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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10579",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Forensic Analysis - Scientific and Medical Techniques and Evidence under the Microscope",title:"Forensic Analysis",subtitle:"Scientific and Medical Techniques and Evidence under the Microscope",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Forensic Analysis - Scientific and Medical Techniques and Evidence under the Microscope is an edited collection with contributions from scholars in ten countries, containing cutting-edge analyses of diverse aspects of contemporary forensic science and forensic medicine. It spans forensic gait analysis evidence, forensic analysis in wildlife investigations, mitochondrial blood-typing, DNA profiling, probabilistic genotyping, toolmark analysis, forensic osteology, obstetric markers as a diagnostic tool, salivary analysis, pharmacogenetics, and forensic analysis of herbal drugs. This book provides information about the parameters of expertise in relation to a number of areas that are being utilised as a part of criminal investigations and that are coming before courts internationally or will soon do so. Thereby, it is hoped that rigor in the evaluation of such evidence will be enhanced, a fillip for developing standards will be provided, and the incidence of miscarriages of criminal justice will be minimised.",isbn:"978-1-83968-951-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-950-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-952-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92955",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"forensic-analysis-scientific-and-medical-techniques-and-evidence-under-the-microscope",numberOfPages:210,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"54012b7d1952b634ff1bf86b8ce4a771",bookSignature:"Ian Freckelton",publishedDate:"September 22nd 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10579.jpg",numberOfDownloads:2766,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:1,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 30th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 28th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 27th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 17th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 16th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"29183",title:"Prof.",name:"Ian",middleName:"Richard",surname:"Freckelton",slug:"ian-freckelton",fullName:"Ian Freckelton",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/29183/images/system/29183.jpg",biography:"Ian Freckelton is an Australian Queen’s Counsel (a senior trial barrister) and a judge of the Supreme Court of Nauru. He is a Professor of Law and Psychiatry at the University of Melbourne, Australia, Adjunct Professor of Forensic Medicine at Monash University, and Adjunct Professor at Johns Hopkins University, USA. He holds an Order of Australia (AO) for his contributions to law, medicine and technology and is the editor of the Journal of Law and Medicine and the founding editor of Psychiatry, Psychology and Law. He is an internationally acknowledged authority on expert evidence, forensic science and forensic medicine. He is the author of more than 700 articles and book chapters, and more than 50 books, including Expert Evidence: Law, Practice Procedure & Advocacy, Expert Evidence and the Criminal Jury Trial, and the seven-volume work, Expert Evidence.",institutionString:"University of Melbourne",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Melbourne",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1019",title:"Forensic Science",slug:"forensic-science"}],chapters:[{id:"78267",title:"Guarding the Gait: Evaluating Forensic Gait Analysis Evidence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99491",slug:"guarding-the-gait-evaluating-forensic-gait-analysis-evidence",totalDownloads:160,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Novel scientific evidence challenges courts in terms of how they can evaluate reliability for the purposes of making admissibility decisions and assigning probative value to information that is adduced before them. An example of such problematic evidence is forensic gait analysis evidence which is in its infancy as a discipline of forensic science. This chapter reviews how objections to forensic gait analysis evidence have been handled in judicial decisions at first instance and on appeal in Canada, the United Kingdom and Australia. It identifies vulnerabilities in such evidence, especially when jurors are required to incorporate expert opinions (often from podiatrists) about the similarities in gait between that of the accused and a person seen on CCTV footage. The chapter expresses concern about the current scientific basis for such evidence in the absence of well developed databases in relation to gait characteristics, difficulties that characterise interpretation of CCTV footage, and the role that subjective issues can play in analyses by experts in gait interpretation. It notes a United Kingdom initiative in formulating a code of practice for forensic gait analysts but calls for caution in relation to reception and weight to be attached to such evidence until its scientific status becomes more developed.",signatures:"Ian Freckelton",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78267",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78267",authors:[{id:"29183",title:"Prof.",name:"Ian",surname:"Freckelton",slug:"ian-freckelton",fullName:"Ian Freckelton"}],corrections:null},{id:"76913",title:"Mitochondrial 16S rRNA Gene-Dependent Blood Typing as a Forensic Tool",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98248",slug:"mitochondrial-16s-rrna-gene-dependent-blood-typing-as-a-forensic-tool",totalDownloads:200,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Mitochondrial DNA is an important tool for human identification and is used to differentiate between human and animal blood at the crime scene, because in extreme conditions nuclear DNA is severely destroyed while Mitochondrial DNA contains multiple copies (200–2000) per cell and resists harsh and more stable conditions. Seventy-two blood samples were collected from humans (Homo sapiens), sheep (Ovis aries), goats (Capra hircus), and cows (Bos taurus) (18 blood samples for each). All blood samples were withdrawn by a technician and 5 ml were aspirated using an aseptic technique and transferred to EDTA-Na2 tubes. They were mixed well and stored in a refrigerator. The collection took 2 weeks (May 15, 2019–May 30, 2019). All samples were collected from Al-Diwanyia city. The results of PCR testing revealed that the primer pairs were specific and non-specific products did not appear for all samples. The amplification of Homo sapiens mitochondrial DNA with primer pairs of other (Ovis aries, Capra hircus, and Bos taurus) and amplification of each with primer pairs of another genus gave negative results, and this is primary evidence for primer pair specificity. The amplicon of 16S rRNA gene of Homo sapiens was 1200 bp, Ovis aries was 1060 bp, Capra hircus was 820 bp, and Bos taurus was 1300 bp. The sequencing revealed that no cross-reactivity of designed primer pairs and the PCR assay based on the designed primer pairs will be simple, fast, sensitive, specific, and cost-effective. There is sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy in the designed species-specific primer pairs and applicability of the designed primer pairs in forensics to investigate blood spots or evidence belonging for human, sheep, goat, and cow.",signatures:"Hussein O.M. Al-Dahmoshi and Hayder J. Al-Nayili",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76913",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76913",authors:[{id:"250698",title:"Dr.",name:"Hussein",surname:"O. M. Al-Dahmoshi",slug:"hussein-o.-m.-al-dahmoshi",fullName:"Hussein O. M. Al-Dahmoshi"},{id:"336831",title:"Mr.",name:"Hayder J.",surname:"Al-Nayili",slug:"hayder-j.-al-nayili",fullName:"Hayder J. Al-Nayili"}],corrections:null},{id:"77090",title:"Forensic Analysis in Wildlife Crime Cases: Microscopy, DNA Profiling and Isotope Analysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98252",slug:"forensic-analysis-in-wildlife-crime-cases-microscopy-dna-profiling-and-isotope-analysis",totalDownloads:349,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Illegal wildlife trade is one of the biggest threats to the environment and biodiversity. The growing volume of illegal trade in wildlife jeopardizes all the conservation efforts across the globe. Many species have become extinct due to the illegal wildlife trade and many have reached the verge of extinction. According to some estimates, the monetary values of the illegal wildlife trade are estimated to be several billion US dollars. To deal with wildlife crime cases, it becomes imperative to have a sound knowledge of the techniques required in the analysis of wildlife crime exhibits. In this chapter, we have outlined the three frequently used techniques in wildlife forensics viz. microscopy, DNA and isotope analysis for addressing the problems of species and individual identification, and additionally identification of the geographical origin of a wildlife sample. The basic essentials of these techniques have been discussed in this chapter.",signatures:"Vivek Sahajpal, Sudhanshu Mishra and Deepika Bhandari",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77090",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77090",authors:[{id:"335642",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivek",surname:"Sahajpal",slug:"vivek-sahajpal",fullName:"Vivek Sahajpal"},{id:"346721",title:"Dr.",name:"Sudhanshu",surname:"Mishra",slug:"sudhanshu-mishra",fullName:"Sudhanshu Mishra"},{id:"346722",title:"Dr.",name:"Deepika",surname:"Bhandari",slug:"deepika-bhandari",fullName:"Deepika Bhandari"}],corrections:null},{id:"76978",title:"Reliability and Reproducibility of DNA Profiling from Degraded Samples in Forensic Genetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98300",slug:"reliability-and-reproducibility-of-dna-profiling-from-degraded-samples-in-forensic-genetics",totalDownloads:223,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Forensic DNA analysis is widely used to determine kinship and the identity of evidence from the crime scene and it is especially important in the identification of human remains after different types of exposure (water, heat, etc.). Currently, there are no official recommendations for forensic scientists as to which bones and tissues are the most reliable among degraded DNA samples. Since 2014 more than 350 fragments of unidentified corpses have been examined in the Forensic Biological Department (Republic Bureau of Forensic Medicine, Kazan, Russia). Based on our experience, the most reliable and reproducible DNA profiles are obtained from lower limber bones (in 90% cases), muscles (in 85% cases) and ribs (in 80% cases). However, we discovered a new source of DNA – the odontoid process of the 2nd cervical vertebra, which contains a high amount of DNA with a better state of preservation than many other bones. According to our results, when a complete skeleton or unidentified corpse is found, it is advisable to provide bones with soft tissue remnants in the absence of deeply embedded putrefactive changes. When working at the crime scene, special attention should be paid to separating small bones and fragments from skeletal remains.",signatures:"Elena V. Ioganson, Marat I. Timerzianov, Marina V. Perelman and Olga A. Kravtsova",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76978",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76978",authors:[{id:"337268",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",surname:"Kravtsova",slug:"olga-kravtsova",fullName:"Olga Kravtsova"},{id:"344930",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Elena",surname:"Ioganson",slug:"elena-ioganson",fullName:"Elena Ioganson"},{id:"344934",title:"MSc.",name:"Marina",surname:"Perelman",slug:"marina-perelman",fullName:"Marina Perelman"},{id:"344949",title:"Prof.",name:"Marat",surname:"Timerzianov",slug:"marat-timerzianov",fullName:"Marat Timerzianov"}],corrections:null},{id:"76998",title:"Probabilistic Genotyping: A Possible New Legal Avenue to Prevent and Redress Miscarriages of Justice",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98247",slug:"probabilistic-genotyping-a-possible-new-legal-avenue-to-prevent-and-redress-miscarriages-of-justice",totalDownloads:233,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter delves into the relatively new DNA technique of probabilistic genotyping, which aims to a more precise determination of complex DNA profiles of multiple contributors. It explains the forensic value of this methodology compared to traditional DNA techniques such as Combined Probability of Inclusion (CPI). In particular, this forensic value is demonstrated in light of the reversal of several wrongful convictions in the USA and Europe. Apart from having a potential exculpatory effect, the advance of probabilistic genotyping can also contribute to discerning the real perpetrator of a crime. As a result, this chapter emphasizes the relevance of probabilistic genotyping for both defense lawyers and prosecutors in criminal cases.",signatures:"Geert-Jan Alexander Knoops",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76998",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76998",authors:[{id:"335953",title:"Prof.",name:"Geert-Jan