and-internal-anatomy-of-maxillary-permanent-first-molars",totalDownloads:1368,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Adequate knowledge of the tooth morphology is of paramount importance for clinicians worked in the different branches of dentistry in order to maintain good oral health. Unfortunately, tooth morphology shows a high level of complexity and variability. These anatomical variations have been reported to be related to many factors including age, gender and ethnicity. The permanent first molars are the largest teeth in the maxilla which play an important role in mastication. Because of their early eruption, they are more vulnerable to caries and subsequent pulp and periapical pathoses. This chapter will summarize the internal and external morphologic features of these teeth with the reported variations in relation to age, gender and population in order to provide clinicians with the morphological knowledge necessary for performing successful dental treatments.",signatures:"Abdulbaset A. Mufadhal, Mohammed A. Aldawla and Ahmed A. Madfa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65711",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65711",authors:[{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa"},{id:"281125",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed A.",surname:"Aldawla",slug:"mohammed-a.-aldawla",fullName:"Mohammed A. Aldawla"},{id:"281126",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulbaset A.",surname:"Mufadhal",slug:"abdulbaset-a.-mufadhal",fullName:"Abdulbaset A. Mufadhal"}],corrections:null},{id:"67177",title:"External and Internal Root Canal Anatomy of the First and Second Permanent Maxillary Molars",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85746",slug:"external-and-internal-root-canal-anatomy-of-the-first-and-second-permanent-maxillary-molars",totalDownloads:1296,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A successful endodontic treatment depends on a comprehensive knowledge of the morphology of canal and its variations, an appropriate access cavity, cleaning and shaping, and adequate root canal filling. Lack of knowledge in this regard and missing a root canal are among the most common causes of failure of root canal treatments. Most previous studies on maxillary molars have reported that they usually have three roots and four canals since an extra canal is often found in the mesiobuccal root. Other anatomical variations, such as an extra C-shaped canal, have also been reported in distobuccal and palatal roots. Thus, because of having a more complex anatomy compared to other teeth, maxillary molars have the highest rate of endodontic failure. Several studies have assessed the morphology of root canal anatomy in different populations using different techniques such as sectioning, root canal clearing, association of a dental operating microscope and ultrasonic tips, periapical radiography, and computed tomography scanning. Recently, CBCT was suggested to three-dimensionally explore the root canal details before an endodontic treatment. The purpose of this chapter was to highlight the importance of having a thorough knowledge about the root canal morphology of the permanent first and second maxillary molar.",signatures:"Said Dhaimy, Lamyae Bedida, Hafsa El Merini and Imane Benkiran",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67177",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67177",authors:[{id:"289623",title:"Prof.",name:"Said",surname:"Dhaimy",slug:"said-dhaimy",fullName:"Said Dhaimy"},{id:"297310",title:"Dr.",name:"Lamyae",surname:"Bedida",slug:"lamyae-bedida",fullName:"Lamyae Bedida"},{id:"297367",title:"Dr.",name:"Imane",surname:"Benkiran",slug:"imane-benkiran",fullName:"Imane Benkiran"},{id:"298239",title:"Dr.",name:"Hafsa",surname:"El Merini",slug:"hafsa-el-merini",fullName:"Hafsa El Merini"}],corrections:null},{id:"65451",title:"Morphology of Root Canal System of Maxillary and Mandibular Molars",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84151",slug:"morphology-of-root-canal-system-of-maxillary-and-mandibular-molars",totalDownloads:1147,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The root canal system is complicated and has many anatomical variations among different populations. It is so important to understand the morphology of root canal system before any endodontic procedure, since the lack of knowledge of root canal system could lead to missing the additional root canals which causes failure of endodontic treatment. The study of root canal anatomy was carried out by many researchers and among different populations using various techniques. The presence of additional root canals was most commonly observed in molars. The aim of this chapter is to provide an overview of the morphology of root canal system of maxillary and mandibular molars and its variation among populations.",signatures:"Svetlana Razumova, Anzhela Brago, Haydar Barakat and Ammar Howijieh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65451",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65451",authors:[{id:"282099",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Haydar",surname:"Barakat",slug:"haydar-barakat",fullName:"Haydar Barakat"},{id:"282405",title:"Dr.",name:"Ammar",surname:"Howijieh",slug:"ammar-howijieh",fullName:"Ammar Howijieh"},{id:"283571",title:"Prof.",name:"Svetlana",surname:"Razumova",slug:"svetlana-razumova",fullName:"Svetlana Razumova"},{id:"283572",title:"Prof.",name:"Anzhela",surname:"Brago",slug:"anzhela-brago",fullName:"Anzhela Brago"}],corrections:null},{id:"67419",title:"Root Canal Morphology and Anatomy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86096",slug:"root-canal-morphology-and-anatomy",totalDownloads:1115,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Success in root canal treatment depends on the proper application of all procedures of root canal treatment. This wholistic approach includes leakproof crown restoration, following ideal instrumentation, irrigation and hermetic obturation. Therefore, the first step of root canal treatment begins with understanding the tooth morphology in detail. The teeth vary according to their localization at the jaws and the gender and race of people. Detection of the extra canals, canal curvatures, isthmuses and lateral and accessory canals plays an important role in the success of root canal treatment. With all this, the academic knowledge and proficiency of the dentist and/or endodontist enable tooth morphology to be more clearly understandable.",signatures:"Esra Pamukcu Guven",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67419",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67419",authors:[{id:"277522",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Esra",surname:"Pamukcu Guven",slug:"esra-pamukcu-guven",fullName:"Esra Pamukcu Guven"}],corrections:null},{id:"68918",title:"The C-Shaped Root Canal",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89121",slug:"the-c-shaped-root-canal",totalDownloads:796,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"A thorough understanding of root canal anatomy is of paramount importance in the field of dentistry. The C-shaped root canal is an anatomical variation occurring mostly in mandibular second molars. In a transverse section, the shape of this canal is observed as the letter C. The presence of a fin or web connecting the individual root canals is another anatomic feature. Due to its complex anatomy, different classifications have been proposed through the years for a better comprehension. In endodontic literature, the