Calculated parameters of the dam material.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5834",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Role of Neutrophils in Disease Pathogenesis",title:"Role of Neutrophils in Disease Pathogenesis",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book highlights the important role of neutrophils in health as well as in the pathogenesis of various diseases. Section 1 provides a general background information regarding the mechanisms and various triggers of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) formation and their role in various infectious and noninfectious diseases (such as postinjury inflammation). Section 2 provides recent evidence regarding the role of neutrophils in the pathogenesis as well as a therapeutic target for selected disease conditions such as periodontal diseases, rheumatoid arthritis, and cystic fibrosis. Section 3 describes the anti-inflammatory properties of neutrophils with focus regarding their role in graft versus host disease. This book provides a wider picture with regard to the importance of this immune cell type in various diseases with focus on one of its recently discovered properties, NETs. Therapeutic targets aimed to modulate neutrophil functions might provide novel approaches in the treatment of various diseases of infectious and noninfectious origin.",isbn:"978-953-51-3196-0",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3195-3",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4800-5",doi:"10.5772/65581",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"role-of-neutrophils-in-disease-pathogenesis",numberOfPages:180,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"a626ce289341f74b7e3bba3bbcfb2aea",bookSignature:"Maitham Abbas Khajah",publishedDate:"June 7th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5834.jpg",numberOfDownloads:13704,numberOfWosCitations:24,numberOfCrossrefCitations:21,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:31,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:76,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 10th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 31st 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 27th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 27th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 26th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Kuwait"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1029",title:"Hemorheology",slug:"hemorheology"}],chapters:[{id:"54970",title:"Neutrophil Extracellular Traps in Infectious Human Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68443",slug:"neutrophil-extracellular-traps-in-infectious-human-diseases",totalDownloads:2007,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Neutrophils, as the main cells of the first line of host defense against microbial pathogens, are responsible for pathogen recognition, inhibition of pathogen spreading into the host tissue, and finally, killing the invader cells. Neutrophils carry out these functions via numerous mechanisms, including a relatively recently described activity based on a release of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), a process called netosis. NETs are structures composed of DNA backbone, decorated with antimicrobial factors, derived from neutrophil granules. The structure of NETs and their enzymatic and microbicidal inclusions enable efficient trapping and killing of microorganisms within the neutrophil extracellular space. However, the efficiency of NETs depends on neutrophil ability to recognize pathogen signals and to trigger rapid responses. In this chapter, we focus on possible pathways involved in the release of NETs and summarize the current knowledge on triggers of this process during bacterial, fungal, protozoan, and viral infections. We also consider the mechanisms used by microorganisms to evade NET-killing activity and analyze the harmful potential of NETs against the host cells and the contribution of NETs to noninfectious human diseases.",signatures:"Marcin Zawrotniak, Andrzej Kozik and Maria Rapala‐Kozik",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54970",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54970",authors:[{id:"198701",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Maria",surname:"Rapala-Kozik",slug:"maria-rapala-kozik",fullName:"Maria Rapala-Kozik"},{id:"200044",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcin",surname:"Zawrotniak",slug:"marcin-zawrotniak",fullName:"Marcin Zawrotniak"},{id:"200045",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrzej",surname:"Kozik",slug:"andrzej-kozik",fullName:"Andrzej Kozik"}],corrections:null},{id:"55192",title:"Beneficial and Deleterious Effects of Neutrophil Extracellular Traps on Infection",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68634",slug:"beneficial-and-deleterious-effects-of-neutrophil-extracellular-traps-on-infection",totalDownloads:1521,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) are the most abundant leukocytes in the blood and are considered as the first line of innate immune defence against infectious diseases. However, PMN cells have a crucial function in both innate and adaptive immune responses. Neutrophils have several mechanisms to control pathogens, and one of them is their capability to form neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) that may control infection. NETs have the capacity to trap microorganisms, kill them, or avoid their dissemination. The aim of this chapter is to provide a comprehensive review on NETs, the cells that produce them, and some of the mechanisms involved in their formation, their role in the immune response, and the pros and cons of NETs, focusing mainly on infectious diseases.",signatures:"Maximina B. Moreno-Altamirano, Christian E. Cruz-Gómez and\nLluvia