Alexander",surname:"Knoops",slug:"geert-jan-alexander-knoops",fullName:"Geert-Jan Alexander Knoops"}],corrections:null},{id:"77222",title:"Forensic Analysis and Interpretation of Tool Marks",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98251",slug:"forensic-analysis-and-interpretation-of-tool-marks",totalDownloads:540,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The forensic analysis and interpretation of tool marks raise for consideration key methods and advances in the field of tool marks in forensic science. This chapter shows how tool mark analysis can be utilized in the course of criminal investigations. The focus of the chapter is on bringing together as much scientific knowledge in the area as possible in an accessible manner. It covers all aspects of tool mark evidence from the crime scene to the courtroom. This chapter provides information about tool marks in an effort to assist tool mark examiners as well as people practicing forensic science, crime scene examiners, crime investigating officers and members of the legal profession. It includes information about the analysis of tool marks at the crime scene and in the laboratory, the interpretation and assessment of challenges for examination and interpretation and also the way in which tool mark evidence can be presented in a courtroom.",signatures:"Sachil Kumar, Geetika Saxena and Archana Gautam",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77222",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77222",authors:[{id:"335909",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Sachil",surname:"Kumar",slug:"sachil-kumar",fullName:"Sachil Kumar"},{id:"345319",title:"MSc.",name:"Geetika",surname:"Saxena",slug:"geetika-saxena",fullName:"Geetika Saxena"},{id:"345320",title:"MSc.",name:"Archana",surname:"Gautam",slug:"archana-gautam",fullName:"Archana Gautam"}],corrections:null},{id:"78121",title:"Forensic Osteology and Identification",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99358",slug:"forensic-osteology-and-identification",totalDownloads:217,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Every human corpse is unique. There are different religions in different parts of the world which adopt a variety of ways to dispose of corpses. Dead bodies can be found unattended, dug up, mutilated by the perpetrators of crimes, and eaten by wild animals in lonely unattended places. In these situations, forensic anthropologists or anatomists are consulted by the state authorities to help them to provide justice to the deceased person. The first and foremost scientific information desired by authorities is identification of the corpse, cause of death of the human body and weapon used, if applicable. Identification can be done by studying the bones of the human corpse during autopsy examination and if unknown skeletal remains are all that is available, examination of each bone is required. Forensic anthropologists or pathologists are asked to identify race, sex and age as important parameters of the identification. In this chapter, we will enumerate various parameters for identification. We will discuss race, age and sex from various bones as part of forensic oesteology.",signatures:"Anil Garg and Nisha Goyal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78121",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78121",authors:[{id:"335922",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",surname:"Garg",slug:"anil-garg",fullName:"Anil Garg"},{id:"335929",title:"Dr.",name:"Nisha",surname:"Goyal",slug:"nisha-goyal",fullName:"Nisha Goyal"}],corrections:null},{id:"76761",title:"Obstetric Markers as a Diagnostic Forensic Tool",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97670",slug:"obstetric-markers-as-a-diagnostic-forensic-tool",totalDownloads:178,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The field of Forensic diagnostics is evolving very rapidly keeping in pace with the emerging technology in the various fields. Several biomarkers up to the molecular level have been discovered which aid in solving cases. Pregnancy diagnosis from traces of blood could aid in solving cases of finding a missing pregnant lady or illegal abortions. But the challenge posed could possibly be the minimal amount of blood obtained for diagnosis. Here comes in the role of RT PCR diagnosing mRNA which is pregnancy specific, i.e., for hPL and beta hCG. The additional advantage would be that a small quantity suffices. Even if the blood stain is dried and degraded, the detection rate is good. This could add weightage to the investigation as a vital clue or change the course of investigation. The other areas of application of obstetric biomarkers are sexual assault, maternal substance abuse and paternity testing.",signatures:"Adithi Shetty and B. Suresh Kumar Shetty",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76761",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76761",authors:[{id:"300329",title:"Dr.",name:"Adithi",surname:"Shetty",slug:"adithi-shetty",fullName:"Adithi Shetty"},{id:"338021",title:"Dr.",name:"B. Suresh",surname:"Kumar Shetty",slug:"b.-suresh-kumar-shetty",fullName:"B. Suresh Kumar Shetty"}],corrections:null},{id:"74910",title:"Salivary Analysis for Medico-Legal and Forensic Toxicological Purposes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95625",slug:"salivary-analysis-for-medico-legal-and-forensic-toxicological-purposes",totalDownloads:226,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Saliva testing has attracted great interest in the forensic scientific landscape recently, especially among institutions or legal authorities interested in determining drug concentrations (for application in the workplace, drug driving, legal issues associated with drug testing, and pharmacokinetics of selected drugs). Indeed, it has been established that oral fluid is an adequate alternative biological matrix to blood for the determination of xenobiotics and/or drugs of abuse and/or metabolites both in living and deceased individuals. The concentration of a detectable substance in saliva is generally proportional to the free fraction of the drug present in plasma; this measurement therefore makes it possible to correlate the concentration of the substance and its pharmacological effects on the individual. The purpose of this chapter is to examine the main analytical techniques developed thus far in saliva drug testing, from screening to confirmatory analysis, taking into account the interpretation of cut-off levels. Both well-defined and potentially problematic issues are highlighted from medico-legal and toxicological perspectives.",signatures:"Roberto Scendoni",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74910",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74910",authors:[{id:"333983",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Roberto",surname:"Scendoni",slug:"roberto-scendoni",fullName:"Roberto Scendoni"}],corrections:null},{id:"77331",title:"Pharmacogenetics and Tramadol-Related Fatalities",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98250",slug:"pharmacogenetics-and-tramadol-related-fatalities",totalDownloads:189,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Tramadol (TR) is a widely prescribed pain killer because of its relatively safe profile among opioids. Nevertheless, intoxication can occur and overdose can lead to fatal outcomes. Surprisingly, in some fatalities for which death is attributable to TR alone, postmortem blood concentration levels overlap with the therapeutic concentration range. These fatal cases might be explained by pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of TR that are known to be both enantioselective and influenced by genes. Indeed pharmacogenetics (PG) is of great importance in this issue as it has the ability to elucidate the genetic variation contributing to drug absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and response so that adverse drug reactions, toxicity, and even death can be avoided. The aim of this chapter is to present this issue.",signatures:"Sanaa M. Aly, Jean-Michel Gaulier and Delphine Allorge",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77331",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77331",authors:[{id:"262264",title:"Dr.",name:"Sanaa M.",surname:"Aly",slug:"sanaa-m.-aly",fullName:"Sanaa M. Aly"},{id:"345359",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Michel",surname:"Gaulier",slug:"jean-michel-gaulier",fullName:"Jean-Michel Gaulier"},{id:"345362",title:"Prof.",name:"Delphine",surname:"Allorge",slug:"delphine-allorge",fullName:"Delphine Allorge"}],corrections:null},{id:"76997",title:"Herbal Drugs Forensic",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98253",slug:"herbal-drugs-forensic",totalDownloads:253,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Due to pandemic Covid-19, suddenly the vast population is drawn towards herbal drug treatment in India. In India, Ayurveda is practised to a greater extent as it does not have any side effects or other major effects. They are also added in many nutraceutical products like Chyawanprash, honey, etc. There are a lot of medicinal floras sold in the market in the form of small twigs, pieces of roots, stems or leaves of which decoction is made and consumed. The consumers are unaware of the authenticity of these crude drugs that lead to the deterioration in their health owing to the consumption of inferior quality of products or their substitute or the illicit bioadulterants which look like any other common plant part. The herbal drugs could also be in the form of tablet, powder, etc. which might be adulterated with look-alike plant products. Thus, a new branch of Forensic Science, i.e. Herbal Drugs Forensic which deals with identification of fake herbal product by various techniques which might be chemical or biological in nature has come up. In fact, the analytical methods for the testing of various bioconstituents need to be standardized and validated. 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Pollution or contamination of the environment with heavy metals is a major concern, due to their capacity to bioaccumulate and persistence in the environment, non-biodegradable nature, contaminate the food chains and their toxicity on the environment and living organisms (humans, animals and plants) [1, 2, 3]. Heavy metal toxicity is a concern of ecological, nutritional, evolutionary and environmental reasons [1].
Heavy metals are among the most investigated pollutants and received a higher attention by researchers, because of their toxicity [2, 4]. These elements are naturally present in the environment, but on which modern industrialization and urbanization, anthropogenic activities and use of fertilizers, led to increased levels of these metals in the environment and implicitly to a high exposure of living things to them [2, 5]. Among the heavy metals and the most toxic metalloids are chromium, mercury, arsenic, cadmium, lead, nickel, copper, zinc, but the most common heavy metals in the environment are chromium, manganese, nickel, lead, cadmium, copper and zinc [2].
Regarding their functions in biological systems, heavy metals can be essential and nonessential. The nonessential heavy metals do not possess biological functions in living organisms, being non-essential to metabolic system, both for plants and animals. Their category includes lead, cadmium, mercury, aluminum and arsenic [2, 6, 7], being able to exert toxic effects even at low concentrations [8]. The essential heavy metals are elements, which are indispensable for plant and animals, which play a vital role in biological processes and entire metabolism and may be required in living organism in different concentrations [2, 8]. These heavy metals are considered as trace elements because of their presence in trace concentrations (less than 10 ppm) in different environmental matrices [9]. The essentiality and toxicity of the trace metals depending on the dose of exposure [10]. This category includes 19 elements, among which the most important are manganese, iron, copper, zinc, nickel and chromium [2].
Trace elements or trace minerals are minerals necessary for the body, but in amounts between 1 and 100 mg/day for adults and represents less than 0.01–0.02% of the total body weight [10, 11, 12]. When they exceed these threshold concentrations, they become dangerous to the health of living organisms [1].
According to WHO classification, trace elements can be divided into three groups, such as essential elements (zinc, iodine, molybdenum, copper, selenium, chromium), probably essential elements (manganese, silicon, boron, vanadium, nickel) and potentially toxic elements (lead, cadmium, fluorine, mercury, aluminum, arsenic, barium, lithium, tin [13, 14].
Another classification of the trace elements was made by Frieden in 1981, based on their levels in biological tissues, being divided into 3 groups, namely essential trace elements (boron, cobalt, copper, iodine, manganese, molybdenum, zinc), probably essential trace elements (chromium, fluorine, nickel, selenium, vanadium) and physically promotive trace elements (bromine, lithium, silicone, tin) [13, 15].
The present chapter presents the characteristics of heavy metals, the main sources of heavy metal contamination of the environment, as well as human exposure sources. The impact of their toxicity on various environmental segments, such as water, air, soil, as well as on living organisms, animals, but especially humans, has also been described.