C-shaped root canal has been of high interest and its prevalence is reported in different regions of the world. Additionally, its endodontic management has been widely described and analyzed.",signatures:"Jesús Alejandro Quiñones Pedraza",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68918",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68918",authors:[{id:"284538",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesús Alejandro",surname:"Quiñones Pedraza",slug:"jesus-alejandro-quinones-pedraza",fullName:"Jesús Alejandro Quiñones Pedraza"}],corrections:null},{id:"69760",title:"Pathology and Abnormality of the First Permanent Molar among Children",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89725",slug:"pathology-and-abnormality-of-the-first-permanent-molar-among-children",totalDownloads:1283,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The first permanent molar (FPM) plays an essential role in the masticatory function by contributing to the implementation and the maintenance of the occlusion. However, it is considered as the most frequently affected and the earliest affected tooth by caries; 27.4% of the 6–8 years old children have developed at least one cavity on one of the four first permanent molars, according to a study conducted among 3276 school children in Casablanca .Therefore, the FPM should benefit from special vigilance on the part of the practitioner to ensure that any early carious lesion is intercepted. In addition, the FPM, due to its period of mineralization coinciding with early childhood diseases, can erupt with a structural abnormality. Molar incisor hypomineralization (MIH) is considered to be the most common defects observed on first permanent molars among children. A study conducted among 1077 children aged 7–10 years enrolled in schools in Casablanca showed that 7.9% of children were affected with MIH. About 84.7% of the children had the four molars affected. Children with HIM had a significantly higher prevalence of caries: 78.8 versus 33.5%.These structural abnormalities of the enamel must be carried out earlier to ensure that the coronary anatomy is the least compromised.",signatures:"Mouna Hamza, Amal Chlyah, Bouchra Bousfiha, Bouchra Badre, Maria Mtalsi, Hasna Saih and Samira El Arabi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69760",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69760",authors:[{id:"52178",title:"Ms.",name:"Mouna",surname:"Hamza",slug:"mouna-hamza",fullName:"Mouna Hamza"},{id:"288350",title:"Prof.",name:"Samira",surname:"El Arabi",slug:"samira-el-arabi",fullName:"Samira El Arabi"},{id:"288775",title:"Prof.",name:"Bouchra",surname:"Bousfiha",slug:"bouchra-bousfiha",fullName:"Bouchra Bousfiha"},{id:"288776",title:"Prof.",name:"Amal",surname:"Chlyah",slug:"amal-chlyah",fullName:"Amal Chlyah"},{id:"288778",title:"Prof.",name:"Bouchra",surname:"Badre",slug:"bouchra-badre",fullName:"Bouchra Badre"},{id:"311623",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria",surname:"Mtalsi",slug:"maria-mtalsi",fullName:"Maria Mtalsi"},{id:"311624",title:"Dr.",name:"Hasna",surname:"Saih",slug:"hasna-saih",fullName:"Hasna Saih"}],corrections:null},{id:"66877",title:"Orthodontic Management of Residual Spaces of Missing Molars: Decision Factors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85944",slug:"orthodontic-management-of-residual-spaces-of-missing-molars-decision-factors",totalDownloads:1420,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the daily practice, the orthodontist may be confronted with particular clinical situations with one or more missing teeth. This can complicate the therapeutic plan and influence the choice of possible extractions imposed by treatment requirements. In case of permanent molar absence, making decision becomes even more delicate. The practitioner must use his/her critical sense and clinical common sense to make the right choice between closing and redeveloping the residual spaces. Its choice must meet the patient’s expectations and correct the clinical problem without risking overtreatment, or extending duration care. Several factors guide the therapeutic decision, ranging from the patient’s age to economic factors, not to mention the technical complexity, therapeutic predictability, and patient comfort, which determine proper compliance and therefore success. In this chapter, we will focus on these decision-making factors by determining the scientific evidence level in terms of success, survival, and patient-centered outcomes (quality of life and functional efficiency).",signatures:"Hakima Aghoutan, Sanaa Alami, Amal El Aouame and Farid El Quars",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66877",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66877",authors:[{id:"172240",title:"Prof.",name:"Hakima",surname:"Aghoutan",slug:"hakima-aghoutan",fullName:"Hakima Aghoutan"},{id:"172553",title:"Prof.",name:"Sanaa",surname:"Alami",slug:"sanaa-alami",fullName:"Sanaa Alami"},{id:"290814",title:"Dr.",name:"Amal",surname:"El Aouame",slug:"amal-el-aouame",fullName:"Amal El Aouame"},{id:"290815",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid",surname:"El Quars",slug:"farid-el-quars",fullName:"Farid El Quars"}],corrections:null},{id:"69931",title:"Impacted First and Second Permanent Molars: Overview",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86671",slug:"impacted-first-and-second-permanent-molars-overview",totalDownloads:1362,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Impaction of a permanent tooth is a relatively common clinical occurrence in the human dentition. First mandibular molars and maxillary second molars are rarely impacted with a reported prevalence of 0–2.3% for second molars, 0.02% for the maxillary first molar, and of less than 0.01% for the mandibular first molar. The failures in their eruption mechanism may occur due to an obstacle such as the presence of a supernumerary tooth or an odontoma, lack of adequate space in the arch, an abnormal eruption path, or with idiopathic etiology. It is an asymptomatic pathology which is usually a casual discovery. Early diagnosis and treatment of permanent molars eruption disturbances contributes to optimal outcomes and favorable long-term prognosis by reduction of complication. The purpose of this is chapter is (1) to define prevalence and etiopathogeny of impacted first and second permanent molars, (2) to pinpoint the needs of earlier diagnosis, and finally (3) to highlight the treatment options.",signatures:"Sanaa Alami, Hakima Aghoutan, Meriem Bellamine and Farid El Quars",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69931",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69931",authors:[{id:"172241",title:"Dr.",name:"Sana",surname:"Alami",slug:"sana-alami",fullName:"Sana Alami"},{id:"285209",title:"Prof.",name:"Hakima",surname:"Aghoutan",slug:"hakima-aghoutan",fullName:"Hakima Aghoutan"}],corrections:null},{id:"65527",title:"Evolution of Dental Implant Shapes and Today’s Custom Root Analogue Implants",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83746",slug:"evolution-of-dental-implant-shapes-and-today-s-custom-root-analogue-implants",totalDownloads:735,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Native tooth has a unique design to serve perfect stomatognathic function and esthetics which could never be replaced with another material or apparatus if it is lost. Over the past few decades, screw-type endosseous implants have been considered to be as the gold standard for the rehabilitation of edentulism owing to the similarity with the anatomical