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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6895",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Moths - Pests of Potato, Maize and Sugar Beet",title:"Moths",subtitle:"Pests of Potato, Maize and Sugar Beet",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book contains four chapters. Chapter 1 is an introduction to moths. It describes their history, differences with butterflies and skippers, classification, camouflage, navigation, attraction to light, and migration. Moths are useful as bio-indicators, pollinators, dispersal of seeds and producers of useful products (silk). They are harmful as agricultural and stored-grain pests, but can be controlled biologically and with pesticides. Chapter 2 reports that among moth pests the potato tuber moth, Phthorimaea operculella Zeller, is considered one of the most important potato pests worldwide. In Chapter 3, the pathogenicity of three native isolates of the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana were studied in different concentrations of P. operculella eggs. The most pathogenic isolate was determined on eggs in vitro. Chapter 4 highlights several case studies representing long-term field research results of moth pests in maize, Zea mays L., and sugar-beet, Beta vulgaris L.",isbn:"978-1-78984-705-5",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-704-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-742-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73423",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"moths-pests-of-potato-maize-and-sugar-beet",numberOfPages:94,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"53f66556fd9bcdc455a639838d45c2d8",bookSignature:"Farzana Khan Perveen",publishedDate:"December 5th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6895.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4229,numberOfWosCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:16,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:38,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 13th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 6th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 5th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 24th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 22nd 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"75563",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzana Khan",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"farzana-khan-perveen",fullName:"Farzana Khan Perveen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75563/images/system/75563.jpg",biography:"Dr. Farzana Khan Perveen (FLS; Gold Medalist) obtained her BSc (Hons) and MSc in Entomology from the University of Karachi, Pakistan, and MAS (Monbusho Scholarship) in Agronomy from Nagoya University, Japan, and a Ph.D. in Toxicology from the University of Karachi. She is the founder of the Department of Zoology and former controller of examinations at Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University, Hazara University, and Kohat University of Science and Technology. She is the author of 150 high-impact research papers, 135 abstracts, 40 authored books, 9 chapters, and 9 edited books. She is also a student supervisor. Her fields of interest are entomology, toxicology, forensic entomology.",institutionString:"Classes et Events in Sciences (C.E.S.)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"39",title:"Insectology",slug:"insectology"}],chapters:[{id:"62887",title:"Introductory Chapter: Moths",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79639",slug:"introductory-chapter-moths",totalDownloads:1081,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Farzana Khan Perveen and Anzela Khan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62887",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62887",authors:[{id:"75563",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzana Khan",surname:"Perveen",slug:"farzana-khan-perveen",fullName:"Farzana Khan Perveen"}],corrections:null},{id:"64355",title:"The Journey of the Potato Tuberworm Around the World",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81934",slug:"the-journey-of-the-potato-tuberworm-around-the-world",totalDownloads:1246,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) production is challenged by many factors including pests and diseases. Among insect pests, Phthorimaea operculella Zeller (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), known as the potato tuber worm or potato tuber moth, is considered one of the most important potato pests worldwide. Phthorimaea operculella is a cosmopolitan pest of solanaceous crops including potato, tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.), and other important row crops. Adults oviposit in leaves, stems, and tubers; immature stage mines leaves causing foliar damage, but most importantly, burrows into tubers rendering them unmarketable. Currently, pest management practices are effective in controlling P. operculella, but the effectiveness depends on many factors that will be discussed later in this chapter. Each section includes up-to-date information related to P. operculella biology, ecology, and control, including origins, host range, life cycle, distribution, seasonal dynamics, and control methods.",signatures:"Silvia I. Rondon and Yulin