Heavy metals contamination of environment can come both from natural sources and from anthropogenic processes. Natural emissions of heavy metals include volcanic eruptions, rock weathering, sea-salt sprays, forest fires, biogenic sources, wind-borne soil particles and can be found in the nature as oxides, hydroxides, silicates, sulphates, sulphides, phosphates, organic compounds [4].
Anthropogenic processes which can release heavy metals in different environmental compartments, are industries, agriculture (insecticides, pesticides which can release As), fossil fuels combustion (Ni, V, Hg, Se, Sn), wastewater, mining, smelting (As, Cu, Zn), corrosion, metallurgical processes, residual organic matter, transportation (Pb) [4, 7, 16].
Heavy metals can produce side effects on soil, on water, on air, but also on plants, animals and humans [3, 4, 17]. In soil, high levels of heavy metals can produce alteration of soil quality through modification of pH, color, porosity and natural composition [4, 18], but also low crop production, loss of many types of normal flora and habitat [19]. Their accumulation into the water imposes serious problems on humans and ecosystems [4], due to decreasing of drinking water quality and purity, decreasing water supplies for all living organisms [19]. High levels of heavy metals in air can lead to harmful health problems, including respiratory infections, cardiovascular disease, premature mortality, eyes and skin irritation, but also can cause infrastructure deterioration, acid rain increasing, corrosion, eutrophication and haze [4], low yields of the crop, not enough oxygen [19]. In plants, they can produce damage of roots or leaves, interfere in important biochemical process, such as photosynthesis, alteration of minerals absorption, damage of chlorophyll, reduce the growth and development of the roots, which leading to reduction pf overall growth of the plant [3, 20, 21].
The toxicity of heavy metals in animal is manifested through decreased body weight, kidney damage, liver affections, shortened life span, increased oxidative stress, modifications of cells composition, DNA damage [17]. In humans they can produce kidney damage, liver affections, pulmonary effects, several types of cancer [3].
Heavy metals became toxic when are not metabolized by the body and accumulates in organs and soft tissues [4]. They reach the human body by ingesting contaminated water or food, inhalation of absorption through the skin. Among the pathways, ingestion in the common route that helps the heavy metals to enter to the animal bodies [3, 4]. The effect of this metals can be inhibitory, stimulatory and toxic for some biochemical processes [3], being able to produce various health problems on nervous system (Alzheimer, Parkinsoma, depression, dementia), on bone system (bone mineralization) an on reproductive system. Also, can produce DNA damage, RNA affection, or cancer of lungs, skin, bladder, due to production of ROS [3]. Their toxicity depends the dose of exposure, time of exposure, pollutant concentration, organism which are exposed to it, nature and oxidation state of the metal [3, 4].
Lead is the most important toxic heavy metal in the environment because can cause serious environmental contamination and health problems [1, 10]. The main sources of environmental contamination including industrial processes, such as fossil fuel burning, mining, smelting, manufacturing, recycling activities. It is also used for leaded pipes, lead-glazed or lead-soldered containers, leaded paint, leaded gasoline, leaded aviation fuel [10, 22].
The inorganic lead can enter into the human body by inhalation (pulmonary absorption) of contaminated air or by smoking (15%), or by ingestion (gastrointestinal absorption) of food (65%) and water (20%) [1, 3, 22, 23]. Although organic compounds are absorbed through skin, inorganic compounds cannot be absorbed [10].
According to the WHO guidelines, the international level of concern of poisoning with lead is 25 μg/dl of blood for adults and for children, it must be less than 5 μg/dl of blood [23]. Their absorption is influenced by the age and physiological status of the exposed person [22].
However, the nervous system is most affected by exposure to high concentrations of lead, in both children and adults. Because children absorb 4–5 times more ingested lead, it can cause impaired neurobehavioral development, learning disabilities, speech and language handicaps, poor attention span, lower IQ, diminished intelligence, anti-social behavior [10, 22]. At high concentration, lead can produce coma, convulsions and even death on children and may be left with mental retardation and behavioral disorders [10]. In adults it can be manifested headache, poor attention, irritability, loss of memory, dullness [9, 22]. Increased absorption rate was observed when other nutrients such as calcium or iron are lacking. Even at lower concentrations, known as safe levels, children face learning or behavioral problems, decreased intelligence in children [10]. Although it mainly affects the nervous system, the largest amount of lead is found in the kidneys [9, 22].
Research has shown that this heavy metal can cross the placental barrier in pregnant women who have high levels of it in the blood, causing fetal abnormalities such as low IQ level, encephalopathy, neurological disorders, disruption of calcium levels in nerve cells [3]. Pregnant women exposed to lead, can manifest miscarriage, premature birth, reduced birth weight, stillbirth [10, 22].
After absorption, 99% of lead is bound to the hemoglobin, being circulated through the vascular system to soft tissues, bones, liver, kidneys (organs of lead excretion), hair [3, 10, 19], being stored especially in teeth and bones (where in incorporated into the mineral in place of calcium) [10, 22]. The stored Pb can be reintroduced into the bloodstream, especially during pregnancy, exposing the fetus [10].
Lead can produce lungs disorders, reduced pulmonary function, anemia, liver damage, cardiovascular dysfunction, renal impairment, immunotoxicity, disturbance of the balance free radicals-antioxidant system, cognitive impairments [1, 5, 10, 17]. Anemia occurs as a result of the interaction that this metal has with the important enzymes involved in the synthesis of hemoglobin, enzymes that are responsible and transport oxygen. Thus, by retardation of these enzymes, the hemoglobin concentration is reduced [3]. At high concentration, it can produce high risk of hypertension, gastrointestinal disorders, Alzheimer’s disease, kidneys damage, interfere in vitamin D metabolism and thyrotoxicity, by affecting the normal function of thyroid gland, [3, 19, 22].
In people with high levels of lead in the blood, there was an impairment of sexual function, manifested by decreased libido, decreased sperm count and their mobility, changes in sperm composition [3, 22].
Also, this metal can cause changes at cellular level, such as decreased cell viability, cell distortion, reduced cohesion, lipid peroxidation, damage of protein folding, stop structural protein synthesis, intra- and inter-cellular signaling, apoptosis, ionic transportation, especially of calcium, cell adhesion, release of neurotransmitters, inhibiting enzymes activity, inhibits mineral absorption, affecting the activities of mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum, decreases level of glutathione, generation of reactive oxygen species or reducing antioxidants [1, 3, 17, 22]. Lead has ability to inhibit or mimic the activity of calcium and perturbs their intracellular cycling, may interfere with proteins, can be bound to biological molecules and interfering with their function by various mechanisms [22].
Studies demonstrated that lead can produce genetic damage by mechanisms which include inhibition of DNA synthesis and repair, oxidative damage, being considered by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as a probable human carcinogen [22].
Studies performed on animal models have shown altered homeostasis, induced kidney damage, decreases of antioxidant levels, decreased body weight, shortened life span, increases of total protein, albumin, histamine, creatinine, decreased red blood cells count [5, 17].
Cadmium is an industrial compound, used in plastic industry, for obtaining plastic stabilizer, but also for production of color pigments, alloys (being a by-product of zinc production), glass production, electroplating industries, welders, rechargeable batteries (about three-fourths of cadmium production). Others important sources include emissions from industrial activities, such as mining or smelting [1, 5, 9, 19, 22, 24].
Exposure to cadmium is achieved by ingestion of food or water, inhalation of contaminated dust, especially for employers which work in primary metal industries or in cadmium-contaminated places, or by smoking cigarettes [3, 5, 10, 19, 22]. Because this metal could not penetrate the skin barrier, dermal exposure not represent a health concern [10].
The main way of exposure for smokers is the smoking, while, for non-smokers, the primary source of exposure is food, such as peanuts, crustaceans and mollusks, leafy vegetables, sunflower seeds, cocoa powder, rice, grains, soybeans, mushrooms, potatoes [3, 10, 22, 25]. Biomonitoring studies have shown that in the case of cigarette smokers, blood and urine levels were generally high, moderate in former smokers and in non-smokers they were reduced [22]. This is related the capacity of this metal to accumulate in high concentrations in tabaco leaves [5, 26]. Their toxicity depends both, the dose of exposure and the exposure time [3]. The percentage of cadmium, absorbed after ingestion is 5–10%, but in diets with a low intake of iron, calcium or protein, the percentage absorbed is higher [10].
In case of occupational workers, in industries which uses this metal, inhalation is the primary way of exposure, so that a percentage of 5–35% of inhaled cadmium is absorbed into the blood, depending the form, particle size, or site of deposition. If this metal reaches the level of the alveoli, its absorption into the blood could be 100% [10]. Their chronic exposure has been associated with changes in pulmonary function, emphysema, decreases in olfactory function [22].
The most toxic form is divalent cadmium ion (Cd2+), which is the most common form and may disturb the basic cellular functions and can cause various side effects [3, 22]. This element can cause side effects even at low concentrations, due to its low excretion rate [17, 27].
Also, it has the capability to replace iron and copper in different cytoplasmic and membrane proteins, and these unbounded substituted metals participate in oxidative stress processes, due to their increased levels [17].
When it binds to cysteine-rich proteins, its concentration inside the body increases 3000 times, forming compounds, such as metallothionein, which can produce hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity [1, 3]. If attached to compounds such as histidine, glutamate or cysteine, it can cause iron deficiencies. As a result of exposure, the immune system and endocrine system is affected, even at a young age [3].
Studies have shown that women have higher levels of cadmium than men, and pregnant women have more levels than non-pregnant women. Cadmium does not cross the placental barrier, and remains trapped in it, preventing it from affecting the prenatal exposure of the fetus [3].
The target organs for cadmium are the liver, bones, vascular system, nerve tissues, but especially the kidneys, leading to their damage or malfunction [3, 17, 19, 28]. As their concentration inside the kidneys increases, the rate of calcium excretion from the body is high, which means an increased risk of kidney stones [3, 17, 29]. Also, its renal excretion causes damage to the renal tubules and tubular disfunction by promoting oxidative stress in proximal tubular cells [3, 17].
In case of acute ingestion, symptoms such as vomiting, vertigo, abdominal pain, burning sensation, muscle cramps, shock, loss of consciousness, nausea, convulsions appear in 15–30 min. Because this heavy metal is a severe pulmonary and gastrointestinal irritant, erosion of the intestinal tract, diseases of pulmonary, hepatic or renal or coma could appear, depending the route of poisoning [22].
The exposure to low levels, may affect the prostatic lipid metabolism and the increasing of the fatty acids used to synthesis of phospholipids, with effects on the composition and functions of the plasma membrane [3].
High levels of cadmium in the blood cause a decrease in bone density, especially in pregnant women. Also, it can produce Itai-itai bone disease, which is characterized by painful degenerative bone disease (such as osteomalacia and osteoporosis), renal tubular abnormalities, calcium and phosphate excretion, lung cancer [5, 10, 30].