root shape and location inside the alveolar bone. They have been widely investigated so as to find out the ideal characteristics. Further researches have focused on the cervical region of the dental implant because the maximum stress is pronounced around the implant neck. The ideal characteristics indicate that a wide implant neck for better stress distribution, and a large surface area with a minimal thread geometry for a better long term crestal bone stability. Along with the growing clinical knowledge and digital technology, an innovative and noteworthy approach for implant dentistry, custom root analogue implant (RAI), has evolved. With the computer aided design and manufacturing (CAD/CAM) methods, original and optimized characteristics could be transferred to the custom dental implants just as performing an original root replacement.",signatures:"Ayse Sumeyye Akay",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65527",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65527",authors:[{id:"217236",title:"Dr.",name:"Ayşe",surname:"Sümeyye Akay",slug:"ayse-sumeyye-akay",fullName:"Ayşe Sümeyye Akay"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:{id:"1",series:{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",issn:"2631-6218",editor:{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. 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\r\n\tTendons are the biological and mechanical interface between muscles and bones. Their physiological role is to transfer the force of the muscle contraction to joint movements. As such, the structure of tendons has semi-elastic properties due to their connective tissue content and therefore are prone to inflammatory degeneration and structural failure that cause high disabling effects, primarily pain and impaired joint function.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will be the academic forum to discuss the causes and the advances in the current understanding and treatment of structural pathologies involving tendons related to mechanical and inflammatory aspects of tendon pathologies.
\r\n\r\n\tOn the mechanical part, the book will present the current approach to traumatic and degenerative tears of rotator cuff tendons, Achilles tendon and peroneal tendons injuries and degeneration, traumatic injuries to proximal and distal biceps tendons, tendon ruptures in hand and wrist, etc. The particular interest is to describe the recent development in tissue engineering techniques for biological approaches for tendon repair and healing enhancement. Surgical advances to treat tendon ruptures are highly preferred to be discussed in the book.
\r\n\r\n\tAdditionally, discussion on advances in pharmacological approaches for inflammatory conditions involving tendons is an integral part of this project, especially regarding the molecular basis of anti-inflammatory agents for tendinitis treatment.
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Laskovski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/16.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"2205",title:"Dr.",name:"Anthony",surname:"Laskovski",slug:"anthony-laskovski",fullName:"Anthony Laskovski"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"81802",title:"An Overview of Poultry Meat Quality and Myopathies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104474",slug:"an-overview-of-poultry-meat-quality-and-myopathies",body:'The poultry industry has witnessed significant improvements over the past several decades achieving higher market weight with improved feed efficiency, thus reducing production cost. During the past 60 years, the amount of time and quantity of feed per pound of meat required to reach broiler market weight had been reduced by 50% [1]; furthermore, according to the National Chicken Council [2], modern broiler chickens can achieve market weight 16 days earlier with 35% higher weight compared to the 1960s broiler chicken. These improvements have resulted from a combination of genetic improvement and progress in nutrition and poultry management.
The U.S. is considered the world’s largest producer of poultry meat; the U.S. provides approximately 17% of the global poultry meat output, followed by Brazil and China, mainly dominated by broiler meat followed by turkey meat and a small fraction for other poultry meat. The production and consumption of poultry meat have increased rapidly worldwide and are expected to continue to grow [3] due to its relatively low price compared to other meats, the absence of cultural or religious obstacles, and its dietary and nutritional properties as it has lower fat, cholesterol, and sodium content [4] with an increased preference of white chicken meat [5, 6].
Additionally, consumers have shifted from the consumption of whole chicken toward portioned (especially breast fillets) and further processed products [7, 8]. These changes were driven by the need for convenience with meal preparation in a fast-paced industrialized era and meeting consumer preference of specific carcass parts. The poultry industry has responded to these changing demands by further enhancing genetic selection for increased breast yield, faster growth rate, and improved feed efficiency. Meanwhile, feed cost has increased, and ethanol production has forced producers to use alternative feed ingredients such as the distiller\'s dried grains with solubles (DDGS) produced as byproducts of ethanol production. However, since the selection of broiler chickens initially focused on increasing growth performance and improving body composition [9], this has led to indirect and often deleterious effects on meat quality traits, such as excessive deposition of abdominal fat, the formation of which represented the inefficient use of feed [10, 11]. Coincidently, several studies have shown an increased incidence of abnormalities, mainly in breast muscles [12, 13]. In the early 1980s, Wight and Siller [14] recognized an abnormal condition in the pectoralis minor, in which the muscle is basically “suffocated” leading to ischemic necrosis; this condition known as deep pectoral muscle myopathy is only the first in a list of fast-growth-related muscle abnormalities that eventually affect meat quality and its functional properties.
In poultry meat, appearance and texture have been considered the two most important attributes responsible for initial consumer meat evaluation and final product acceptance [15], so consumers are expected to reject meat with observed defects such as bruises and hemorrhages. Several appearance defects have been reported in the poultry industry, such as pinking of raw and cooked meat, bone darkening, red/bloody discoloration, white striping, wooden breast, spaghetti meat, and pale, soft, exudative appearance of breast meat. However, many of the underlying causes of appearance defects have not been fully explained. Understanding the structural organization of the muscle fibers and physiology can help in explaining some of these defects.
The basic structural unit of a muscle has been defined as the muscle fiber, which is constituted of several myofibrils (contractile units). Each muscle fiber is surrounded by a connective tissue called the endomysium; muscle fibers are then grouped into fascicles and surrounded by another layer of connective tissue called the perimysium. Then, the whole muscle is made up of a group of fascicles and surrounded by epimysium that connected the muscle to bones. Collagen is the major constituent of these connective tissues. These connective tissues influenced muscle development and subsequent meat quality.