E. López-Luis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55192",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55192",authors:[{id:"197287",title:"D.Sc.",name:"MMaximinaBertha",surname:"Moreno-Altamirano",slug:"mmaximinabertha-moreno-altamirano",fullName:"MMaximinaBertha Moreno-Altamirano"},{id:"206922",title:"Mr.",name:"Christian Eduardo",surname:"Cruz-Gómez",slug:"christian-eduardo-cruz-gomez",fullName:"Christian Eduardo Cruz-Gómez"},{id:"206923",title:"Ms.",name:"Lluvia E",surname:"López-Luis",slug:"lluvia-e-lopez-luis",fullName:"Lluvia E López-Luis"}],corrections:null},{id:"55371",title:"The Role of Neutrophil Extracellular Traps in Post‐Injury Inflammation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68906",slug:"the-role-of-neutrophil-extracellular-traps-in-post-injury-inflammation",totalDownloads:1638,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Polymorphonuclear (neutrophil) granulocytes (PMNs) are an essential part of the innate immune responses and key instigators and effectors of the underlying pathological mechanisms (endothelial damage, interstitial histolysis, cytokine production, phagocytosis) leading to post-injury inflammation and secondary tissue injury. In 2004, the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) was identified as an additional defence mechanism of PMN against microbes. The understanding of complex regulation of neutrophil functions and NET formation is essential for differentiating between healthy and pathological inflammatory response, which frequently determines if patient recovers uneventfully or develops catastrophic complications. Recent discoveries have revealed the potential role of NETs in the pathogenesis of a wide range of non-infectious diseases, including post-injury sterile inflammation. In such conditions, both spontaneous NET formation and impaired NETosis are documented. In this chapter, we review the evidence for the role of NETs in post-injury inflammation, the key molecular and cellular participants in pathological NET formation, the clinical relevance of NETs in post-injury complications and the therapeutic potential of NET inhibition/clearance.",signatures:"Eszter Tuboly, Gabrielle D. Briggs and Zsolt J. Balogh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55371",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55371",authors:[{id:"26682",title:"Prof.",name:"Zsolt",surname:"Balogh",slug:"zsolt-balogh",fullName:"Zsolt Balogh"},{id:"205370",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Gabrielle",surname:"Briggs",slug:"gabrielle-briggs",fullName:"Gabrielle Briggs"}],corrections:null},{id:"54543",title:"Neutrophil Role in Periodontal Disease",doi:"10.5772/67789",slug:"neutrophil-role-in-periodontal-disease",totalDownloads:2998,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Oral tissues are constantly exposed to damage from the mechanical effort of eating and from the invasion of foreign microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, and virus. In healthy oral tissues, there is a balance between symbiotic bacteria and cells from the innate immune system, mainly neutrophils. When this balance is broken, inflammation appears and more immune cells are recruited to the gingiva. Neutrophils form a barrier against dysbiotic bacteria. However, when neutrophils are insufficient, bacteria thrive causing periodontitis, a chronic inflammatory disease that destroys the tooth‐supporting tissues or periodontium. Damage of periodontal tissues leads to tooth loss, and in severe cases, it can also affect systemic health by increasing a person's risk for atherosclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes, and even cancer. The mechanisms neutrophil employ to keep a balance with bacteria in order to maintain healthy oral tissues is the focus of this chapter. We discuss how neutrophil antimicrobial functions keep bacteria at check and how some dysbiotic bacteria block neutrophils to promote an inflammatory state. Also, novel therapeutic approaches for periodontitis are discussed.",signatures:"Carlos Rosales and Eileen Uribe‐Querol",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54543",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54543",authors:[{id:"192432",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Rosales",slug:"carlos-rosales",fullName:"Carlos Rosales"},{id:"198687",title:"Dr.",name:"Eileen",surname:"Uribe-Querol",slug:"eileen-uribe-querol",fullName:"Eileen Uribe-Querol"}],corrections:null},{id:"55356",title:"Neutrophils in Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Target for Discovering New Therapies Based on Natural Products",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68617",slug:"neutrophils-in-rheumatoid-arthritis-a-target-for-discovering-new-therapies-based-on-natural-products",totalDownloads:2044,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic autoimmune disorder with an important inflammatory component in joints. Neutrophils are the most abundant leukocytes in inflamed joints, and play an essential role in the initiation and progression of RA. Neutrophil effector mechanisms include the release of proinflammatory cytokines, reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS and RNS), and granules containing degradative enzymes, which can cause further damage to the tissue and amplify the neutrophil response. Therefore, the modulation of neutrophil migration and functions is a potential target for pharmacological intervention in arthritis. The pharmacologic treatment options for RA are diverse. The current treatments are mostly symptomatic and have side effects, high costs, and an increased risk of malignancies. Because of these limitations, there is a growing interest in the use of natural products as therapies or adjunct therapies. Herbal products have attracted considerable interest over the past decade because of their multiple beneficial effects such as their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative, and immunomodulatory properties. This chapter focuses on the role of neutrophils in the pathogenesis of arthritis and the action of substances