Chronic exposure can cause effects such as anemia, emphysema, osteoporosis, renal disorders, anosmia, chronic rhinitis, but also have a depressant effect, by changing the levels of serotonin, norepinephrine or acetylcholine [3, 22].
By accumulating in the pancreas and blood, the both exocrine and endocrine function of the pancreas is affected, resulting in a reduction in serum insulin. It may also affect the pancreas to resisting the secretion of insulin, and producing diabetes type 2. Research has shown that it can affect adipose tissue and can lead to obesity. Research has shown that exposure to this element can alter the balance of pituitary hormones. On reproductive system, Cd can affect the synthesis of testosterone and progesterone, spontaneous abortion, low birth weight, changes and apoptosis of germ cells, reducing of semen quality, damage of DNA of sperm cells, apoptosis of Sertoli cells [3].
Long term exposure to cell, it could transform normal cell into malignant cells. Because it contributes to the development of certain types of cancer, such as lung, prostate, pancreatic or kidney cancer, especially in case of occupational exposure, it has been classified as no. 1 human carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer USA [3, 5, 17, 22, 31]. Rodent studies have demonstrated the capacity of this metal to causes pulmonary adenocarcinomas or prostatic proliferative lesions, leading to adenocarcinomas [22].
At the cellular level, Cd disrupts the respiratory chain of the mitochondria, involved in transport across cell membranes and cell damage through production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), blocking calcium channels, hinders sulfhydryl enzymes, interacts with some cell ligands, promote lipid peroxidation and protein carbonylation. It also affects oxidative phosphorylation pathways, mitochondrial genes involved in cell apoptosis, reducing the ATP level and the energy production. This heavy metal affects the activity of some antioxidant enzymes, such as glutathione reductase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase. Also, cadmium could interact with DNA and may reduce its binding capacity or repair, DNA damage or disruption of synthesis of nucleic acid or proteins [3, 17, 22, 24].
Animal studies have shown that it can produce disorders in the metabolism of zinc, copper and calcium, being able to decrease their absorption and resulting in low dietary intake [5, 32, 33]. The hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity of Cd was also observed, after administration of certain doses of cadmium [5, 33]. At cellular level, changes in cell-cell adhesion, autophagic response, changes in cellular signaling pathways, cell death [5], mitochondrial swelling, decrease in antioxidant levels, increases in urinary proteins, more vacuoles and lysosomes in proximal tubule cells were observed [17].
Arsenic is one of the most important heavy metals, with property of a semi metallic, is found in nature in the form of metalloid (As0) inorganic and organic form, and arsine (AsH3) [1, 17, 22, 34]. The main inorganic forms include the trivalent form, arsenite (As3+), and the pentavalent form, arsenate (As5+). Among the organic compounds of arsenic are the methylated metabolites, such as monomethylarsonic acid (MMA), dimethylarsinic acid (DMA) and trimethylarsine oxide [9, 22]. Inorganic arsenic compounds, found in water is more toxic than organic compounds, found in seafood, which is less harmful [1, 10, 17, 23, 35]. Studies demonstrated thar trivalent arsenite is 2–10 times more toxic than pentavalent arsenate [22]. The order of increasing toxicity of arsenic compounds is the following, organic arsenicals < metalloid (As0) < inorganic forms (As5+ < As3+) < arsine [5, 36, 37].
Arsenite, which is prevalent and more mobile, has the capability to bind to thiol or sulfhydryl groups of proteins and inactivate more than 200 enzymes, with effects on different organ systems, but also to inhibits the uptake of glucose into cells, fatty acid oxidation, production of acetyl coenzyme A, gluconeogenesis, synthesis of glutathione reductase and thioredoxin reductase. Arsenate can replace phosphate, involved in biological processes, including the transport system [3, 17, 22, 23, 38]. Environmental pollution with this heavy metal, occur as a result of volcanic eruptions, soil erosion or some anthropogenic activities [9, 22]. It is used to obtain industrially products, such as, insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, algicides, smelting, mining, sheep dips, ceramics and glass making, wood preservatives, refining of metallic ores, paints, dye stuffs or for some medicinal treatments for syphilis, yaws, amoebic dysentery, trypanosomiasis [1, 22].
The exposure to elevated levels of inorganic arsenic occurs through ingestion (oral route) of food and water contaminated, inhalation of smoking tobacco, dust or burning smoke from arsenic-treated wood, working in a place where this metal is made or used, dermal contact and parenteral route [5, 10, 22]. Diet, and especially water, is the most important source of exposure, with an intake of about 12–50 μg/day, but the dietary requirement has been suggested to be between 12 and 25 12–50 μg/day [22, 23, 39]. Food sources of arsenic are seafood, poultry, grains (especially rice), bread, cereal products, mushrooms, dairy products [23, 40].
Exposure from air and soil is much smaller, but in areas with a high contamination, the intake through these ways may become significant [22]. Inorganic and organic compounds leave the body through renal excretion. Most of inorganic compounds are eliminated within several days, but some will remain stored for several months or even longer. Organic compounds are eliminated by the body much faster than inorganic arsenic, so most of them will leave the body in a few days [10]. After the absorption in the body, the target organs are lungs, spleen, kidneys, liver, but also, hair, skin and nails, but the last three for long-term accumulation [5].
Researcher showed a strong association between arsenic exposure and increased risks of carcinogenic and systemic health effects, including cardiovascular, dermatologic, nervous, hepatobiliary, renal, gastrointestinal and respiratory diseases [3, 9, 22]. So, in the case of poisoning, the symptoms manifested are abdominal pain, hemolysis, keratosis and hyperkeratosis, edema, gangrene and finally skin cancer [3, 23, 35]. The severity of symptoms varies depending upon the oxidation state and chemical species of arsenic, the solubility, frequency and exposure time, exposure dose, individual susceptibilities, age, gender, genetic and nutritional factors of exposed person [3, 9, 22].
It has been observed that in the case of persons exposed to high concentrations, symptoms such as developmental abnormalities, diabetes, cardiovascular and peripheral vascular disease, pulmonary disease, hearing loss, liver fibrosis, cirrhosis, melanosis, hematologic disorders (anemia, leukopenia, eosinophilia), neurologic and neurobehavioral disorders and different carcinoma have occurred [1, 9, 17, 22, 41, 42].
Long term exposure influences the promotion of carcinogenesis in various tissues or organs, so in areas with higher pollution, was observed a higher mortality rate for different types of cancers, such as kidney, skin, liver, lungs and bladder [3, 9, 10, 22]. For this reason, arsenic and arsenic compounds has been classified as carcinogenic to humans by International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) [3, 10]. Also, symptoms like, pigmentation changes, skin lesions, hyperkeratosis, was observed, which may be a precursor to skin cancer. Even at low concentration for a long time, it could change the color of the skin [1, 10]. Chronic arsenic toxicity is termed arsenicosis [1].
At lower concentration, for shorter exposure, arsenic and its compounds may cause nausea and vomiting, reduced production of erythrocytes and leukocytes, abnormal heart beat, damage of blood vessels [1].
This heavy metal could cross the placenta, particularly during early gestation, and affect the fetus, leading to adverse pregnancy outcomes, such as spontaneous abortion, stillbirth, preterm birth, low birth weight), higher infant mortality [5, 10, 43]. Numerous studies demonstrated that in utero or in childhood exposure to this metal, can lead to increases mortality in young adults due to multiple cancers, cardiovascular diseases, kidney failure, lung damage [10, 44], but also negative impact on cognitive developments, intelligence and memory [10, 45].
Their genotoxicity was demonstrated through its capacity to inhibit DNA repair, induce some chromosomal anomalies and DNA damage, sister-chromatid exchanges, arrest cells in mitosis, induce expression of some genes and gene amplification, interfere with formation of micronuclei in different cells, promote oxidative stress, altered growth factors, interfere with cell signaling pathways, inhibition of cell proliferation, promote apoptotic mechanism in various cell (monocytes, T-cells, cancer cells, melanocytes, dermal cells, keratinocytes), mitochondrial disfunctions [5, 17, 22, 46].
In addition to the ability to bind certain structures or to replace some compounds, at cellular level, arsenic compounds could inhibit the mitochondrial enzymes involved in cellular respiration, inactivate some enzymes, such as thiolase and dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase and affects the oxidative phosphorylation [22].
Animal studies released that arsenic could produce deficits of growth, altered liver and breast milk triglyceride levels [17, 47], decrease of cell viability, induced apoptosis in some cells, increased oxidative stress, increased phosphorylation [17, 48], lower levels of corticosterone receptor, reduced learning and memory [17, 49].
Mercury or hydrargyrum is a heavy metal which belong to the transition elements series of periodic table [9, 22] and exist in the nature in three chemical forms, such as elemental or metallic or elementary mercury (Hg0), inorganic mercurous (Hg+1) and mercuric (Hg+2) and organic mercury compound, methylmercury (MeHg or CH3-Hg) and ethylmercury (EtHg or CH3CH2-Hg), the last two being obtained through methylation of inorganic mercuric form by microorganisms found in water and soil [5, 9, 17, 22, 50, 51]. Each chemical form has its own toxicity and chemical properties [9, 22]. Organic Hg compounds are more harmful than inorganic Hg, the order of increasing toxicity being following: metallic mercury (Hg0) < inorganic mercuric (Hg2+) < inorganic mercurous (Hg1+) < organic compounds [5]. At room temperature, elementary mercury is a liquid with high vapor pressure and released into nature as Hg vapor, which are more hazardous than liquid form [5, 9, 23].
It is used in numerous industrial processes, including mining (for extraction of gold), electrical industry (switches, thermostats, batteries), in lamp production factories (for fluorescent light bulbs), caustic soda production, measurement instruments (thermometers, manometers, barometers, mercury switches), nuclear reactors, paint industries, antifungal agents for wood processing, fungicides in agriculture (methylmercury and ethylmercury), soaps and some skin lightening creams (as mercury chloride) [1, 5, 22, 23, 52].
This metal can reach into the body through inhalation and ingestion of food contamination, especially of fish and seafood, but also by dental amalgams (which contain over 50% elemental mercury), preventive medical practices, industrial and agricultural operations, occupational operations [17, 22].
The most absorbed chemical species are elementary and methyl mercury (Me-Hg) [5, 22]. Metallic mercury, which is highly lipophilic, is absorbed by lungs (80%) and tissues lining the mouth and then passed into the cell through cell membranes when in oxidized and became inorganic mercuric (Hg2+), highly reactive. The elementary mercury has the capacity to cross the blood-brain barrier and the placental barrier [5, 22], having a higher neurotoxicity compared to inorganic mercury, which passes the cell membrane in a slower rate, but cannot cross the blood brain barrier and placenta [5]. Metallic mercury is slightly absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract, the toxicity in this case being reduced [5].