Skeletal muscles growth was achieved by increasing the size of preexisting muscle fibers (hypertrophy). The number, size, and type of fibers vary with the function and anatomical location of the muscle. Meat quality is also affected by these factors. A muscle that contained high proportion of oxidative fibers tends to have red color due to a greater amount of myoglobin (e.g., thigh muscles) as compared to glycolytic fibers, which tended to appear white in color, which affected the appearance of muscle/meat (e.g., chicken breast muscle). Glycolytic fibers are larger and have lower rate of protein turnover. Therefore, the white muscles are larger and more efficient. In poultry, genetic selection for increased breast yield resulted in pale breast meat color in broilers [16], ducks [17], and turkeys [18], which could result in poor meat quality.
Collagen is the most abundant protein in the body and in connective tissues. The structure of collagen supports its function of providing strength to muscle and other tissues with more than 20 different types of collagen identified in vertebrates [19]. Glycine constitutes about one-third of all the amino acids found in collagen, while proline, which has been classified as an imino acid, and its analog hydroxyproline also constituted about one-third of all amino acids in collagen [20]. Lysine has been considered to be another constituent of collagen where both proline and lysine are covalently modified to hydroxyproline and hydroxylysine, respectively. A collagen molecule (tropocollagen) is composed of three left-handed polypeptide helices coiled around each other to form a right-handed supercoil where glycine is found at every third residue [19].
The strength of the collagen fibrils is due to the covalent bonds formed between and within tropocollagen triple helices, where collagen is cross-linked by lysine side chains that contribute to the strength of the collagen in meat, which has an essential role in the development of meat tenderness [21]. Furthermore, in a recent study, it has been shown that muscle with spaghetti meat abnormality had an altered immunoreactivity to specifically procollagen type III (precursor of collagen type III) suggesting a possible defect in the collagen turnover and synthesis process [22], while Sanden et al. [23] reported that spaghetti meat has poorly packed thin, loose, and immature collagen fiber bundles.
The process of converting muscle to meat in poultry starts immediately upon sacrificing the bird. Exsanguination results in blood/oxygen supply removal, during which the muscle tries to maintain its functions even after oxygen depletion through the anaerobic glycolysis of its glycogen reserves to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), but in the absence of blood supply to remove waste, the accumulated heat and lactic acid in the muscle decreases the pH. Owing to ATP depletion, the muscle remains contracted due to actin and myosin binding that leads to muscle stiffness (rigor mortis). This marks the onset of rigor mortis and the conversion of muscle to meat, where muscle proteins start to denature due to high temperature and low pH. Temperature and pH are the main postmortem factors influencing meat quality through affecting the onset and progression of rigor mortis and subsequent resolution [24, 25, 26, 27]. During resolution, the proteolysis of Z-disk proteins takes place, and myofibrillar proteins degrade into myofibrillar fragments by proteolytic enzymes that affect meat tenderness. In chickens, the process of converting muscle to meat has been found to start immediately after slaughter and be resolved within 2–4 h. The extent of meat tenderization postmortem could be altered by the conditions under which the meat is processed. Factors include temperature and chilling duration, deboning time, postchill aging/holding duration, and marination.
Meat quality is a collective term used to describe the indicators of a meat product wholesomeness and freshness, such as color, texture, flavor, pH, and juiciness. The two most important quality attributes for poultry meat are appearance and texture since they influence the initial consumer selection of a product as well as final satisfaction [15]. Appearance quality attributes include skin color, meat color, and appearance defects such as bruises and hemorrhages. Any deviation from a normal appearance would result in meat product rejection, subsequently leading to consumer complaints. Despite the importance of these quality attributes, the poultry grading system used is still based on aesthetic attributes, such as conformation, presence or absence of carcass defects, bruises, missing parts, and skin tears, without taking into consideration the functional properties of meat [28], which have been important for the further processing industry that was mainly interested in the functional properties of meat; the importance of incorporating functional properties and quality indicators is becoming increasingly important as the recent muscle myopathies not only affect consumer acceptance based on appearance but also the quality of further processed meat manufactured using meat with such defects.
Many factors influence poultry meat quality, including sex, strain, age, environmental factors, exercise, diet, and processing practices mainly focused on chilling, deboning time, marination, and electrical stunning [29, 30, 31, 32].
Another important quality attribute that influences customer perception is the tenderness of the meat. This attribute comes second after appearance; consumers usually correlate acceptable appearance with better quality and tenderness. Tenderness development is a function of myofibrillar protein denaturation, connective tissue content, and juiciness. Deboning time, age, and strain are some of the major factors that affect poultry meat tenderness [31, 33]. Lyon and Lyon [34] reported that as the time before deboning increased from 0 to 24 h postmortem, consumer acceptability of the meat texture increased, with fillets deboned at 0 and 2 h postmortem considered tough by a consumer panel, and samples deboned at 6 and 24 h postmortem considered slightly tender to moderately tender. Liu et al. [35] reported a decreased shear force of chicken breast as deboning time increased from 2 to 24 h postmortem. Similar results were also reported by Cavitt et al. [33].
Furthermore, Mehaffey et al. [8] reported that fillets deboned 2 or 4 h postmortem from broilers raised to 7 weeks were significantly tougher than those raised to 6 weeks, indicating that age affected tenderness when deboning was performed shortly after harvest. Northcutt et al. [31] reported that breast fillets harvested at less than 2 h postchill aging were tenderer when taken from broilers slaughtered at 42 or 44 days of age than those harvested from birds 49 or 51 days of age, irrespective of any sex effect. On the other hand, Young et al. [36] reported that females had greater fillet yields than males.
Connective tissue content has been reported to increase with age and is correlated with tenderness; as mentioned earlier, collagen is the most abundant protein in the body, making up the majority of the connective tissue proteins [37, 38]. In young broilers (6–8 weeks), it is expected that connective tissue would not affect tenderness since mature cross-links should have not yet formed between tropocollagen molecules, which are the structural units of the collagen fibril. On the other hand, the contraction of myofibrillar protein, which depends upon time and rate of rigor mortis development after the bird is sacrificed, is related to processing rather than intrinsic factors [15]. Furthermore, tenderness, indirectly associated with connective tissue, is one of the quality attributes that are negatively affected by the emerging muscle myopathies emphasizing the importance of further investigating and attempting to mitigate the negative impacts.