from natural products as putative antirheumatic therapies.",signatures:"Elaine Cruz Rosas, Luana Barbosa Correa and Maria das Graças\nHenriques",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55356",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55356",authors:[{id:"64332",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Das Graças",surname:"Henriques",slug:"maria-das-gracas-henriques",fullName:"Maria Das Graças Henriques"},{id:"197932",title:"Dr.",name:"Elaine",surname:"Rosas",slug:"elaine-rosas",fullName:"Elaine Rosas"},{id:"199677",title:"MSc.",name:"Luana",surname:"Correa",slug:"luana-correa",fullName:"Luana Correa"}],corrections:null},{id:"54594",title:"Role of Neutrophils in Cystic Fibrosis Lung Disease",doi:"10.5772/67798",slug:"role-of-neutrophils-in-cystic-fibrosis-lung-disease",totalDownloads:1665,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a genetic syndrome caused by mutations in the CF Transmembrane Conductance Regulator (CFTR) gene. In CF patients, chief morbidity and mortality are due to pulmonary manifestations. CFTR lack/dysfunction brings an altered ion flux through the airway epithelium and ablation of mucociliary clearance, which in turn ensues in colonization and infection by opportunistic bacterial pathogens and subsequent neutrophil‐dominated inflammation. This response eventually leads to the damage of the lung tissue. A host of inflammatory mediators attract, activate, and reprogramme neutrophils to survive (avoiding apoptosis) and produce a wealth of proteases and radical oxygen species. The protease/antiprotease imbalance and oxidative stress have multiple downstream effects, including impaired mucus clearance, increased and self‐perpetuating inflammation, and impaired immune responses, thus facilitating and fostering bacterial infections. On the other hand, CFTR lack or dysfunction is likely responsible for alterations in neutrophils concerning chemotaxis, phagocytosis, oxidative burst, degranulation, and neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) formation. A good opportunity to reveal new and non‐invasive biomarkers of CF lung disease is the evaluation of circulating neutrophils. Indeed, neutrophil responses are now investigated as outcomes of the aetiological therapies in CF, such as hypertonic saline, antiproteases, CFTR correctors and potentiators.",signatures:"Massimo Conese, Stefano Castellani, Susanna D’Oria, Sante Di Gioia\nand Pasqualina Montemurro",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54594",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54594",authors:[{id:"198848",title:"Prof.",name:"Massimo",surname:"Conese",slug:"massimo-conese",fullName:"Massimo Conese"},{id:"199817",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefano",surname:"Castellani",slug:"stefano-castellani",fullName:"Stefano Castellani"},{id:"199818",title:"Dr.",name:"Susanna",surname:"D'Oria",slug:"susanna-d'oria",fullName:"Susanna D'Oria"},{id:"199819",title:"Prof.",name:"Sante",surname:"Di Gioia",slug:"sante-di-gioia",fullName:"Sante Di Gioia"},{id:"199820",title:"Prof.",name:"Pasqualina",surname:"Montemurro",slug:"pasqualina-montemurro",fullName:"Pasqualina Montemurro"}],corrections:null},{id:"54763",title:"Neutrophils Plasticity: The Regulatory Interface in Various Pathological Conditions",doi:"10.5772/68130",slug:"neutrophils-plasticity-the-regulatory-interface-in-various-pathological-conditions",totalDownloads:1836,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"It is now known that neutrophils make up a population of complex cells with great plasticity, challenging the old view of neutrophil association with tissue damage and early phases of infection. Here, we discuss different contexts in which these cells can induce anti-inflammatory responses. Although distinct surface markers and cytokines profiles were shown, the most reliable characterization of suppressor neutrophil subtypes relies on their functional characteristics. One important example of inhibitory neutrophils generation comes from in vivo treatment with G-CSF, for 5 days, as for hematopoietic-stem-cell-transplantation (HSCT). In this case,donor blood is enriched in degranulated granulocytes harboring a functional regulatory phenotype, characterized by IL-10 production. These cells, when transferred together with HSCT, are able to reduce graft-versus-host-disease, being influenced by Treg cells and influencing them back. Importantly, this protection is long lasting and specific, keeping immunocompetence to other antigens. This regulation is paramount in HSCT, and represents a simple approach to be applied in humans. In summary, we discuss the interaction of neutrophils with other cell types and its consequence in immunomodulation. 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\r\n\tApplied and basic studies - Field studies and lab assays of fungicides can be discussed. We also look for examples of application methods, which may include timing of application, tools for application, fungicide compatibility, phytotoxicity, etc. Field trials have to have at least two years of data;
\r\n\tAdaptation of Integrated Plant Disease Management - How the IPM practice has been adapted in the field. Application of disease risk models, or use of fungicide application aids, which can be hardware or software. The introduction of a new tool for growers can also be included;
\r\n\tNovel fungicides - In addition to the traditional chemical approach, alternative materials (enzymes, oils, extracts, etc.), biological control agents, or plant defense activators can be discussed;
\r\n\tAdaptation of new technologies - Examples will be the use of unmanned vehicles, sensor technologies, advanced sprayers, or disease forecast systems for precision agriculture;
\r\n\tFungicide resistance - Unfortunately, we cannot ignore the fact that fungicide-resistant strains are widespread. Documentation of fungicide-resistant strains, the introduction of new technologies and methods can be discussed.