Methyl mercury is easily absorbed in gastrointestinal tract (95%) and circulated in the body, where bound to thiol groups, such as cysteine, with which it can form compounds able to pass the blood brain barrier [5, 17, 53]. Toxicokinetic of ethylmercury is similar with that of methylmercury [5, 53].
Methyl mercury entered in organism through the consumption of fish [5, 54], is absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract and due to its lipophilicity can pass the blood-brain barrier and placental barrier [22]. Cooking of fish does not diminish or eliminate mercury content [5]. Exposure to methyl mercury can produce mental retardation, cerebral palsy, deafness, blindness, dysarthria (especially at children exposed in utero) [17]. Instead, at higher concentration for short time, this could produce lung damage, nausea, vomiting, skin rashes, increased heart rate and blood pressure. Symptoms of organic mercury poisoning are depression, fatigue, memory problems, headache, tremors, hair loss [1].
Mercury and its compounds excretion rate depends on its oxidation state [10]. Elemental and inorganic mercury is eliminated by the kidney (urine) and minimally through gastrointestinal tract (feces), having a half-life of 30–60 days [10, 55, 56]. Organic compounds are excreted by feces, but are recirculated enterohepatic, in this case the half-life being 70 days.
Major of absorbed mercury accumulates into kidneys (where produce adverse effects on proximal tubules), hair, neurological tissues and liver [5, 22]. Because it accumulates in hair, it represents an index of exposure to methylmercury [5].
Elemental mercury exposure is associated with cough, dyspnea, fever, tremors, polyneuropathy of axonal sensor motor, malaise, gingivitis, delusions, hallucinations, mercurial erythrism, while exposure to inorganic mercury produce insomnia, renal tubular damage, wight loss, erythema, pruritus, hypersalivation, excessive perspiration [17].
Chronic mercury exposure produces neurological disorders, such as ataxia, shyness, tremors, numb limbs, memory problems, inability to speak, irritability, chewing, swallowing, muscle weakness, but also renal system disorders [1, 5, 23, 57]. Patients exposed to higher levels of methylmercury present increased tendon reflex [5, 57]. Low dose mercury can produce effects on neuronal systems, both on developing fetus and adolescent stage [17, 58], but also cell cytotoxicity, oxidative stress, which are associated with neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer and Parkinson [17, 51, 59]. At low concentration, it can affect the human endocrine system, through reduced production of thyroid gland hormone, affecting physiological functions of endocrine glands, reduced binding capacity of hormone to receptor, the most affected hormones being adrenaline, estrogen, testosterone and insulin [3].
On reproductive system, studied demonstrated their capacity to produce infertility in both, men and women. In male the spermatogenesis is affected, while in women could affect the levels of progesterone and estrogens, which produce disfunctions in ovaries, irregular menstruation and sloped uterus [5].
Because mercury can pass the placenta during pregnancy, it can affect fetus and can cause various abnormalities of the baby, such as developmental disabilities, dysplasia of the cerebral and cerebral cortexes and neuronal ectopia, especially after exposure to methylmercury [3, 5, 17, 57].
Into the cell, inorganic compounds and methylmercury interact with cysteine residues of proteins, product oxidative stress through generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can produce enzymes, nucleic acid and lipids damage and may proceed to cell death [17]. They can affect the calcium homeostasis, by increasing intracellular calcium through acceleration the influx from extracellular medium and mobilizing intracellular stores [22]. Methylmercury also interact with sulfhydryl (–SH) and selenohydryl (–SeH) groups of the proteins and could produce damage of nucleophilic groups involved in catalytic, binding and transport functions [17]. Inorganic mercury also produces reactive oxygen species (ROS) through affecting oxidative phosphorylation and electron transport [22].
A number of compounds, such as vitamin C, vitamin E, selenium, melatonin and enzymes, including, glutathione reductase, glutathione peroxidase, catalase, superoxide dismutase, can have a protective effect on the body through antioxidant mechanisms to reduce or avoid the formation of reactive oxygen species. Mercury genotoxicity was associated with DNA damage, conformational changes in proteins responsible for DNA repair, genetic mutations, mitotic spindle, chromosomal segregation, action on nucleic acids [22].
Aluminum, the third most common metal of the earth crust, exist in the environment in only one oxidation state (Al3+). It is naturally present in food, but also in the environment, as silicates, oxides and hydroxides. Aluminum and its compounds are poorly absorbed through ingestion and inhalation, but the rates of absorption are not yet known [1, 10].
The ways in which this metal can reach the body are ingestion, inhalation, dermal contact or drugs [3, 10, 60]. Human exposure takes place through the consumption of drinking water, food and beverages that are high in aluminum content, working in environment with high levels of this metal, hemodialysis, long term intravenous nutrition, cosmetic products, utensils and medicines which contains it, dusty environments [1, 3, 10]. Patients with kidney dialysis are more exposed to this metal, through contaminated dialysates and phosphate binders [1]. The bioavailability of aluminum from diet is influenced by its form, as well as the presence of other food constituents which help him to form complexes [10].
The primary way of excretion is through urine. Due to the its natural presence and intake from food, all people have some levels in the body, and also in the urine [10]. People suffering from kidney disease has a low rate of elimination from the body, which involves its accumulation in the body, affecting the bones and brain [1, 3]. Also, their accumulation in the body, leading to changes in proximal tubules, such as increases in number and size of lysosomes, damage of mitochondria [3].
After entry to body, aluminum accumulates in soft tissues where interact with proteins and lipids and may produce changes in their structure [3].
In case of poisoning, the principal symptoms are nausea, ulcer of mouth and skin, skin rashes pain, vomiting, diarrhea and arthritic pain [1, 3].
On nervous system, aluminum may produce loss of memory and coordination, problems with balance, neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer, dementia, Parkinson, sclerosis. The studies demonstrated that higher concentration of aluminum found in different parts of brain could initiate the development of Alzheimer disease in humans [1, 3]. This metal could form a complex with adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from neuronal cells, which can affect their signaling and cause excitotoxicity [3].
Dialysis patients treated with dialysis fluids which contain aluminum, showed neurotoxic effects, while humans exposed to high aluminum dust in the workplace, manifested aluminosis [10, 61].
Humans exposed to higher levels could manifest changes of secondary hyperparathyroidism, adynamic bone disease, osteomalacia, the last two being characterized by low bone remodeling. Their toxicity is associated with lung disorders, anemia, nervous system problems, impaired iron absorption [1]. The accumulation of aluminum in bones impaired the bone formation process, known as osteodystrophy and put antiproliferative effects on osteoblasts [3]. Workers chronically exposed to aluminum, developed contact dermatitis and irritant dermatitis [1].
At cellular level, studies conducted demonstrated that it can disturbs the homeostasis of magnesium, calcium and iron, lower cholinergic elevations, apoptotic death of neuronal cells, inhibition of enzymes involved in DNA repair, inhibition of activity of antioxidant enzymes, cross linking of DNA, affecting cell viability, plasma membrane, microvilli and cell function in cells kidney [3, 62]. This increases the peroxidation of lipids from plasma membrane, by enhancement of lipid hydroperoxides, which can reduce the molecular arrangement of lipoprotein at the surface of membrane, but, also physical and chemical properties change in high density lipid (HDL). Also, aluminum is involved in high production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which may obstruct normal process of mitochondria, initiation of inflammatory events and accumulation of iron, which induces genotoxicity in neuronal cells and death cells, affects the gene expression through interaction between aluminum and nucleic acid and monophosphate nucleotides [3].
Chromium exists in environment in oxidation states and from Cr+2 to Cr+6 [1, 3, 5, 22, 63]. It does not exist in elementary state (Cr0) [3, 22]. Trivalent oxidation state of Cr is considered more stable, followed by Cr+4. The most commonly forms are Cr+3 and Cr+6, both oxidation states being toxic to animals, humans and plants [5, 63]. Cr+3 is immobile and insoluble in water, while Cr+6 is mobile and highly soluble in water [1, 13]. The solubility of chromium depends on its pH, Cr+3 is soluble only in acidic pH, while in neutral and alkaline pH, Cr+3 gets precipitated [23].
Environmental contamination with it, occurs by oil burning, catalyst, pigments production, chromium steel, tannery facilities, but also fertilizers and sewage, because is extensively used in several industries, like metallurgy, refractory, tannins, production of paints and pigments, pulp and paper production, wood preservation [1, 9, 22]. Chromium released by the anthropogenic activities in the environment occurs mainly in the hexavalent form [22].
Human exposure occurs through ingestion of food and water which contain, inhalation, especially in case of occupational workers or by dermal contact [5, 64]. Through their bioaccumulation in the body, a variety of affections can appear, such as, dermal, renal, neurological and gastrointestinal diseases, but also development of several types of cancer, on lung, larynx, kidney, testicles, bones, bladder, thyroid [5, 65]. Chromium can affect the reproductive function in men, due to sperm count decline [19]. Ingestion of drinking water containing high level of chromium may cause tumor in stomach [3]. The target organs are lungs, but significant chromium exposure can take place through skin [3, 22].
Occupational exposure to chromium increases the risk of cancer of lung, liver, gastrointestinal tract and central nervous system, while in female workers cause abortion [3, 13, 38]. Excess of chromium can produce thyroid cancer through reduction of requirement level of thyroid hormone in the body, disrupting hormones synthesis and secretion, interfering in its metabolism or interaction with their receptors [3, 66].
Some humans are sensitive to Cr3+ and after exposure allergic reactions, including redness and swelling of the skin, can appear. This oxidation state is poorly absorbed by any way, the toxicity being attributable to Cr+6 oxidation form [22].
Ingestion of Cr+4 can cause irritation and ulcer of stomach and small intestine, anemia, disfunctions of male reproductive system and at high dose produces sever problems on nervous, respiratory and cardiovascular systems, digestive organs, excretory function [3]. Researcher studies demonstrated that high levels in water were associated with cancers of liver, lung and genitourinary system [5, 67].
Cr+6 can produce adverse effects on excretory system, reproductive system, asthma, allergy, irritation and ulcers in the stomach and small intestine, anemia, increased mortality due the development of cancer of lung, larynx, kidney, testicular, thyroid, bones [3, 5, 22, 68], and in case of excess inhalation appear irritation and ulcer of nose [3, 22]. Also, it can reduce the DNA replication, damage DNA transcription, chromosome aberrations and affection of RNA [3, 5, 69]. Inside the cell, Cr+6 is converted into Cr+5, as intermediate, and then in Cr+3, which can form complexes with proteins and DNA [1, 3]. Cr+5 and other intermediate compounds, including reactive species of carbon and oxygen, that form during the reduction of Cr+6 to Cr+3, can react with DNA [3]. When hexavalent cation reacts with cellular reductants, Cr+4 and Cr+3 can also be obtained. Cr+6 was classified as group I occupational carcinogen [5, 70].