Another important meat quality attribute is meat juiciness, or water-holding capacity, which refers to the ability of raw meat to retain its inherent water during force application and/or processing [39]. Water in muscle has been divided into three general types: bound, immobilized, and free. Bound water is held tightly via myofibrillar protein charges and represents 4–5% of water in muscle [39, 40]; it is resistant to freezing and could only be removed by severe drying processes, not including conventional cooking [41]. Immobilized water is found within the muscle ultrastructure (within the space between actin and myosin), but it is not bound to myofibrillar proteins as in the case of bound water. Immobilized water accounts for the largest portion of muscle-bound water (88–95%). Finally, free water is held within muscle by weak capillary forces [42].
Poultry has been determined to be the only species known to have muscles/parts with apparent differences in color, as meat from poultry has been classified as either white or dark. In chicken, fresh raw breast meat is expected to have a pale pink color, while the raw thigh and leg meat are darker and redder. Meat color plays a significant role in consumer purchase decisions [43, 44, 45]. Consumers tend to associate color with flavor, tenderness, safety, storage time, nutritional value, and satisfaction level [46], and as an indicator of freshness and wholesomeness.
Meat color is what the human eye sees as light is reflected from the meat surface. Poultry meat absorbs most blue and green color spectra and reflects most of the yellow, orange, and red color spectra, which is what the human eye perceives.
The most commonly used colorimetric scale is the CIE Lab [47], even though other color scales have been used, such as the Hunter L, a, b, and YXZ space. However, the accuracy of these instruments has depended upon thickness, background color, and illuminant wavelengths [48, 49].
The CIE Lab system components measures include L* that refers to lightness and has a range from 0 to 100 (black to white), component a* had a range from –60 to +60 (green if negative to red if positive), and b* has the same range as a* (blue if negative to yellow if positive) [50, 51]. Another more recent system used for color measurement is the computer vision system, which has been shown to give reproducible results with the ability to measure the color of the entire sample instead of specific spots, as has been the case with widely used colorimeters [52]; in fact, Tomasevic et al. [53] recommended using computer vision program as a superior approach for poultry color determination.
Meat color is mainly related to the myoglobin pigment present in the muscle fibers. Myoglobin consists of a protein (globin) and a nonprotein heme ring, which has an iron molecule in its center. Iron can bind one of several ligands (e.g., oxygen, carbon monoxide, and nitric oxide) on its sixth coordination site. The forms of myoglobin (deoxymyoglobin, oxymyoglobin, carboxymyoglobin, and metmyoglobin) differ depending upon the ligand bound to iron and on the redox state of the iron. Thus, myoglobin and iron states are the two main ways through which meat color changes.
Myoglobin (or deoxymyoglobin) has a red-purple color in its nature when not bound to any ligands; the state of myoglobin changes to oxymyoglobin when oxygen is present and to carboxymyoglobin when carbon dioxide is present. In both the forms, the color is bright red (bloom), and iron is in the reduced ferrous form (Fe++). The oxidation of myoglobin changes the form to metmyoglobin and the iron to the oxidized ferric form (Fe+++), which has a brown color. These myoglobin color changes are reversible; however, if heat-treated, metmyoglobin becomes denatured and color changes irreversibly to grayish-brown. Curing with nitrites/nitrates causes an irreversible color change to red color that, upon heating, converts to pink. The replacement of iron with zinc results in a stable red color of myoglobin due to the formation of Zn-protoporphyrin IX (ZPP), which has been shown to give Parma ham its stable, bright red color [54, 55]. Within a chicken carcass, chicken breast muscles are mainly composed of white fibers (glycolytic) that have low myoglobin content. Thus, breast meat appears white, while thigh muscles are composed of red fiber (oxidative) and appears darker. Fleming et al. [56] reported a myoglobin concentration of 0.16 and 0.30 mg/g in broiler breast and thigh muscles, respectively. Furthermore, Miller [57] said a lower myoglobin content of 0.01 and 0.40 mg/g in white and dark meat of 8-week-old broilers, respectively.
Froning [58] classified the factors influencing meat color into three main categories (Table 1). Smith et al. [59] investigated the effect of age, diet (carbohydrate source), and feed withdrawal on broiler meat color by slaughtering birds each day from 42 to 45 and 49 to 52 days of age with a carbohydrate source that was either corn, milo, or wheat, with feed withdrawal times of either 0 or 8 h. Color was not affected by age. Still, feed withdrawal increased fillet lightness (L*) from an average of 46.1 to 48.9, decreased redness (a*) from 4.1 to 3.1, and increased yellowness (b*) from 2.8 to 3.7. Fillets from the birds fed the wheat diet were lighter than fillets from the corn or milo fed birds. The milo diet resulted in redder fillets than corn or wheat diets, while the corn diet produced more yellow fillets than milo or wheat diets.
Heme pigments |
|
Preslaughter factors |
|
Slaughter, chilling, and further processing |
|
Factors influencing poultry meat color [58].
In addition to meat color, skin color has been considered a critical quality attribute, mainly in a whole carcass and skin-on cuts sale. The color of poultry skin has varied from cream-colored to yellow. This variation is primarily the result of genetic variation and natural pigments in feed. Birds had differed in their ability to deposit the black melanin pigment in the epidermis and dermis layers of the skin and varied in their ability to deposit carotenoids from the feed as the combinations of different amounts of melanin and carotenoids produced different skin colors. However, in commercial strains, the ability to deposit melanin has been eliminated through genetic selection. Different skin colors as adopted from [60] are illustrated in Table 2.
Skin color | Dermis | Epidermis |
---|---|---|
White | None | None |
Black | Melanin | Melanin |
Yellow | None | Xanthophyll |
Green | Melanin | Xanthophyll |
Blue (Slate) | Melanin | None |
Combination of possible skin colors due to dietary xanthophyll deposition in epidermis or melanin production in either dermis or epidermis [60].