With the rapid development of the economy and the large-scale development of water energy, the construction of reservoir dams has become an important engineering initiative to meet the needs of social and economic development. Over time, the sediment in the reservoir continues to accumulate, and the storage capacity for prosperity and flood control continues to decrease or even loses capacity completely. In addition, due to a lack of water level data and drainage area data in the original design or a lack of labor, equipment, funds, or other resources during construction, the construction of small storage capacity reservoirs cannot meet the current demand for water resources. Therefore, the construction of new water conservancy facilities or the heightening of the old dams has become an urgent problem to consider. Compared with the construction of a new dam, raising an original dam body does not require the consideration of the location of a new dam, and it can obtain a larger storage capacity at a lower economic cost. Therefore, the dam heightening scheme has attached increasing attentions from engineers [1].
Addressing the technical problems that rise during the process of heightening is becoming a top priority due to the large amount of work and the complexity of construction technology. There are different key problems in dam heightening engineering due to the dam type and heightening method. Earth-rock dams are a widely used type of dam. Due to the permeability of earth-rock materials, it is urgent to study the impact of seepage on the earth-rock dam during the heightening process [2]. For slope-type heightened and thickened concrete dams, the key issues related to dam heightening are the stress concentrations and deformation of the dam body during construction and operation, stress analysis and structural form of the interface between new and old concrete, and design of drainage and water stop [3]. Periodic changes in the temperature and changes in the temperature of the old dam after new concrete is placed will cause problems such as deterioration of the dam heel stress, cracks in the joint surface, and cracks in the downstream dam surface [4].
There are many engineering precedents for dam elevation, such as the Goscheneralp Dam and Grande Dixence Dam in Switzerland, Steenbras Dam in South Africa, Roseires Dam in Sudan, and Danjiangkou Dam and Songyue Dam in China [3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. Due to the rapid increases in the urban population of Cape Town, raising the Steenbras Dam offered an effective solution to the problem of a serious water shortage. During the course of anchoring the dam, engineers considered that post-stressing would have advantages in terms of cost and expedition. Essentially the process is one of placing vertical cables through the wall of a mass concrete dam from the crest into the foundation and stressing the cables to produce stabilizing compressive forces on the upstream face. Similar to the Steenbras Dam, the Songyue Dam also raised the dam to meet the water supply needs of Helong City. The Songyue Dam is located in a severely cold area, with an average annual temperature of 4.8°C, and the temperature changes greatly during the year. Therefore, the heightened structure needed to adapt to the characteristics of the severely cold area. The calculation research on the Songyue Dam heightening scheme shows that setting a sliding joint in the middle of the joint surface can absorb the shrinkage and deformation of a part of the newly poured concrete, which has a significant effect on improving the tensile stress of the upstream and downstream dam surfaces.
The Zhushou Reservoir is located in Sichuan Province, China, which is located in a seismically active area. The dam of Zhushou Reservoir is a clay core rock-debris dam. To meet the production and domestic water demand of nearby cities, it is necessary to expand the capacity of the Zhushou Reservoir. Under the action of gravity loads, water loads, and earthquake loads, effectively coordinating the deformation of the rockfill of the new and old dams to allow the stress and deformation of the seepage control system to be within the allowable range of the materials is a major technical difficulty to be solved. Therefore, based on the experience of previous engineering technologies, the necessary theoretical research is carried out to accurately predict the stress and deformation of the dam, especially the coordination between the deformation of the old and new dams, to improve the rationality of engineering design and to improve future engineering operations.
The Zhushou Reservoir pivotal project is located in Liangshan Prefecture, Sichuan Province, and is a medium-sized reservoir. The dam is made of a clay core rock-debris dam. Its top elevation is 2416.10 m, the dam length is 190.00 m, the top elevation of the wave-proof wall is 2417.10 m, the dam height is 63.4 m, and the width of the dam top is 6.0 m. Both the upper and lower dams are provided with rockfilled prisms. The upstream slope is protected by dry block stone, while the downstream slope is protected by a dry block stone arch ring and turf in the circle. The thickness of the dry block stone is 40 cm. The top width of the gravel soil core wall is 6.0 m, the top elevation is 2415.3 m, and the upper and lower slopes are 1:0.4.
According to the water supply project planning of the Baihetan hydropower station resettlement area, to meet the production and domestic water demand of the resettlement area, the Zhushou Reservoir should be expanded and matched to the corresponding water diversion project. The dam should be increased from 63.4 m to 98.1 m. At the same time, when the dam is heightened, the impervious body of the original dam should be strengthened [10].