In cell, mechanism of chromium toxicity generates reactive oxygen species (ROS), which bring cell apoptosis, damage of DNA, genomic instability [3, 5, 71], suppression of DNA synthesis and genes expression [3], but also induces hyperexpression of some antioxidant enzymes, such as, peroxidase, catalase, superoxide dismutase [23].
Their carcinogenicity and toxicity depend of concentration, time of exposure, tissue and cell type [5, 72], route of exposure (ingestion, inhalation or dermal) [10], generation of free radicals [5, 73], oxidation state and its reactivity [5, 10, 22],
Copper is a trace element, component of many enzymes, including ceruloplasmin and cytochrome C oxidase, tyrosinase and dopamine beta-hydrolase, zinc-copper superoxide dismutase (antioxidant defense) and others, having function in transport functions, detoxification, antioxidant defense, immune function, pigmentation and melanin production [10, 74]. When it is present in high levels in the body, it may become toxic [3].
Human exposure take place through its release from water carrying pipes, fungicides, cooking utensils, birth control tablets, food. Copper has the highest redox activity, which lead to production of reactive oxygen species. Also, it binds to thiol groups of proteins and cause changes in liver enzymes involved in biotransformation processes [3].
At cell level, it can change the activity of natrium (Na+)/potassium (K+) ATP-ase and change of plasma membrane permeability, due the affection of the natrium/potassium pumps and increases of level of natrium in cytoplasm [3]. Large amounts of copper are stored in the liver [74], while the target organs are nervous system organs, including ganglia, neurons, cerebellum and hippocampus [3].
Excess of copper in the body or hypercupremia, occurs naturally during pregnancy, but also by chronic exposure to it, being associated with a number of diseases including Wilson’s disease, hepatic disorders (cirrhosis, hepatitis, gastroenteritis), neurodisorders, hyperceruplasmin [3, 10, 74]. Neurodisorders produced by chronic exposure to copper include neurodegenerative disorders, like Alzheimer and Parkinson, but also Huntington disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis [3], cognitive impairment, personality and behavioral changes [74].
Cells studies demonstrated that copper is accumulated in some cancer cell, such as colon cancer cell, ovarian cancer cells, breast cancer cell, more than in normal cells. Also, at cellular level, it can cause oxidative damage of DNA, their reduction can be made by use of Cu specific chelating agents [3].
Hypocupremia or copper deficiency are represented by serum level less than normal value of 0.64–1.56 μg/mL. Extreme hypocupremia could produce Menkes disease, known as Menkes kinky hair syndrome, a genetic disorder, characterized by steely hair, due to a mutation of the transport protein mediating the copper uptake from the intestine, but also by progressive neurological deterioration and early childhood death [10].
Another trace element, zinc, is involved in over 200 enzymes, with action in immune system, catalytic and structural structures, but also, in processes like synthesis and degradation of some components, including lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, transcription and translation of polynucleotide, genetic expression, cell proliferation and differentiation, normal growth and development during pregnancy, childhood, adolescence, reduced growth rate and impaired resistance to infection [10].
Exposure to zinc of human is made by inhalation of zinc vapors and ingestion of a large overdose of zinc supplements, which contain zinc sulfate, overusing denture cream, but also by consumption of contaminated food and water [75, 76].
Zinc poisoning, at intakes higher than 100 mg/day, has been associated with abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, nausea.
Long term exposure can cause malabsorption of copper and in case of diabetics, it can affect immune function associated with diabetes mellitus [10]. Severe toxicity present symptoms like kidney injury, pancreatic function damage, liver failure, dehydration and acute gastrointestinal bleed, septic shock, lethargy, sideroblastic anemia and dizziness [74, 76]. Zinc inhalation could produce dyspnea, airway inflammation and acute respiratory distress symptom, especially in case of occupational exposure [76].
Because this metal could interfere in copper absorption in the gastrointestinal tract, leading to copper deficiency [10], chronic exposure can cause polyneuropathy and can affect bone marrow [76].
Nickel is an essential trace element for plant, animals and human, but also a chemical pollutant which exist in several oxidation states, but most common is Ni2+. In the body, it is involved in activation of some enzymes, in protein structure and function, in prolactin production [3, 10].
Environmental contamination with nickel comes from natural sources, like volcanic emissions, weathering of soils, but also from industry, being used in catalysts for automobile, electroplating, electroforming, jewelry production, medical prostheses, production of nickel-cadmium batteries, cast coins [19].
This metal can reach the body through ingestion of contaminated water and food, inhalation of dust or smoking cigarettes and dermal contact, leading to increases level of Ni in blood, urine and body tissues. However, less than 10% of ingested nickel is absorbed by gastrointestinal tract [3, 10].
It can pass through plasma membrane through diffusion, calcium transport channels and phagocytosis, is circulated to various tissues, where bind with albumin, histidine and macroglobulin. In case of nickel, the target organs are kidneys, bons, lungs, liver, brain and glands of endocrine system, but it is not accumulated in those, being excreted outside [3].
Nickel exposure can produce disorders of liver, kidney, spleen, brain and tissues, but also vesicular eczema, nasal and lung cancer. Also, it interferes in iron resorption, which lead to anemia, disturb the incorporation of calcium into skeleton, causing parakeratosis damage [10]. On reproductive system, this metal affects the quality of semen and cause abnormalities in it, including the tail of sperms [3].
Occupational exposure can cause allergic dermatitis, known as “nickel allergy”. In case of dermal contact, skin rash or allergic dermatitis appear, due to wearing of nickel-plated jewelry. Women are more sensible to nickel than men, especially in pregnant women which work in metallurgic industry and their babies hence structure abnormalities [3, 10].
At cellular level, it can produce breaking of DNA strands, cross linking of DNA protection, DNA oxidation, nucleotides removal, genes mutations, modifications of chromatids, binding to enzymes involved in DNA repair and degradation of protein, generation of ROS, enhances lipid peroxidation, affecting calcium and sulfhydryl homeostasis, degradation of glutathione [3].
Heavy metal pollution is global treat and increasing day by day, due to many natural and anthropogenic activities, which disturb natural composition of soil, water and air, but also of living organisms [3, 23].
These metals can enter the body from sources of contamination by ingestion, inhalation or dermal contact, where they are absorbed, then bioaccumulated in various organs or target tissues, for different periods of time [5, 22]. The most important is the occupational exposure for those working in industries where these metals are produced or used, which can be reduced by various engineering solutions [1].
Heavy metals can affect organs and their functions, causing adverse effects in humans like, cardiovascular, neurologic, gastrointestinal, immunologic, endocrine, reproductively disorders, but also various types of cancer, including lungs, bladder, skin. But, the severity of those side effects depends on chemical state, time and dose of exposure, solubility [22].
In order to prevent exposure to these metals, as well as the occurrence of health problems, it is important to establish safety limits for different matrices [19].
This work was achieved through Core Program, with the support of the Ministry of Research, Innovation and Digitization, contract 22 N/2019, project PN 19 02 03 02 and CNCS/CCCDI—UEFISCDI, project number PN-III-P3-3.6-H2020-2020-0011/Ctr. 1/2020.
These Terms and Conditions outline the rules and regulations pertaining to the use of IntechOpen’s website www.intechopen.com and all the subdomains owned by IntechOpen located at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, United Kingdom.
',metaTitle:"Terms and Conditions",metaDescription:"These terms and conditions outline the rules and regulations for the use of IntechOpen Website at https://intechopen.com and all its subdomains owned by Intech Limited located at 7th floor, 10 Lower Thames Street, London, EC3R 6AF, UK.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/terms-and-conditions",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"By accessing the website at www.intechopen.com you are agreeing to be bound by these Terms of Service, all applicable laws and regulations, and agree that you are responsible for compliance with any applicable local laws. Use and/or access to this site is based on full agreement and compliance of these Terms. All materials contained on this website are protected by applicable copyright and trademark laws.
\\n\\nThe following terminology applies to these Terms and Conditions, Privacy Statement, Disclaimer Notice, and any or all Agreements:
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\\n\\nAny use of the above terminology, or other words in the singular, plural, capitalization and/or he/she or they, are taken as interchangeable.
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\\n\\nIntechOpen has no formal affiliation to any external sites that link to www.intechopen.com, unless otherwise specifically stated. As such, it is not responsible for content that appears on any such sites. The inclusion of any link to IntechOpen does not imply endorsement by IntechOpen. Use of any such linked website is done solely at the user's own discretion.
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'By accessing the website at www.intechopen.com you are agreeing to be bound by these Terms of Service, all applicable laws and regulations, and agree that you are responsible for compliance with any applicable local laws. Use and/or access to this site is based on full agreement and compliance of these Terms. All materials contained on this website are protected by applicable copyright and trademark laws.
\n\nThe following terminology applies to these Terms and Conditions, Privacy Statement, Disclaimer Notice, and any or all Agreements:
\n\n“Client”, “Customer”, “You” and “Your” refers to you, the person accessing this website and accepting the Company’s Terms and Conditions;
\n\n“The Company”, “Ourselves”, “We”, “Our” and “Us”, refers to our Company, IntechOpen;
\n\n“Party”, “Parties”, or “Us”, refers to both the Client and ourselves, or either the Client or ourselves.
\n\nAll Terms refer to the offer, acceptance, and consideration of payment necessary to provide assistance to the Client in the most appropriate manner, whether by formal meetings of a fixed duration, or by any other agreed means, for the express purpose of meeting the Client’s needs in respect of provision of the Company’s stated services/products, and in accordance with, and subject to, the prevailing laws of the United Kingdom.
\n\nAny use of the above terminology, or other words in the singular, plural, capitalization and/or he/she or they, are taken as interchangeable.
\n\nUnless otherwise stated, IntechOpen and/or its licensors own the intellectual property rights for all materials on www.intechopen.com. All intellectual property rights are reserved. You may view, download, share, link and print pages from www.intechopen.com for your own personal use, subject to the restrictions set out in these Terms and Conditions.
\n\nWe employ the use of cookies. By using the IntechOpen website you consent to the use of cookies in accordance with IntechOpen’s Privacy Policy. Most modern day interactive websites use cookies to enable the retrieval of user details for each visit. On our site, cookies are predominantly used to enable functionality and ease of use for those visiting the site.
\n\nIn no circumstances shall IntechOpen or its suppliers be liable for any damages (including, without limitation, damages for loss of data or profit, or due to business interruption) arising out of the use, or inability to use, the materials on IntechOpen's websites, even if IntechOpen or an IntechOpen authorized representative has been notified orally or in writing of the possibility of such damage. Some jurisdictions do not allow limitations on implied warranties, or limitations of liability for consequential or incidental damages; consequently, these limitations may not apply to you.
\n\nIntechopen.com website content and services are provided on an "AS IS" and an "AS AVAILABLE" basis. Material appearing on www.intechopen.com could include minor technical, typographical, or photographic errors. IntechOpen may make changes to any material contained on its website at any time without notice.