However, considerable variation in color and discoloration of poultry meat has occurred and remains of great concern for the industry. Discoloration may occur in the entire muscle or only in a portion of a muscle due to bruising or broken blood vessels [58]. Possible poultry color defects are presented in Table 3.
Defect | Description | Possible causes |
---|---|---|
Bruises and hemorrhages | Classic bruises, pin-point blood spots in meat, blood accumulation along bones and in joints | Physical trauma, nutrient deficiencies, mycotoxins, stunning |
Overscalding | Incomplete removal of epidermis, cooked discoloration on surface of meat | Too high scalding temperature, too long in scalder |
Surface drying | Mottled appearance of skin or meat due to surface dehydration | Incomplete removal of epidermis, exposed meat, poor packaging, freezer burn |
Heme reactions | Normal color ranges from raw pink meat, tan to brown raw meat, grey to brown cooked meat, pink cooked meat, cured meat color | Oxidative or redox state of the myoglobin, myoglobin complexing with nitrates/nitrites or other compounds such as carbon monoxide |
Dark meat | Darker than normal appearing meat, possible mottling | High muscle pH due to antemortem depletion of muscle glycogen |
Light meat | Pale breast meat | Low muscle pH (PSE-like condition) |
Dark bones | Dark brown to black bones | Freezing, blood accumulation around bone |
Summary of poultry color defects [60].
The pinking of cooked white meat has been an undesirable color defect found in poultry; its occurrence was noticed sporadically and has negatively influenced consumer purchasing decisions (Maga, I994). According to Maga [61], pink color might have resulted from the presence of high levels of myoglobin that were not completely denatured during heat processing, incidental nitrate/nitrite contamination either in feed or water or during processing. The presence of carbon monoxide and nitric oxide gases in oven gas while roasting has caused pink color on the surface of turkey meat, with carcasses from younger turkeys more susceptible than older ones [62]. The proposed mechanism for pink color development of fully cooked is related to the ligands to which the denatured myoglobin was bound, such as amino acids, denatured proteins, and nitrogen-containing compounds that form denatured hemochromes globin. Therefore, depending on the ligand to which the denatured heme will bind, different pink shades would result.
Binding of nitric oxide to myoglobin from preslaughter contamination (feed and water and gases from the truck exhaust) or during/after processing (processing water, ice, spice mix, and oven gas) has formed the pink nitric oxide myoglobin that, upon cooking, was converted to pink nitrosohemochrome. Furthermore, carbon monoxide binding to myoglobin has led to pink carboxymyoglobin developing upon cooking in oven gases or during irradiation.
Cooking meat harvested from birds before rigor mortis resolution could also cause pink color when meat is cooked when pH was higher than 6.0. At this high pH, myoglobin is not denatured, and cytochrome C (electron transport protein), which is heat stable, increases and contributes to the delayed denaturation of myoglobin since cytochrome C is still able to deliver electrons to myoglobin. Ahn and Maurer [63] showed that a pH above 6.4 leads to binding of myoglobin and hemoglobin with most naturally present ligands, such as histidine, cysteine, methionine, nicotinamide, and solubilized proteins, which leads to pink color of the meat. At high pH, amino acids and protein ligands can donate electrons to Fe, resulting in stable pink ferrohemochrome. High pH also reduces the susceptibility of meat pigments and lipids to oxidation resulting in a cooked pink color [64].
Bone darkening has been described as a dark reddish brown or black discoloration on the surface of bone and muscle adjacent to the bone after cooking. The darkening was due to bone marrow passing from inside the bone onto the bone surface and adjacent tissue, usually after freezing the meat [65, 66] and after cooking of the frozen meat [67]. Lyon and Lyon [30] described the variation in bone discoloration due to different preparation methods (precook, freeze, and reheat). They found that freezing before cooking increased the severity of discoloration more than cooking followed by freezing and reheating. Lyon et al. [65] demonstrated that meat and bone darkening of thigh pieces was related to pigment migration from the femur to muscle tissue. The commercial further processing industry has reported that redness was usually accompanied by blood in bone-in chicken carcasses and parts, which consumers could reject as the product appears undercooked and unsafe for consumption [59].
The migration of pigments from the femur to muscle tissues has created darkening that was more prevalent in younger birds since their bones were less calcified, were more porous, and had more red marrow than older birds. The epiphysis of long bones in older birds is more calcified than young birds, so the pigment is more difficult to escape from bones onto surrounding tissue. However, bone darkening only affects the appearance and not the organoleptic properties of the meat product [67].
Smith and Northcutt [59] studied discoloration prevalence in commercially fully cooked breasts, thighs, and drumsticks from various market sources. They speculated that about 11% of products could face consumer complaints or rejection since they were severely discolored. Furthermore, cooking chicken breast samples with bone marrow collected from femurs increased the darkness and redness of both raw and cooked broiler meat [68].
Red and/or bloody discoloration of poultry meat, raw or cooked, has been a chronic yet sporadic problem for the poultry industry. Raw breast meat with red discoloration is objectionable to many customers, and cooked white or dark meat with red defect is unacceptable to consumers due to the perception that it is undercooked. Red discoloration of white meat is closely related to bone darkening but with higher redness. Little research has been available concerning this red discoloration defect in poultry meat [59]. According to Smith and Northcutt [66], bone marrow is an effective inducer of red, bloody discoloration in breast meat samples. In a previous investigation conducted concerning the color of different parts of chicken, Lyon et al. [65] reported that the initial color of breast was lighter and less red than thighs because breasts had a lower proportion of total bone area to muscle mass, fewer large, calcified bones, a lower proportion of blood vessels per muscle mass (less hemoglobin), or lower myoglobin content than thighs or drums [66].