Gao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64355",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64355",authors:[{id:"85253",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvia",surname:"Rondon",slug:"silvia-rondon",fullName:"Silvia Rondon"},{id:"250101",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulin",surname:"Gao",slug:"yulin-gao",fullName:"Yulin Gao"}],corrections:null},{id:"62033",title:"Susceptibility of Egg Stage of Potato Tuber Moth Phthorimaea operculella to Native Isolates of Beauveria bassiana",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78391",slug:"susceptibility-of-egg-stage-of-potato-tuber-moth-phthorimaea-operculella-to-native-isolates-of-beauv",totalDownloads:854,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The pathogenicity of three local isolates of the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana (Bals.) Vuill was evaluated on eggs of potato tuber moth P. operculella (Zeller). The three isolates were coded as the following: B (isolate from Latakia), C (isolate from ICARDA) and D (isolate from Damascus). Three concentrations 104, 105, and 106, respectively, conidia/ml were used for each isolate. Eggs in the control were sprayed by sterilized water. All tests were done under laboratory conditions of temperature 28 ± 2°C and relative humidity 40 ± 5%. Susceptibility tests showed significant differences in averages of hatching rate between the control and both isolates B and C when 1 × 106 conidia/ml was applied, with averages 18.3 and 26.6% for previous isolates respectively, in contrast to 38.3 for isolate D and 66.6% for control. Findings indicated that eggs of P. operculella seemed sensible to local isolates of B. bassiana in varying degree, but further studies are required about the efficiency of effective isolates for controlling eggs of this pest in natural conditions.",signatures:"Nisreen Houssain Alsaoud, Doummar Hashim Nammour and Ali\nYaseen Ali",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62033",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62033",authors:[{id:"257635",title:"Dr.",name:"Nisreen",surname:"Alsaoud",slug:"nisreen-alsaoud",fullName:"Nisreen Alsaoud"},{id:"257641",title:"Prof.",name:"Dommar",surname:"Nammour",slug:"dommar-nammour",fullName:"Dommar Nammour"},{id:"257643",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali Yassin",surname:"Ali",slug:"ali-yassin-ali",fullName:"Ali Yassin Ali"}],corrections:null},{id:"62094",title:"Moths of Economic Importance in the Maize and Sugar Beet Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78658",slug:"moths-of-economic-importance-in-the-maize-and-sugar-beet-production",totalDownloads:1051,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Maize and sugar beet productions are often threatened by various pests, causing high yield losses. Economically, most important maize pest is European corn borer, while sugar beet moth and noctuid moths cause serious damage on the sugar beet. This chapter highlights an introduction to several case studies representing long-term field research results on these pests. Depending on the pest, each study investigated the population level, dynamics of emergence or flight, damage levels and possibilities of forecasting on different localities in Croatia. The results could be of great importance in management of these pests. The European corn borer management depends mainly on timely conducted control, but the damage level also depends on maize hybrid and climatic conditions of investigated area. Damages caused by sugar beet moth depend on the population level and on locality’s specific climate in a particular year. Sugar beet moth population and flight dynamics can be monitored by using pheromones, while pheromone application in forecasting and control showed to be disputable. Noctuid moths feed on the sugar beet foliage, causing high damages, especially on young plants. The damage level depends on the climatic conditions of the research area, and visual inspections of caterpillars are necessary for forecasting and control decision.",signatures:"Renata Bažok, Zrinka Drmić, Maja Čačija, Martina Mrganić, Helena\nVirić Gašparić and Darija Lemić",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62094",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62094",authors:[{id:"152629",title:"Prof.",name:"Renata",surname:"Bažok",slug:"renata-bazok",fullName:"Renata Bažok"},{id:"153403",title:"Dr.",name:"Maja",surname:"Čačija",slug:"maja-cacija",fullName:"Maja Čačija"},{id:"250531",title:"Dr.",name:"Darija",surname:"Lemić",slug:"darija-lemic",fullName:"Darija Lemić"},{id:"250532",title:"Dr.",name:"Zrinka",surname:"Drmić",slug:"zrinka-drmic",fullName:"Zrinka Drmić"},{id:"250535",title:"MSc.",name:"Helena",surname:"Virić Gašparić",slug:"helena-viric-gasparic",fullName:"Helena Virić Gašparić"},{id:"250536",title:"MSc.",name:"Martina",surname:"Mrganić",slug:"martina-mrganic",fullName:"Martina 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One of the most common problems in road geotechnics projects is encountering subgrade soils of low carrying capacity. Multiple solutions are proposed to improve the unfavorable conditions of this type of soil; however, a large part of them can be harmful to the environment. In this sense, alternatives based on design with geosynthetics are important and allow for adequate reinforcement of the unsuitable soft subgrade as a supporting layer of the pavement structure.