The objective of dam heightening is to make use of the water-retaining capacity of the original core wall dam to produce rockfill heightening on the top and downstream slope of the old dam so that the original dam body becomes a part of the heightened dam. At the same time, a core wall and foundation anti-seepage system of the original dam is strengthened, a concrete cutoff wall is added, and the foundation anti-seepage curtain grouting is strengthened. The anti-seepage type of the heightening dam body adopts the upstream reinforced concrete-faced slab, the slope ratio of the upstream dam is 1:1.4, and the comprehensive slope of the downstream rockfill body is 1:1.6 [11]. Figures 1 and 2 show general view of the Zhushou Reservoir dam.
Plane figure of heightening of the Zhushou Reservoir dam.
Standard profile of heightening of the Zhushou Reservoir dam.
To avoid excessive deformation and cracking of the lower core wall caused by the compression of the upper high rockfill, the cutoff wall is constructed after the upper rockfill body is filled and settled for 3 months. The concrete connecting plate between the cutoff wall and the toe slab shall be constructed after the toe slab and the face plate are completed.
The overall construction procedure is as follows: old dam filling → new dam filling to 2447.90 m → core wall reinforcement and cutoff wall construction → toe slab construction → panel construction → connecting plate construction → new dam filling to 2451 m. The water level remains at 2395.0 m during the construction period. The construction period of dam heightening is 31 months, which are as follows:
From September of the first year to February of the second year, the construction period of the old dam filling is 6 months.
From March of the second year to November of the second year, the construction period of the new dam filling to an elevation of 2447.9 m is 9 months.
From December of the second year to May of the third year, the construction period of core wall reinforcement and cutoff wall construction is 6 months.
During June of the third year, the construction period of toe slab is 1 month.
From July of the third year to August of the third year, the construction period of concrete panel and wave wall construction is 2 months.
From September of the third year to November of the third year, the construction period of connecting plate construction is 3 months.
From December of the third year to July of the fourth year, the construction period of new dam filling to 2451 m is 4 months.
Figure 3 shows a finite element mesh diagram of a typical riverbed section, Figure 4 shows a three-dimensional finite element mesh diagram, and Figure 5 shows an anti-seepage system (core wall, connecting plate, toe slab and panel) meshing diagram, where the X forward direction is defined as from the left bank to the right bank, the Y forward direction is defined as upstream to downstream, and the Z forward direction is defined as the opposite direction of gravity. The three-dimensional solid element adopts an 8-node hexahedral isoparametric element and a 4-node tetrahedral isoparametric element, and the latter is treated as a degenerated hexahedral element. There are 29,905 generating units and 33,482 nodes in total.
Finite element mesh diagram of a typical riverbed section.
Three-dimensional finite element mesh diagram.
Anti-seepage system meshing diagram.
According to the above construction and water storage process, the order of the filling and storage simulation in the finite element calculation is as follows: old dam filling → new dam filling to 2447.90 m (the water level remained at 2395.0 m) → cutoff wall construction → toe slab construction → panel construction → connecting plate construction → new dam filling to 2451 m → upstream water storage to a normal water level elevation of 2444 m. There are 70 stages for simulation, including 42 stages for dam filling and 38 stages for water storage. Figure 6 shows the simulation diagram of the Zhushou Reservoir construction and water storage process. Figure 7 shows the water level-time curve of the Zhushou Reservoir during the construction and water storage process.
The Zhushou reservoir construction and water storage process simulation diagram.
The Zhushou reservoir water level-time curve during the construction and water storage process.
As the main body of the concrete-faced rockfill dam, reasonable simulation of its stress–strain relationship is very important to improve the rationality of the calculation results of the stress and deformation of the concrete-faced rockfill dam. In this project, the constitutive model of rockfill material is based on the Shen Zhujiang double-yield surface elastic-plastic model proposed by Shen Zhujiang. Compared with the nonlinear elastic model, the model can consider the dilatancy and shear-shrinkage characteristics of rockfill bodies and can more accurately reflect the stress-strain characteristics of dam bodies than other models.
In the Shen Zhujiang double-yield surface elastic-plastic model, the two-yield surfaces are only regarded as the boundary of elastic region and are no longer related to hardening parameters. The double-yield surface is used to establish the unloading criterion, make the elastic-plastic matrix symmetrical, and specify the direction of plastic strain. As shown in Figure 8, due to the double-yield surface, not only the loading direction B will produce plastic strain, but also the loading directions A and C will produce plastic strain.
Double hardening model.