\n\nIntechOpen has no formal affiliation to any external sites that link to www.intechopen.com, unless otherwise specifically stated. As such, it is not responsible for content that appears on any such sites. The inclusion of any link to IntechOpen does not imply endorsement by IntechOpen. Use of any such linked website is done solely at the user's own discretion.
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\n\nWithout prior approval and express written permission, you may not create frames around our web pages or use other techniques that alter in any way the visual presentation or appearance of our website.
\n\nIntechOpen may revise its Terms of Service for its website at any time without notice. By using this website, you are agreeing to be bound by the current version of all Terms at the time of use.
\n\nThese Terms and Conditions are governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of the United Kingdom and you irrevocably submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the courts in London, United Kingdom.
\n\nCroatian version of Terms and Conditions available here
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Ranz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5163",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",subtitle:"Advances in Research",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fc469ff4d2cf6651cfdbf3c5cf90a469",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",bookSignature:"Emerson Dechechi Chambo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5163.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94059",title:"Dr.",name:"Emerson",middleName:"Dechechi",surname:"Dechechi Chambó",slug:"emerson-dechechi-chambo",fullName:"Emerson Dechechi Chambó"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:3,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"50073",doi:"10.5772/62487",title:"Impacts of Pesticides on Honey Bees",slug:"impacts-of-pesticides-on-honey-bees",totalDownloads:3430,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:41,abstract:"This chapter focuses on the detrimental effects that pesticides have on managed honey bee colonies and their productivity. We examine first the routes of exposure of bees to agrochemicals used for crop protection and their application to crops, fate and contamination of water and plants around the fields. Most of the time, the exposure of bees to pesticides is through ingestion of residues found in the pollen and nectar of plants and in water. Honey bees are also exposed to pesticides used for the treatment of Varroa and other parasites. The basic concepts about the toxicity of the different kinds of pesticides are explained next. Various degrees of toxicity are found among agrochemicals, and emphasis is given to the classic tenet of toxicology, “the dose makes the poison,” and its modern version “the dose and the time of exposure makes the poison.” These two factors, dose and time, help us understand the severity of the impacts that pesticides may have on bees and their risk, which are analysed in the third section. Sublethal effects are also considered. The final section is devoted to some practical advice for avoiding adverse impacts of pesticides in beekeeping.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Francisco Sanchez-Bayo and Koichi Goka",authors:[{id:"74970",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez-Bayo",slug:"francisco-sanchez-bayo",fullName:"Francisco Sánchez-Bayo"},{id:"192045",title:"Dr.",name:"Koichi",middleName:null,surname:"Goka",slug:"koichi-goka",fullName:"Koichi Goka"}]},{id:"50307",doi:"10.5772/62654",title:"From Extraction to Meliponiculture: A Case Study of the Management of Stingless Bees in the West-Central Region of Mexico",slug:"from-extraction-to-meliponiculture-a-case-study-of-the-management-of-stingless-bees-in-the-west-cent",totalDownloads:2745,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Currently, stingless bees' populations are declining due to environmental degradation. In this context, the authors have developed a research project in the central-western region of Mexico with the goal to generate strategies for conservation and sustainable management of stingless bees. The chapter aims to present the process of this investigation and its main results in terms of a) local knowledge and management strategies of stingless bees, and b) the social process of technological appropriation of meliponiculture by beekeepers. We recognized specific knowledge on the biology and ecology of stingless bees that result in a system for identifying species and management strategies of wild populations of these bees based on the extraction of nests. The implementation of an innovative productive activity based on the principles of meliponiculture and current techniques has been well received by producers, which has led to the formation of the Meliponicultores Michoacanos del Balsas Association, which grows five species of stingless bees. The research suggests that conservation associated with the use of bees (integral meliponiculture) can be enhanced in the region. Faced with the loss of biodiversity and environmental crisis, it is essential to maintain and enhance local knowledge of stingless bees and management practices. This represents an alternative to develop management schemes that allow the raising and breeding of these bees, while its products are obtained.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Alejandro Reyes-González, Andrés Camou-Guerrero and Salvador\nGómez-Arreola",authors:[{id:"179951",title:"Dr.",name:"Andres",middleName:null,surname:"Camou-Guerrero",slug:"andres-camou-guerrero",fullName:"Andres Camou-Guerrero"},{id:"185413",title:"MSc.",name:"Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Reyes-González",slug:"alejandro-reyes-gonzalez",fullName:"Alejandro Reyes-González"},{id:"192049",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvador",middleName:null,surname:"Gómez-Arreola",slug:"salvador-gomez-arreola",fullName:"Salvador Gómez-Arreola"}]},{id:"50170",doi:"10.5772/62395",title:"A Comprehensive Characterization of the Honeybees in Siberia (Russia)",slug:"a-comprehensive-characterization-of-the-honeybees-in-siberia-russia-",totalDownloads:2303,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"A comprehensive study of some populations of honeybee (332 colonies) in Siberia (Tomsk region, Krasnoyarsk Krai (Yenisei population), Altai) using morphometric and molecular genetic methods was conducted. Infestation of bees (132 colonies) by Nosema has also been studied. Three variants of the COI-COII mtDNA locus were registered: PQQ, PQQQ (typical for Apis m. mellifera), and Q (specific for southern races). It was established that 64% of bee colonies from the Tomsk region and all colonies studied from the Krasnoyarsk and the Altai territories originate from Apis m. mellifera on the maternal line. According to the morphometric study, the majority of bee colonies of the Tomsk region are hybrids; in some colonies the mismatch of morphometric and mtDNA data was observed. Moreover, the majority of bee colonies infected by Nosema were hybrids. Yenisei population may be considered as a unique Apis m. mellifera population. Microsatellite analysis (loci А008, Ap049, AC117, AC216, Ap243, H110, A024, A113) showed the specific distribution of genotypes and alleles for some loci in the bees, which differ by geographical location. Loci A024 and Ap049 are of considerable interest for further study as candidate markers for differentiation of subspecies; locus A008 can be considered informative for determining of different ecotypes of Apis m. mellifera.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Nadezhda V. Ostroverkhova, Olga L. Konusova, Aksana N. Kucher\nand Igor V. Sharakhov",authors:[{id:"180112",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nadezhda",middleName:null,surname:"Ostroverkhova",slug:"nadezhda-ostroverkhova",fullName:"Nadezhda Ostroverkhova"},{id:"180249",title:"Ms.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Konusova",slug:"olga-konusova",fullName:"Olga Konusova"},{id:"180342",title:"Prof.",name:"Aksana",middleName:null,surname:"Kucher",slug:"aksana-kucher",fullName:"Aksana Kucher"},{id:"180343",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor",middleName:null,surname:"Sharakhov",slug:"igor-sharakhov",fullName:"Igor Sharakhov"}]},{id:"50683",doi:"10.5772/63145",title:"Advances in Pharmacological Activities and Chemical Composition of Propolis Produced in Americas",slug:"advances-in-pharmacological-activities-and-chemical-composition-of-propolis-produced-in-americas",totalDownloads:2583,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Propolis is a resinous material produced by bees from the selective collection of plant exudates that are subsequently mixed with beeswax and salivary bee secretions. Propolis has been used in folk medicine, and certainly, several studies have validated its biological properties. The chemical composition and pharmacological activities of propolis collected through North (including Central America and Caribbean) and South America have been studied in the last years, and several papers have reported differences and similarities among the analysed geographical samples. Propolis has been classified according to its aspect and plant source; however, the ecological diversity present along the Americas provides a plethora of botanical resins. Herein, we summarize and discuss most of the studies performed at present on this profitable product for apiculture, attempting to compare the bioactivity, phytochemical diversity and botanical sources of honeybee propolis produced in Americas.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Efrain Alday, Moisés Navarro-Navarro, Adriana Garibay-Escobar,\nRamón Robles-Zepeda, Javier Hernandez and Carlos Velazquez",authors:[{id:"96966",title:"MSc.",name:"Moises",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Navarro",slug:"moises-navarro-navarro",fullName:"Moises Navarro-Navarro"},{id:"180409",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Velazquez",slug:"carlos-velazquez",fullName:"Carlos Velazquez"},{id:"186351",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramón",middleName:null,surname:"Robles-Zepeda",slug:"ramon-robles-zepeda",fullName:"Ramón Robles-Zepeda"},{id:"186352",title:"MSc.",name:"Efrain",middleName:null,surname:"Alday",slug:"efrain-alday",fullName:"Efrain Alday"},{id:"186353",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Hernandez",slug:"javier-hernandez",fullName:"Javier Hernandez"},{id:"189161",title:"Dr.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"Garibay-Escobar",slug:"adriana-garibay-escobar",fullName:"Adriana Garibay-Escobar"}]},{id:"71161",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91196",title:"Detailed Review on Pesticidal Toxicity to Honey Bees and Its Management",slug:"detailed-review-on-pesticidal-toxicity-to-honey-bees-and-its-management",totalDownloads:1057,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"This chapter deals with the effects of different pesticides used in agro-ecosystem on honey bees and other pollinators and probable measures to manage this escalating problem of global decline of managed as well as the wild insect pollinators. This chapter describes different routes from which pollinators, especially honey bees get exposed to the different toxicants, followed by poisoning symptoms in honey bees. Further, this chapter focuses on the classification of different toxicants in different classes as per their nature. Finally, the management of these different toxicants and their toxicity to avoid bee poisoning has been considered in the later portion of the chapter.",book:{id:"8929",slug:"modern-beekeeping-bases-for-sustainable-production",title:"Modern Beekeeping",fullTitle:"Modern Beekeeping - Bases for Sustainable Production"},signatures:"Gaurava Kumar, Swoyam Singh and Rukesh Pramod Kodigenahalli Nagarajaiah",authors:[{id:"305621",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Gaurava",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"gaurava-kumar",fullName:"Gaurava Kumar"},{id:"315507",title:"Dr.",name:"Swoyam",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"swoyam-singh",fullName:"Swoyam Singh"},{id:"315508",title:"Dr.",name:"Rukesh",middleName:null,surname:"Pramod K.N.",slug:"rukesh-pramod-k.n.",fullName:"Rukesh Pramod K.N."}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"50170",title:"A Comprehensive Characterization of the Honeybees in Siberia (Russia)",slug:"a-comprehensive-characterization-of-the-honeybees-in-siberia-russia-",totalDownloads:2302,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"A comprehensive study of some populations of honeybee (332 colonies) in Siberia (Tomsk region, Krasnoyarsk Krai (Yenisei population), Altai) using morphometric and molecular genetic methods was conducted. Infestation of bees (132 colonies) by Nosema has also been studied. Three variants of the COI-COII mtDNA locus were registered: PQQ, PQQQ (typical for Apis m. mellifera), and Q (specific for southern races). It was established that 64% of bee colonies from the Tomsk region and all colonies studied from the Krasnoyarsk and the Altai territories originate from Apis m. mellifera on the maternal line. According to the morphometric study, the majority of bee colonies of the Tomsk region are hybrids; in some colonies the mismatch of morphometric and mtDNA data was observed. Moreover, the majority of bee colonies infected by Nosema were hybrids. Yenisei population may be considered as a unique Apis m. mellifera population. Microsatellite analysis (loci А008, Ap049, AC117, AC216, Ap243, H110, A024, A113) showed the specific distribution of genotypes and alleles for some loci in the bees, which differ by geographical location. Loci A024 and Ap049 are of considerable interest for further study as candidate markers for differentiation of subspecies; locus A008 can be considered informative for determining of different ecotypes of Apis m. mellifera.