However, with the implementation of geosynthetics, problems associated with the stresses experienced by the material were observed, such as UV degradation and long-term plastic deformation. These effects occur in almost all geosynthetics, even in geocells, which will be analyzed in detail in this article.
The first need to reinforce highly compressible soils arose during wartime at the beginning of the twentieth century, when the transport of heavy machinery was required. For this reason, the US Army Corps of Engineers was the first to use and develop the cellular confinement system in the late 1970s, as a means to help build roads, runways, platforms, and others; all these solutions were made on very soft soils and under humid conditions.
The main large-scale use of this system of cellular confinement was during the Gulf War, in “Operation Desert Storm”, where it transported heavy military material with speed and efficiency. For the purpose of mobilizing large troops, according to the company Geoceldas SA, the defense department of the United States “acquired 6.4 million square feet (600,000 square meters) of cellular geosynthetics for use in various military applications [1].”
In terms of its implementation in design tasks, pavement structure with geocells uses a coefficient of increase for the modules of the materials (MIF), which depends on several factors. Among these is resistance to long-term deformation of the material that makes up the panel of geocells. This generates a mechanism of confinement, which creates an apparent cohesion of the material incorporated therein. If the geocells yield, it is susceptible to losing its properties and begins to deform causing a settlement in the pavement structure, in addition to providing a deconfinement in the geocell filling material [2, 3].
Therefore, some consequences of deformation in the geocell are the reduction of the apparent cohesion in the filling material due to the loss of confinement, according to which there is a high decrease in the MIF coefficient taken into account during the design of the structure.
For these reasons, it is important to know the properties of the materials that are involved in the pavement structures and the veracity of the calculations that are made in the analyses. Therefore, when calculating the MIF, it is important to know the long-term deformation of material to give support and certainty in the analyses. Consequently, a modified test based on the SIM for geocells was developed. A test program was carried out using different samples of geocells, exposing results for each one of them.
The definition of the MIF factor refers to the material modulus with reinforcement vs. the material without reinforcement. This value is obtained at the moment of designing a structure with geocell, applying five characteristics of the material-geocell set, among which is the long-term deformation of geosynthetic. The MIF value depends on the analysis of the creep in the geocells, because if the material becomes deconfined, the increase of the modulus considered in the design will be reduced. For this reason, a safety factor is applied to the MIF, due to the creep in the geocells.
The samples were analyzed under load effects, which contemplate those generated at the level of the granular subbase layer of pavement, thus showing the feasibility of use in this layer and the possible behavior of these over its usable life.
This research was based on the stepped isothermal method (SIM) which is standardized by ASTM D6992 [4, 5]. It was modified to prove the long-term deformation of the geocells and to learn the incidence that this property has when calculating the MIF, which is described as the relationship that exists between the module of a granular material confined with geocells and the same granular material without confinement, determined from Eq. (1) [6]. Basically, the adjustment on the test was based in terms of the width and length of the specimens, which depends on the type of geocell that is being analyzed.
The SIM test determines the long-term deformation of polymers by time-temperature superposition, whose effect was modified for use in polyolefin geocells. This method, known as the “time-temperature superposition principle (PSTT),” establishes that material having a viscoelastic property (V) measured in a time interval coincides with the same measurement in greater times at a lower temperature. Because this method is clearly empirical, it is defined as a principle, because not even theoretical concepts have been developed to sustain it [7].
With the aforementioned considerations, an increase in temperature according to Billmeyer [8], accelerates molecular and segmental movement, leading the system to equilibrium more quickly or “apparent equilibrium,” accelerating all viscoelastic processes.