The two-yield surfaces of the Shen Zhujiang double-yield surface elastic-plastic model are
where
where
The model adopts the normal flow rule, so the plastic potential surface is orthogonal to the direction of the plastic strain increase and
Tangent Young’s modulus is defined as
where
In the formula, the elastic Poisson’s ratio
where
However, the expression of
where
The Shen Zhujiang elastic-plastic model has eight model parameters, which are
The Shen Zhujiang elastic-plastic model can also be calculated by the parameters of the model Duncan
The tangent Poisson’s ratio
For unloading, the modulus of resilience is calculated as follows:
where
The loading and unloading criteria of the Shen Zhujiang elastic-plastic model are as follows:
If
If
If
For coarse-grained materials,
where
The linear elastic model is used for concrete materials, and the stress–strain relationship conforms to the following generalized Hooke’s law:
where
At present, the Goodman thickness-free elements and Desai thin-layer elements are commonly used. Because the interface is a kind of interface without a thickness, it is more suitable to use the Goodman element without a thickness to theoretically simulate the interface. However, in fact, a Goodman element without a thickness must obtain a large normal stiffness to avoid overlap. In addition, shear dislocation does not necessarily occur on the interface and may penetrate into the soil at a certain distance. Desai thin-layer elements reflect normal deformation to a certain extent, but the choice of the thickness of thin-layer elements has a great influence on the calculation results. A large element thickness will introduce errors in the physics, and a small element thickness will introduce errors in the mathematics. Desai suggests that the ratio of the thickness
For the constitutive model of the contact surface, the hyperbolic model and ideal elastic-plastic model of the relationship between the shear stress and relative displacement proposed by Clough and Duncan are most commonly used. The results show that the shear stress on the interface between the soil and structure is not uniform, the shear deformation is actually a rigid-plastic deformation, and the contact friction model can be well simulated.
Before the shear stress
The deformation on the contact surface can be divided into two parts: basic deformation and failure deformation. The basic deformation is similar to the deformation calculation model of other soils, expressed as
There are two forms of failure and deformation of the elements: tension cracking and slip. The rigid-plastic model is used to calculate the relative shear deformation of the element. There is no relative slip on the contact surface before failure, and after failure, the relative slip will continue to develop.
For the three-dimensional thin-layer contact surface element, the Y direction is the normal direction of the contact surface:
If the contact surface is under tension,
The value of
The flexibility matrix
The dam uses C25 concrete and C30 concrete. The unit weight, elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio of C25 and C30 concrete are 2.5 t/m3, 2.8 × 104 N/mm2, and 0.167 and 2.5 t/m3, 3.0 × 104 N/mm2, and 0.167, respectively.
The lithology of the newly filled rockfill material in the Zhushou Reservoir is the Ordovician Hongshiya Formation (O1h) quartz sandstone, fine sandstone with silty mudstone, and Qiaojia Formation (O2q) gray thin-to-medium thick sandstone, dolomite, and limestone. According to design filling standards and field testing data, the triaxial CD test had been carried out on rockfill materials of the heightening dam and the filling materials of the old dam body. The calculated parameters determined by the test are shown in Table 1.
Material name | Δ | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Old dam | Gravel clay core wall | 1.84 | 56.9 | 29.3 | 0 | 164.4 | 0.46 | 0.69 | 3.68 | 0.1 | 0.3 |
Stone slag in the upper part of the dam hell (elevation above 2390 m) | 2.04 | 0 | 41.8 | 9.1 | 318.8 | 0.46 | 0.79 | 2.78 | 0.04 | 0.35 | |
Stone slag in the lower part of the dam shell (elevation above 2390 m) | 2.12 | 0 | 44.9 | 9.1 | 431.3 | 0.38 | 0.72 | 3.3 | 0.09 | 0.37 | |
Rockfill | 2.14 | 0 | 47.7 | 10.1 | 811 | 0.31 | 0.54 | 10.4 | 0.12 | 0.4 | |
New dam | Cushion zone | 2.2 | 0 | 58.8 | 10.9 | 1245.6 | 0.35 | 0.60 | 10.4 | 0.12 | 0.4 |
Transition region | 2.17 | 0 | 59.5 | 13.3 | 1405.4 | 0.29 | 0.65 | 10.1 | 0.15 | 0.39 | |
Main rockfill area | 2.16 | 0 | 59.4 | 13.6 | 1301.5 | 0.27 | 0.60 | 9.3 | 0.15 | 0.39 | |
Secondary rockfill area | 2.14 | 0 | 56.1 | 11.9 | 954.1 | 0.37 | 0.63 | 9.5 | 0.13 | 0.36 |
Calculated parameters of the dam material.
Considering the stress and deformation of the new dam after filling and storage period and influence of the stress and deformation of the new dam on the old dam, Table 2 lists the characteristic values of the stress and deformation of the dam body.