The bright red color development has been investigated in Parma ham, where this north Italian traditional dry-cured ham “Prosciutto di Parma (Parma ham)” has been made from only the legs of fattened pigs and was salted with sea salt, dried, and matured over 1 year [69]. It was initially postulated that sea salt used was contaminated with nitrate/nitrite. However, that was later investigated, and results showed that this pigment was also formed in a nitrate/nitrite-free environment and that endogenous enzymes as well as microorganisms were involved in this pigment formation [54, 55]. These results suggested that the bright red color in Parma ham is caused by Zn-protoporphyrin IX (ZPP), in which the iron in heme was substituted by zinc heme separated from the native heme protein. Investigations on this lipophylic myoglobin derivative showed that it was a stable red pigment that increased with aging [70]. This process has now been patented for producing red pigments for food use that were heat-stable [71]. The addition of salt accelerated the reaction and increased redness [72]. The process has also occurred in live animals, including humans, as lead poisoning and iron deficiency caused an increase of ZPP in blood as zinc replaced the iron in hemoglobin. The level of ZPP can be evaluated with a simple screening test using a hematofluorometer. The measurement of ZPP has been used with ducks to test for lead poisoning [73]. An increased ZPP/heme ratio indicates that Zn has replaced Fe in the heme, thus changing the color of hemoglobin and myoglobin. Based on findings in Parma ham, ZPP may be responsible for the red discoloration in poultry meat, which could be formed in myoglobin found in muscles or hemoglobin stored in bone marrow. Thus, ZPP leaking out of the bones could cause the increased stable redness observed in white meat.
Green discoloration of live muscles, raw meat, and cooked deli products can be produced by various mechanisms that lead to condemnation by the industry and consumers. In live muscles, green muscle disease (deep muscle myopathy) is caused by the lack of blood supply to the deep pectoral muscle that results in the death of the muscle fibers, thus giving the muscle a green appearance. The bruising of live birds has caused a rupture of blood capillaries and blood accumulation under the skin or in the meat. The color of the bruise subsequently developed over time and turned either yellow or green depending upon heme degradation. Using lactic acid as a decontamination approach resulted in the greening of chicken skin color [74]. The irradiation of fresh beef and pork meat has been thought to affect the stability of iron in the myoglobin and cause the breakdown of the porphyrin molecule and/or the formation of sulfmyoglobin that caused green pigments to appear [75].
In cooked meat, contamination with microorganisms such as Pseudomonas fluorescens has produced a shiny transparent greenish exudate on the meat surface due to microbial degradation of the heme pigment. In sausage-type products, the presence of green rings is an indicator of microbial contamination where the microorganisms oxidized the heme pigment before applying thermal treatment.
Iridescence, which is the appearance of a green-orange color on the surface of meat products such as deli meat, is mainly associated with the meat surface microstructure that could be interpreted as a color diffraction problem related to the ability of certain muscles to split the white light into its component. Thus, the reflection of the meat surface would appear in green-orange. If a sharp knife was used to cut the meat, the smooth surface resulting from the cut causes this color diffraction, but if a dull knife was used instead, this problem would be eliminated.
Deep pectoral muscle myopathy, also known as green muscle disease and Oregon disease, was first identified in turkeys [76] and later in broiler breeders [77] and 7-week-old broiler chickens [78]. This disease affected the wing elevating muscle (
The pectoralis minor muscle is confined in a tight space between the sternum and the pectoralis major muscle (large breast fillet). It is also encased in a rigid fibrous sheath that restricts any increase in muscle volume in response to any physiological changes caused by muscle exercise such as wing-flapping [79] which requires increased blood flow to supply the oxygen and nutrients needed by the muscles. The incidence of green muscle disease has also been reported to be higher in high yielding crosses, especially males.
On the other hand, the incidence of focal pectoral myopathy has increased, and it has been associated with increased growth rate and muscle size [12, 80]. Further investigation is required to determine the causes of this muscular defect since focal myopathy has an even more detrimental effect on the poultry industry. It has affected the pectoralis major muscle leading to consumer complaints and industry economic loss.
The incidence of pale, soft, and exudative (PSE) meat has been well-documented in swine, where meat has a very light gray color, soft texture, and cannot hold water [81, 82]. This condition has been associated with heavy muscling [83]. In poultry, similar PSE characteristics have been reported in turkey meat [84, 85], chickens [86, 87], and ostriches [88]. However, it is more difficult to distinguish and identify these characteristics in poultry meat compared to pork. This condition has been referred to as PSE since characteristics were similar to PSE in pork, which is misleading since both conditions were not exactly the same. Poultry researchers have preferred to refer to the condition in poultry as “PSE-like” or “Pale poultry muscle syndrome” [86, 89]. The PSE and PSE-like conditions are detrimental to the industry profitability since it affects important meat quality attributes involved in the production of value-added products and further processed meat. Affected muscles have been reported to lose their rheological properties and become unable to hold water. For example, mortadella prepared with PSE-like chicken meat has reduced water-holding capacity, altered texture, diminished emulsion stability, and required additives to restore the functional properties of normal meat [90]. In addition, poultry processors have been concerned with the appearance of PSE-like meat in fresh tray packs. The pale color affected color uniformity within the package and, thus, consumer acceptance. The occurrence of PSE-like in poultry meat has been believed to be the result of accelerated postmortem glycolysis (rapid pH decline), while the carcass was still warm [91]. In poultry, normal pH values at 15 min postmortem (pH15) are around 6.2–6.5 [92, 93], whereas normal ultimate pH (pHu) values are approximately 5.8 [60, 88, 94]. If the pH15 value is low (below 6.0) when the muscle is still warm, the proteins are subject to denaturation, which leads to a decreased water-holding capacity and a lighter color of the meat.
The reasons for PSE-like condition have remained unclear, but up to 30% of broiler breast meat and up to 40% of turkey breast meat have shown this defect in commercial processing plants [95, 96, 97]. Furthermore, it has been reported that the occurrence of PSE-like meat in birds may be affected by alteration to the intracellular calcium homeostasis caused by a mutation in the ryanodine receptor gene, which is different from the ryanodine receptor gene in swine, and also depends upon the several aspects of preslaughter and postslaughter management practices [98, 99]. It is thought that the application of “snow chilling” with carbon dioxide intensified meat quality abnormalities [100]. In addition, other factors have been thought to contribute to this problem, such as heat stress during the finisher period or the preslaughter period [86], and stress and struggling before slaughter [101].