To that extent, the modification proposal is based on systematically dividing the trial into five steps, in which the temperature will be increased with a specific duration for each step. In addition to applying a constant load throughout the trial of 4.4 kN/m, the temperatures reached for each step are 21 ± 1, 44, 51, and 65°C, respectively.
The first part of the test refers to the simulation of the load exerted on the geocell at the time of compaction of the filling material. It is possible to find a mean of time-temperature superposition according to [9], a temperature of 51°C and 1 hour of testing, equivalent to 100,000 hours of use (4166 days or 11 years).
The load of 4.4 kN/m, to which the material is subjected throughout the test, replicates the force supported by the geocell in the granular subbase of a pavement structure. This necessitates implementation of a series of charges which will be imposed through weights that will transmit this force to the geocells.
All samples used came from polyolefin geocells available in the Colombian market. The sampling was conducted randomly from a bank of specimens supplied by the manufacturer. For the high-density polyethylene (HDPE) geocells, its polymer contents are not mentioned in this document, since it is known as high-density polyethylene in all the state of the art. While for the Neoloy® Geocell, no typology is obtained since its raw material is patented and there is no information about its polymer composition.
For the first type of HDPE polyolefin geocells from Provider 1, the properties are shown in Table 1.
Properties of the material | Testing method | Unit | Values MARV |
---|---|---|---|
Polymer density | ASTM D-1505 | g/cm3 | 0.935–0.965 |
Black smoke content | ASTM D-1603 | % weight | 1.5% min |
Nominal thickness of the cell wall before texturing | ASTM D-5199 | mm | 1.1 ± 10% |
Nominal thickness of the cell wall after texturing | ASTM D-5199 | mm | 1.52 ± 10% |
Nominal size of the expanded cell | Measured | mm | 320 × 287 |
Nominal area of the expanded cell | Measured | cm2 | 460 |
Nominal size of the expanded panel | Measured | m | 2,56 × 8,35 |
Nominal size of the expanded panel | Measured | m2 | 21,04 |
Height of the cell | Measured | mm (in) | 75(3) 100(4) 150(6) 200(8) |
Resistance of the joints by ultrasound | USAGE GL-86-19 | N | 1065 1420 2130 2840 |
Ultimate resistance to joints tension | ISO 13426-1 method B | kN/m | 15 |
Ultimate resistance to tension wide strip method | ISO 10319 | kN/m | 25 |
% of perforations per unit area | Measured | % | 12±2 |
Properties of geocell type 1, Provider 1.
For the second type of HDPE polyolefin geocells from Provider 2, the properties are shown in Table 2.
Physical properties | Norm | Unit | Typical values |
---|---|---|---|
Density of the material | ASTM D-1505 | g/cm3 | 0.950 ± 0.015 |
Thickness of the sheet (textured) | ASTM D-5199 | mm | min. 1.52 ± 0.15 |
Black carbon content | ASTM D-1603 | % | 2.0 ± 0.5 |
Resistance to environmental cracking (ESCR) | ASTM D-1693 | hours | >3000 |
Resistance of the joints to the takeoff | ASTM D-4437 | N/cm | >150 |
Height of the unit | mm | 150 | |
Minimum values of resistance | ISO 13426-1 method A: shear test | kN/joint | 2.7 |
kN/m | 8.1 | ||
ISO 13426-1 method B: takeoff test | kN/joint | 2.25 | |
kN/m | 6.75 | ||
Number of cells | #/m | 21.7 | |
Diagonal length | cm | 30.4 | |
Cell area | cm2 | 461 | |
Distance between joints | mm | 445 | |
Width of the expanded unit | m | 2.43 | |
Expanded unit length | m | 5.5 | |
Coverage | m2 | 13.3 | |
Weight of the unit | kg | 20.8 |
Properties of geocell type 2, Provider 2
For the third type of polyolefin geocell from Neoloy® of Provider 3, the properties shown in Table 3 are available, for categories A, C, and D.