Statistical items | Dam body | ||
---|---|---|---|
Completion period | Storage period | ||
Displacement along the river (cm) | Downstream | −18.2 | −10.2 |
Upstream | 6.9 | 9.25 | |
Settlement (cm) | 47.5 | 48.8 | |
Major principal stress (MPa) | 2.13 | 2.14 | |
Minor principal stress (MPa) | 1.21 | 1.23 |
Characteristic values of stress and deformation of the dam body.
Figures 9 and 10 show the contour of the displacements of the dam body during the completion period and the storage period. The simulation results show that the maximum horizontal displacement occurs in the dam body of the old dam and the maximum settlement occurs at the interface between the old and new dams. During the completion period, the maximum settlement of the dam is 47.5 cm, and the horizontal displacement to the upstream and downstream is 18.2 cm and 6.90 cm, respectively. After the water storage, the maximum deformation of the dam body under upstream water load was reduced to 10.2 cm, while the horizontal displacement towards the downstream was increased to 9.25 cm, and the maximum settlement was increased to 48.8 cm.
Contour of the displacements of the dam body during the completion period (cm). (a) Displacement along the river and (b) settlement.
Contour of the displacements of the dam body during the storage period (cm). (a) Displacement along the river and (b) settlement.
The results of principal stress calculation show that due to the large modulus of cutoff wall and pile foundation, significant stress concentration has occurred in the dam.
Table 3 lists the characteristic values of the stress and deformation of the cutoff wall.
Statistical items | Cutoff wall | ||
---|---|---|---|
Completion period | Storage period | ||
Dam axial displacement (cm) | Left side bank | / | −0.11 |
Right side bank | / | 0.12 | |
Displacement along the river (cm) | Downstream | / | 10.6 |
Settlement (cm) | / | 0.48 | |
Dam axial stress (MPa) | Tensile stress | −0.21 | −2.53 |
Compressive stress | 1.18 | 3.21 | |
Major principal compressive stress (MPa) | 2.25 | 12.0 | |
Minor principal tensile stress (MPa) | −0.23 | −1.74 |
Characteristic values of stress and deformation of the cutoff wall.
Since the cutoff wall is constructed after the new dam is filled to 2447.9 m, the deformation of the cutoff wall will not occur during the completion period, so only the deformation distribution during the storage period is given. Figure 11 shows contour of the displacement of the cutoff wall during the storage period. The axial displacement of the dam is represented by the compression from both sides towards the riverbed, and the deformation in the direction of the right bank and the left bank is 0.12 cm and 0.11 cm, respectively. The axial displacement of the dam is generally small. For the displacement along the river, the water load shows a deformation towards the downstream, and the maximum value is 10.6 cm. Because the upper part of the impervious wall is filled with rockfill and supported by the connecting plate, the deformation along the river of the impervious wall increases first and then decreases slightly from the bottom to the top. For the vertical displacement, the maximum value is 0.48 cm, which increases gradually from the bottom to top under the action of the upper water load.
Contour of the displacements of the cutoff wall during the storage period (cm). (a) Dam axial direction, (b) displacement along the river and (c) settlement.
Figure 12 shows the contour of the dam axial stresses on the downstream and upstream sides of the cutoff wall during the completion period. Figure 13 shows the contour of the dam axial stresses on the downstream and upstream sides of the cutoff wall during the storage period. Because the cutoff wall will be built after the new dam is basically completed, the stress difference between the upstream and downstream faces of the completion period is small, the stress of the cutoff wall is mainly caused by the self-weight, and the tensile and compressive stresses are small. During the storage period, the axial stress of the dam corresponds to the deformation direction. After storage, the upstream face is in tension at both ends of the middle compression zone, while the downstream face is basically in compression, but the pressure stress at both sides is significantly greater than that at the riverbed. The maximum value of the tensile and compressive stress is −2.53 MPa and 3.21 MPa, respectively. For the major principal stress, the downstream stress is greater than the upstream stress because the deformation is oriented downstream during the storage period. At the same time, due to the relatively small height of the wall near the bank slope and the influence of the boundary constraints, the local stress near the bank slope is concentrated, so the stress at the bank slope on both banks is large, and the maximum pressure stress is 12.0 MPa. For the minor principal stress, the upstream and downstream faces are all in compression at the middle part and tension at both sides. The maximum tensile stress is −1.74 MPa.
Contour of the dam axial stresses on the downstream and upstream sides of the cutoff wall during the completion period (MPa). (a) Downstream side and (b) upstream side.
Considering the ultimate compressive strain of 700 με and ultimate tensile strain of 100 με, the allowable compressive strength and tensile strength of C25 concrete are 19.6 MPa and −2.8 MPa, respectively. From the above calculation results, the tensile and compressive stresses of the cutoff wall are all within the allowable range for C25 plain concrete (Figure 13).
Contour of the dam axial stresses on the downstream and upstream surface of the cutoff wall during the storage period (MPa). (a) Downstream side and (b) upstream side.