Differentiating PSE-like meat from normal meat has been based on the instrumental or visual assessment of color lightness (L*). However, the cutoff value for classifying meat as PSE-like has differed among researchers. Petracci et al. [102] considered an L* value of 56 as the cutoff, while Barbut [28, 103, 104] suggested classifying turkey breast meat as PSE-like when L* values were greater than 52 at 24 h postmortem. Fraqueza et al. [105] classified breast meat as PSE-like when the L* was greater than 50 and pHu was less than 5.8, while Woelfel et al. [106] used L* values greater than 54 in broilers as their standards.
Using L*
White striping, woody breast, and spaghetti meat can be collectively referred to as the myopathies of modern broiler. These nomenclatures were simply based on the appearance of the defective muscles. White striping is a condition described in broiler chickens and characterized by white striations parallel to the direction of muscle fibers on both breast fillets and thighs of broilers. White striping is considered to be an emerging issue by the poultry meat industry that could be associated with enhanced growth rate and heavier body weight in birds [110, 111, 112], especially in the age of 6–8 weeks [110], and higher fat content in broiler breast fillets [111]. The incidence of white striping was evaluated under commercial conditions, and the overall incidence in broiler breast meat was 12.0%, of which 3.1% had severe striping [113]. It is possible that the intense selection for rapid growth rate in birds could have accidentally been accompanied by the selection for inadequate capillary/fascial growth or muscle fiber defects leading to myopathic changes referred to as growth-induced myopathy [13], under which these three different myopathies can be classified.
The precise etiology of white striping has not been defined yet [114]; however, several speculations have been reported. In turkeys, Wilson et al. [80] reported that rapid growth rate may have led to the limited ability of muscle support systems leading to a condition called focal myopathy, which affected the major pectoral muscle.
Ischemia could also result from a rapid growth rate and lead to muscular damage in turkeys [115]. It is also possible that reduced oxygen supply to breast muscle resulted from lower capillary density in fast-growing chickens [116]. A higher growth rate could also lead to defective cation regulation in muscles leading to an increased sodium, potassium, magnesium, and calcium in muscle tissue [117]. An increased level of calcium in muscle tissue could initiate several tissue changes, including the activation of intracellular proteases or lipases resulting in myopathic changes [13, 118, 119, 120]. Kuttappan et al. [114] reported that breast fillets showing severe white striping had reduced protein content and myopathic lesions, while Petracci et al. [113] observed poor cohesion beneath the striation area.
Poultry producers started noticing and complaining about woody breast in the late 1990s [12, 121]. The woody breast muscle is usually characterized by increased firmness in all or parts of the pectoralis major muscle that can start in the live birds and can be detected by palpating the breast muscle. Sihvo et al. [121] reported that woody breast might result from fibrosis, which leads to an accumulation of interstitial connective tissue. This myopathy affects consumer acceptability and meat quality; even when trying to mitigate by diverting to further processed poultry products, woody breast meat is still required to be mixed with normal meat to maintain the quality of the further processed product [122, 123].
Spaghetti meat, or previously known as mushy breast, is the most recent emerging myopathy of breast meat in poultry. As the name implies, the breast muscle loses its structure and firmness. One distinct feature the spaghetti meat has that would differentiate it from white striping and woody breast is the loss of endomysial and perimysial connective tissue that compromises the fiber bundles cohesion, coupled with a loose connective tissue deposition [124] leading to the separation of the fascicles into “spaghetti” strings.
Sanden et al. [23] investigated the collagen of muscles with either woody breast or spaghetti meat abnormalities. They showed that collagen in woody breast muscle was a mix of thin and thick fibers, whereas spaghetti meat had thinner, fewer, and shorter. However, both myopathies generally resulted in a higher content in connective tissue (mainly in perimysium) compared to normal muscle.
Several researchers have investigated these myopathies to understand their etiology and effect on meat products quality [114, 121, 124, 125]. It is believed that cellular stress and hypoxia (ischemia) caused by muscle hypertrophy are the main triggering factors behind white striping and woody breast, in addition to being strapped within a relatively rigid connective tissue that limits the hypertrophy capabilities. However, what is interesting is that spaghetti meat, where the opposite issue is faced concerning connective tissue, started appearing. It is possible that geneticist, while trying to reduce the rigidness of the connective tissue, led to the emergence of the most recent abnormality of spaghetti meat, which is worth investigating in the future with poultry strain companies.
Researchers have investigated multiple factors that may have either contributed or helped in eliminating the emerging myopathies starting at different incubation conditions [126] all the way to management during growing [127, 128] and nutritional manipulations [129, 130, 131, 132, 133].
Several white muscle defects and myopathy have been reported. According to the literature, these problems spiked in the 1970s and 2000s concurrent with increased feed prices. It was suggested that producers were driven to use less expensive feed and use alternative feed ingredients (e.g., DDGS) to control costs. One significant consequence of feeding less expensive feed was that the essential amino acids (e.g., lysine and methionine) became a primary concern when formulating these diets, while the nonessential amino acids (e.g., arginine, glycine, and proline) were neglected despite their essential role in connective tissue formation, which may have contributed to the emerging of muscle defects as genetics for enhanced growth and muscle accretion were improved even further.
The spectacular advancements in genetics witnessed by the broiler industry have resulted in broilers with a higher growth rate, while the role of nutrition has become even more critical in supporting the increased growth demands of what may have become a relatively fragile animal. Profit-driven decisions about formulating feed in a least-cost manner while neglecting the essentiality of nonessential amino acids in nutrition would eventually be evidenced by increased condemnation at the processing plant and increased consumer complaints.
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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\\n\\nYour manuscript will be sent to Straive, a leader in content solution services, for language copyediting. You will then receive a typeset proof formatted in XML and available online in HTML and PDF to proofread and check for completeness. The first typeset proof of your manuscript is usually available 10 days after its original submission.
\\n\\nAfter we receive your proof corrections and a final typeset of the manuscript is approved, your manuscript is sent to our in house DTP department for technical formatting and online publication preparation.
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\\n\\nIntechOpen will help you complete your payment safely and securely, keeping your personal, professional and financial information safe.
\\n\\n7. ONLINE PUBLICATION, PRINT AND DELIVERY OF THE BOOK
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