Dimensions of the cells and panels | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Property | Value | |||
Distance between ribs | 445 mm (±2.5%) | |||
Height of the cells | 150–200 mm (±5%) | |||
Dimensions of the open cell | 340 × 290 mm (±3%) | |||
# of cells/m2 | 22 | |||
Expanded section size | 2.8 × 10.7–17.3 m (±3%) (máx.) | |||
Expanded section area | 30–48 m2 (±3%) | |||
Resistance to welding (kN/m) | ISO 13426-1 | 9 | 15 | 18 |
Ultimate resistance of the material (MPa) | ASTM D638, ISO 527 | 22 | 24 | 28 |
Ultimate resistance (wide strip with perforations) (kN/m) | ISO 103192 | 9 | 15 | 22 |
Dimensional stability | Norm | Value | ||
Coefficient of thermal expansion (ppm/°C) measuring range of −30°C to +30°C | ASTM E-831 | ≤95 | ||
Time of induction to oxidation (OIT at 200°C) (mpn.) (virgin material before any modification) | ASTM D-3895 | ≥125 | ||
Resistance to ultraviolet degradation (HPOIT at 200°C) (min.) | ASTM D-5885 | ≥1250 | ||
Durability of the cell to long-term cyclical loads (pass) | Accelerated radial pressure test (TRI) | Cells, joints, and perforations remained intact without evidence of plastic deformation at the end of the cyclic loading | ||
Efficiency of the internal friction angle | ASTM D-5321 | ≥0.84 | ||
Flexural module for each temperature (MPa) | ISO 672 ASTM E2254 (DAM) | |||
−40°C | >1150 | |||
−10°C | >1050 | |||
+10°C | >950 | |||
+30°C | >750 | |||
+45°C | >650 | |||
+60°C | >550 | |||
Reduction factor due to permanent deformation(creep) | ASTM D-6992 (SIM) | |||
5 years | <1.2 | |||
10 years | <1.4 | |||
25 years | <1.9 | |||
50 years | <2.9 |
Geocell of types 3 and 4 properties, Provider 3.
The laboratory procedure is divided into three parts.
Part I: To start the test, it is necessary to take the measurements of the samples; for this reason the length, width, and thickness of the geocell must be taken.
Part II: The specimen is adjusted to the metal jaws, generating a total interaction between the geocell and the jaws (Figure 1), while Figure 2 shows how the jaws should be placed on both the upper and lower halves to generate the desired load transfer.
Adjustment of the sample to the clamp.
Placement of the sample to the upper and lower jaws.
Part III: In this step, the samples are hoisted in the oven support, complementing the union of the jaw of the lower part of the sample to the stem (Figure 3). After this it is necessary to place the deformimeters in the base that supports the oven (Figure 4, left).
Installation of the sample in the oven.
Deformimeters in the base of the oven (left) and placement of weights in the stems (right).
Part IV: The hydraulic jack is placed in the lower part of the rods, generating a support so as not to exert preliminary efforts on the geocells, and then all the necessary weights are placed to reach the force required in the test (Figure 4, right). The oven is subsequently closed.
Part V: The oven is turned on at room temperature (21 ± 1°C), then the hydraulic jack is lowered by hanging the stems with the weights, and the first reading of the deformimeter is recorded, after which the steps with the pre-established times begun.
To obtain the time-temperature superposition data that is necessary in the production of the SIM assay graphs, it was necessary to create an accurate graph, where equivalences (see Table 4) are determined between temperature and time superimposed by every minute that elapsed in temperature; see [10].
Temperature (°C) | Equivalent time (min.) |
---|---|
23 | 1 |
30 | 10 |
37 | 100 |
44 | 1000 |
51 | 10,000 |
58 | 100,000 |
65 | 1,000,000 |
Equivalent times.
An exponential behavior is observed in these correlations, where time depends on temperature (Figure 5). For this reason, an exponential regression shown on the same graph is generated, in order to determine the total time that the geocell was exposed throughout the trial.
Time-temperature superposition.
The following equation is the result:
in which.