Table 4 lists the characteristic values of the stress and deformation of the connecting plate and toe slab during the storage period.
Statistical items | Storage period | ||
---|---|---|---|
Connecting plate and toe slab | Dam axial displacement (cm) | Left side bank | −0.71 |
Right side bank | 0.89 | ||
Displacement along the river (cm) | Upstream | / | |
Downstream | 5.36 | ||
Settlement (cm) | 5.63 | ||
Connecting plate | Dam axial stress (MPa) | Tensile stress | −1.81 |
Compressive stress | 0.56 | ||
Major principal stress (MPa) | Compressive stress | 0.86 | |
Minor principal stress (MPa) | Tensile stress | −1.82 | |
Compressive stress | 0.32 | ||
Toe slab | Dam axial stress (MPa) | Tensile stress | −4.78 |
Compressive stress | 1.53 | ||
Major principal stress (MPa) | Compressive stress | 6.33 | |
Minor principal stress (MPa) | Tensile stress | −4.80 | |
Compressive stress | 0.90 |
The characteristic values of the stress and deformation of the connecting plate and toe slab during the storage period.
Figure 14 shows the contour of the deformation of the connecting plate and toe slab during the storage period. For the axial displacement of the dam, the water displacement is represented by the compression from both sides of the riverbed. The axial displacement of the dam is generally small. The maximum displacements of the left and right banks after water storage are 0.71 cm and 0.89 cm, respectively, which occur in the 0 + 209 and 0 + 65 sections. The displacement of the river is characterized by a downward-directed deformation under the water load during the storage period, with a maximum value of 5.36 cm, which occurs in the 0 + 125 section of the riverbed. For the vertical displacement, the maximum value is 5.63 cm during the storage period, which also occurs at the 0 + 125 section of the riverbed. It can also be seen from Figure 14 that due to the deformation joint between the connecting plate and the toe slab, the connection between the toe slab and the connecting plate is staggered, but the magnitude is small, and the setting of the toe slab length is appropriate.
Contour of the deformation of the connecting plate and toe slab during the storage period (cm). (a) Dam axial displacement, (b) displacement along the river and (c) settlement.
Figure 15 shows the contour of the dam axial stresses of the connecting plate and toe slab during the storage period. Under the action of water loading, the deformation of the connecting plate is constrained by the toe slab, and the deformation of the toe slab is constrained by the face slab, so the stress of the toe slab is greater than that of the connecting plate. The dam axial stress, corresponding to the deformation direction, is mainly manifested as tension at both ends and compression in the middle, and the downstream compressive stress is greater than the upstream compressive stress. After the storage period, the maximum tensile compressive stress is −4.78 MPa and 1.53 MPa, respectively, which occurs at the right end of the toe slab and in the 0 + 95 section of the riverbed.
Contour of the dam axial stresses of the connecting plate and toe slab during the storage period (MPa).
Considering the ultimate compressive strain of 700 με and ultimate tensile strain of 100 με for C30 concrete, the allowable compressive strength and tensile strength are 27.3 MPa and −3.9 MPa, respectively. It can be seen from the above calculation results that the compressive stress and tensile stress of the connecting plate and toe slab are within the allowable range for C30 plain concrete, but the maximum tensile stress of the toe plate exceeds the allowable value of C30 plain concrete, and the exceeding area is mainly located in the local area at the junction of the toe slab and the bank slope, which could be resolved by adding reinforcement.
The Zhushou Reservoir was transformed from a clay core rock-debris dam to a concrete-faced rockfill dam, with the maximum dam height increasing from 63.4 m to 98.1 m. The three-dimensional finite element method was used to simulate the operation process of construction filling and the storage period, and the conclusions are discussed as follows:
The simulation results show that the maximum horizontal displacement occurs in the dam body of the old dam, and the maximum settlement occurs at the interface between the old and new dams. Due to the large modulus of cutoff wall and pile foundation, significant stress concentration has occurred in the dam.
During the storage period, the maximum axial tensile and compressive stresses of the cutoff wall are −2.53 MPa and 3.21 MPa, respectively, and the maximum major and minor principal stresses are 12.0 MPa and −1.74 MPa, respectively. The tensile and compressive stresses are all within the allowable range for C25 plain concrete, and the cutoff wall will not be damaged under static conditions.
During the storage period, the maximum axial tensile and compressive stresses of the toe slab (connecting plate) dam are −4.78 MPa and 1.53 MPa, respectively, and the maximum major and minor principal stresses are 6.33 MPa and −4.80 MPa, respectively. The compressive stress of toe slab and connecting plate and the tensile stress of connecting plate are all within the allowable range for C30 plain concrete, but the tensile stress of the local area at the junction of toe slab and bank slope has exceeded the allowable value for C30 plain concrete, so the reinforcement should be strengthened at this location.
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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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(Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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