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Nadezhda V. Ostroverkhova, Olga L. Konusova, Aksana N. Kucher\nand Igor V. Sharakhov",authors:[{id:"180112",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nadezhda",middleName:null,surname:"Ostroverkhova",slug:"nadezhda-ostroverkhova",fullName:"Nadezhda Ostroverkhova"},{id:"180249",title:"Ms.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Konusova",slug:"olga-konusova",fullName:"Olga Konusova"},{id:"180342",title:"Prof.",name:"Aksana",middleName:null,surname:"Kucher",slug:"aksana-kucher",fullName:"Aksana Kucher"},{id:"180343",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor",middleName:null,surname:"Sharakhov",slug:"igor-sharakhov",fullName:"Igor Sharakhov"}]},{id:"70501",title:"Southeast Asian Meliponiculture for Sustainable Livelihood",slug:"southeast-asian-meliponiculture-for-sustainable-livelihood",totalDownloads:1262,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Stingless bees (Apidae: Meliponini) are one of the most important pollinators of native plants and economic crops in tropical and subtropical parts of the world. They not only establish large perennial colonies with complex social organization but also have a diverse nesting biology. The economic utilization of a total of 60 stingless bee species in Asia has been reported. The current status of meliponiculture in Southeast Asia is mainly focused on pollination utilization and honey and propolis production. This chapter shows that small-scale beekeeping of stingless bees, which is suitable for the flowering pattern in the tropics, is one of the best potential alternative opportunities. The cost-effectiveness analysis based on production yield, investment cost, and profit-return rate is reviewed. Finally, a sustainable utilization of stingless bees is considered to be an enhancer of pollination services both in an agricultural crop and natural ecosystem.",book:{id:"8929",slug:"modern-beekeeping-bases-for-sustainable-production",title:"Modern Beekeeping",fullTitle:"Modern Beekeeping - Bases for Sustainable Production"},signatures:"Atsalek Rattanawannee and Orawan Duangphakdee",authors:[{id:"283087",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Atsalek",middleName:null,surname:"Rattanawannee",slug:"atsalek-rattanawannee",fullName:"Atsalek Rattanawannee"},{id:"306411",title:"Dr.",name:"Orawan",middleName:null,surname:"Duangphakdee",slug:"orawan-duangphakdee",fullName:"Orawan Duangphakdee"}]},{id:"50073",title:"Impacts of Pesticides on Honey Bees",slug:"impacts-of-pesticides-on-honey-bees",totalDownloads:3419,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:41,abstract:"This chapter focuses on the detrimental effects that pesticides have on managed honey bee colonies and their productivity. We examine first the routes of exposure of bees to agrochemicals used for crop protection and their application to crops, fate and contamination of water and plants around the fields. Most of the time, the exposure of bees to pesticides is through ingestion of residues found in the pollen and nectar of plants and in water. Honey bees are also exposed to pesticides used for the treatment of Varroa and other parasites. The basic concepts about the toxicity of the different kinds of pesticides are explained next. Various degrees of toxicity are found among agrochemicals, and emphasis is given to the classic tenet of toxicology, “the dose makes the poison,” and its modern version “the dose and the time of exposure makes the poison.” These two factors, dose and time, help us understand the severity of the impacts that pesticides may have on bees and their risk, which are analysed in the third section. Sublethal effects are also considered. The final section is devoted to some practical advice for avoiding adverse impacts of pesticides in beekeeping.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Francisco Sanchez-Bayo and Koichi Goka",authors:[{id:"74970",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez-Bayo",slug:"francisco-sanchez-bayo",fullName:"Francisco Sánchez-Bayo"},{id:"192045",title:"Dr.",name:"Koichi",middleName:null,surname:"Goka",slug:"koichi-goka",fullName:"Koichi Goka"}]},{id:"50135",title:"Breeding Program Design Principles for Royal Jelly",slug:"breeding-program-design-principles-for-royal-jelly",totalDownloads:2780,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This research was carried out to infer the genetic value to produce royal jelly in Africanized Apis mellifera L. honeybees with the compilation of data collected from 2006 to 2011. Genetic information of the selected and accessed colonies was obtained using the total DNA extraction techniques of nurse honeybees’ thorax with molecular markers for MRJP3 protein and characterized in Apis mellifera L. From the information on the colonies and genealogical structure were predicted genetic values of the colonies and queens for the larvae acceptance trait (%), royal jelly per colony (g), and royal jelly per cup (mg). Animal model with Bayesian Inference was used from Multiple Trait Gibbs Sampling software in Animal Models, Gibbs chains 58,500 cycles resulting from 650,000 cycles with intervals and disposal of 65,000 and 10 withdraw, respectively. From the predicted values, the colonies were classified into upper and lower. To compare the average of the genetic values according to the genotypes, the average multiple comparison tests were proceeded and implemented in routine PROC GENMOD from the Statistical Analysis System. Environmental effects were considered, time and hive type (standard Langstroth) as having flat distribution and collection as chi-square distribution. The studies presented an increase in the alleles C and D and the alleles D and E—referring to MRJPs—found in the highest genetic value for royal jelly production. Alleles D, E, and C are important when evaluating the parameters larvae acceptance, royal jelly per colony, and royal jelly per cup and, occasionally, it was the DE genotype that stood out royal jelly production. Genotypes DE, DC, and EC are those that should be kept in this evaluation system for royal jelly production, and the other genotypes should be discarded because they had the worst performance for the parameters evaluated.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Katia Ostrovski-Tomporoski, Patrícia Faquinello, Fabiana Martins\nCosta-Maia, Maria Claudia Ruvolo-Takasusuki, Pedro da Rosa\nSantos and Vagner Arnaut de Toledo",authors:[{id:"92329",title:"Dr.",name:"Vagner",middleName:"De Alencar",surname:"Arnaut De Toledo",slug:"vagner-arnaut-de-toledo",fullName:"Vagner Arnaut De Toledo"},{id:"119608",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Claudia",middleName:"Colla",surname:"Ruvolo-Takasusuki",slug:"maria-claudia-ruvolo-takasusuki",fullName:"Maria Claudia Ruvolo-Takasusuki"},{id:"180234",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia",middleName:null,surname:"Faquinello",slug:"patricia-faquinello",fullName:"Patricia Faquinello"},{id:"180235",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabiana",middleName:null,surname:"Costa-Maia",slug:"fabiana-costa-maia",fullName:"Fabiana Costa-Maia"},{id:"180368",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Katia",middleName:"Regina",surname:"Ostrovski-Tomporoski",slug:"katia-ostrovski-tomporoski",fullName:"Katia Ostrovski-Tomporoski"}]},{id:"50521",title:"Rearing Bumble Bees for Research and Profit: Practical and Ethical Considerations",slug:"rearing-bumble-bees-for-research-and-profit-practical-and-ethical-considerations",totalDownloads:2928,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The commercial production of bumble bee colonies is a multi-million dollar business worldwide. The pollination of greenhouse tomatoes is largely dependent on this industry. However, microparasites are prevalent in many of these colonies and can spread to wild populations of bumble bees. Academic researchers now commonly purchase colonies for their work. I believe that this raises some questions: (a) What is the danger of exacerbating the problem of spread of parasites and pathogens to wild population of bumble bees from field studies using purchased colonies? (b) How representative studies are done on only a few species, for example, B. terrestris, B. impatiens? (c) Does the purchase and use of these colonies give tacit approval to the industry, which may be having a detrimental effect on the native populations of bumble bees? This is an ethical issue. (d) Loss of “feeling for the organism” by researchers and particularly graduate students. These issues were discussed, and the classical method of bumble bee rearing which avoids these problems was described.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Robin E. Owen",authors:[{id:"101485",title:"Dr.",name:"Robin",middleName:"Edward",surname:"Owen",slug:"robin-owen",fullName:"Robin Owen"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"332",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11403,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11404,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11405,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. His research interests include biomaterials, nanomaterials, bioengineering, biosensors, drug delivery systems, and tissue engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"82526",title:"Deep Multiagent Reinforcement Learning Methods Addressing the Scalability Challenge",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105627",signatures:"Theocharis Kravaris and George A. Vouros",slug:"deep-multiagent-reinforcement-learning-methods-addressing-the-scalability-challenge",totalDownloads:19,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Multi-Agent Technologies and Machine Learning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11445.jpg",subseries:{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems"}}},{id:"82196",title:"Multi-Features Assisted Age Invariant Face Recognition and Retrieval Using CNN with Scale Invariant Heat Kernel Signature",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104944",signatures:"Kamarajugadda Kishore Kumar and Movva Pavani",slug:"multi-features-assisted-age-invariant-face-recognition-and-retrieval-using-cnn-with-scale-invariant-",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"82063",title:"Evaluating Similarities and Differences between Machine Learning and Traditional Statistical Modeling in Healthcare Analytics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105116",signatures:"Michele Bennett, Ewa J. Kleczyk, Karin Hayes and Rajesh Mehta",slug:"evaluating-similarities-and-differences-between-machine-learning-and-traditional-statistical-modelin",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11422.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81791",title:"Self-Supervised Contrastive Representation Learning in Computer Vision",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104785",signatures:"Yalin Bastanlar and Semih Orhan",slug:"self-supervised-contrastive-representation-learning-in-computer-vision",totalDownloads:59,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7723",title:"Artificial Intelligence",subtitle:"Applications in Medicine and Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7723.jpg",slug:"artificial-intelligence-applications-in-medicine-and-biology",publishedDate:"July 31st 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marco Antonio Aceves-Fernandez",hash:"a3852659e727f95c98c740ed98146011",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Artificial Intelligence - Applications in Medicine and Biology",editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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Since from August 2013 working as a Associate Professor, and in 2016 promoted to Profeesor in the School of Basic Sciences: Department of Chemistry and having 20 years of teaching and research experiences.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rani Channamma University, Belagavi",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yusuf Tutar conducts his research at the Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences, Turkey. He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"436430",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mesut",middleName:null,surname:"Işık",slug:"mesut-isik",fullName:"Mesut Işık",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/436430/images/19686_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bilecik University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"17",type:"subseries",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11413,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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