The data for the time equivalent to the temperature were obtained based on the above equation, during the course of the different isothermal steps of the test. These equivalent times are shown in Table 5.
Step | Time (min.) | Accumulation of time (years) |
---|---|---|
Ambient | 0 | 0 |
30 | 2.96E−05 | |
60 | 5.91E−05 | |
90 | 8.87E−05 | |
Increase to 44°C | ||
44°C | 30 | 8.94E−03 |
167 | 0.33 | |
Increase to 51°C | ||
51°C | 30 | 0.46 |
167 | 3.63 | |
Increase to 58°C | ||
58°C | 15 | 4.94 |
167 | 36.72 | |
Increase to 65°C | ||
65 °C | 60 | 78.78 |
122 | 310.89 |
Equivalent times for the SIM test.
After the development of the different graphs made from the tests, it was possible to subtract and make a comparison between the materials that were used in each of the tests, in order to determine which behaved better in the long-term deformation. Figure 6 shows the comparative graph of materials. A red line is again observed, which indicates 3% of the deformation, which generates a fault in the ground and the possible breakage of the pavement structure.
Comparison of samples tested.
For the comparative graph of materials, the samples that had been exposed for a while were not considered, given that the other materials did not have this previous exposure and therefore leading to a possible erroneous comparison.
It is important to consider the effect that occurs in the geocells of Neoloy® from exposure to the environment (Figure 7), since these demonstrate the best behavior against long-term deformation [11, 12, 13, 14, 15].
Behavior according to environmental exposure time (Neoloy®).
Based on the previous results, it is important to make a new comparison in the Neoloy® Geocells, for its ultimate resistance to the wide strip test ISO 103192. Figure 8 shows the incidence of this property in the behavior to the long-term deformation and the affectation on the MIF.
Behavior of Neoloy® geocells according to resistance of wide strip ISO 103192.
Continuing with the analysis of the behavior of the polyolefin geocells in long-term deformation, a different behavior was observed among the materials of the HDPE samples, where the thickness determined in part the behavior that was observed throughout the tests. Because of this, the evolution of the specimens in terms of thickness is shown in Figure 9, revealing that the material with greater thickness presents a better response to this type of long-term stress.
Behavior HDPE geocells according to thickness.
As it is possible to extract from the different graphs in categories C and D composed of Neoloy® from Provider 3, an acceptable behavior was observed against the long-term deformation, this being the material that behaved better during the trials without reaching the 3% deformation failure in any of the two categories mentioned. Therefore, the geocells would have an MIF factor of high incidence in the module of the material to be confined, as shown in the Mohr circle (see Figure 10).
Mohr circle of granular material with and without reinforcement [
According to Han [16], the confinement creates an apparent cohesion considering the modification in the normal stresses caused to the granular material. This is only available if the material of the geocell resists the deformations produced by the stresses over the life of the project. Only the Neoloy® Geocells of categories C and D of Provider 3 manage to comply with the limitation of the MIFs.
When comparing the categories of the Neoloy® material, the great importance of both the thickness of the material and the resistance to the wide strip is observed. The results show better behavior in the geocell that has a greater resistance and greater thickness, displaying a high creep behavior and consequently increasing the MIF, which is significant when designing structures with this geocell methodology.
However, at the end of the tests, a rational time was determined to discharge the geocells. At this time an important behavior was observed in which the samples began to regenerate, decreasing the deformations that were at the end. The effect was established for the geocells that did not fail, showing an “elastic” behavior but also maintaining a degree of plastic deformation. Therefore, a linear viscoelastic behavior can be determined, in which there is an initial elastic deformation caused by the stresses generated upon it, followed by a time-dependent delayed deformation, known as material creep. There may be some permanent flow in the material, especially when high loads are applied.
When the unload is permitted to the material, within linear viscoelastic behavior, an inverse process begins, with a certain recovery at the moment, continued by a recovery along the time recovering fluence dependent on the time. The material may or may not reach the original dimensions. If permanent flow occurs in the charging process, there will be a residual deformation even when the load application is no longer allowed [17, 18, 19].
Polyolefin geocells can be considered an excellent reinforcement in the structures of the roads as long as they meet certain specifications, such as resistance to long-term deformation. For the geocells tested, the best performance was obtained by the Neoloy® composite material.
Taking into account the results of the laboratories, the increase factor of MIF modules is directly connected to creep resistance. When confinement is eventually lost due to large deformations in the geocells, the increase will be zero, and the behavior of the granular material belonging to the pavement structure will be the same as if it were not considered reinforced, decreasing its modulus, requiring a greater thickness to comply with the conditions of the structure.
All polymeric material that is exposed to weather, for greater resistance that it possesses, suffers the loss of properties. This could be evidenced when comparing tests with the same material and category, but with different time of exposure to the effects caused by nature (UV rays, air, water, etc.). A lesser deformation was displayed in the sample that had been under condition for a year.
The deformation behavior of HDPE exposed to high temperatures is low compared to Neoloy® material. For this reason, it could be determined that the HDPE geocells, although they have a regular behavior, cannot be located in the base layer of the pavement structures, since these could have temperatures as tested in the “SIM test” or higher, generating a double deformation. One of them would be due to time and the other due to temperature, leading to failure in a very short period of time.
To determine the MIF, it is necessary to know the resistance of the material of the geocell to the long-term deformation, since it is a vital part of achieving high performance, during the entire life of the structure of pavement reinforced with geocells.
The geocells, composed by Neoloy® with a resistance to the wide strip of 15 kN/m, are the most suitable to achieve a subgrade improvement. These geocells have the ability to be used in the granular layers adjacent to the asphalt folder, decreasing thicknesses. The use of these minimum aspects is recommended to guarantee the functionality, serviceability, and long-term operability of structures where geocells are involved.
Edited by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze, ISBN 978-953-51-3020-8, Print ISBN 978-953-51-3019-2, 336 pages,
\nPublisher: IntechOpen
\nChapters published March 22, 2017 under CC BY 3.0 license
\nDOI: 10.5772/61430
\nEdited Volume
This book serves as a comprehensive survey of the impact of vitamin K2 on cellular functions and organ systems, indicating that vitamin K2 plays an important role in the differentiation/preservation of various cell phenotypes and as a stimulator and/or mediator of interorgan cross talk. Vitamin K2 binds to the transcription factor SXR/PXR, thus acting like a hormone (very much in the same manner as vitamin A and vitamin D). Therefore, vitamin K2 affects a multitude of organ systems, and it is reckoned to be one positive factor in bringing about "longevity" to the human body, e.g., supporting the functions/health of different organ systems, as well as correcting the functioning or even "curing" ailments striking several organs in our body.
\\n\\nChapter 1 Introductory Chapter: Vitamin K2 by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\\n\\nChapter 2 Vitamin K, SXR, and GGCX by Kotaro Azuma and Satoshi Inoue
\\n\\nChapter 3 Vitamin K2 Rich Food Products by Muhammad Yasin, Masood Sadiq Butt and Aurang Zeb
\\n\\nChapter 4 Menaquinones, Bacteria, and Foods: Vitamin K2 in the Diet by Barbara Walther and Magali Chollet
\\n\\nChapter 5 The Impact of Vitamin K2 on Energy Metabolism by Mona Møller, Serena Tonstad, Tone Bathen and Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\\n\\nChapter 6 Vitamin K2 and Bone Health by Niels Erik Frandsen and Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\\n\\nChapter 7 Vitamin K2 and its Impact on Tooth Epigenetics by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze, Maria A. Landin, Gaute Floer Johnsen, Håvard Jostein Haugen and Harald Osmundsen
\\n\\nChapter 8 Anti-Inflammatory Actions of Vitamin K by Stephen J. Hodges, Andrew A. Pitsillides, Lars M. Ytrebø and Robin Soper
\\n\\nChapter 9 Vitamin K2: Implications for Cardiovascular Health in the Context of Plant-Based Diets, with Applications for Prostate Health by Michael S. Donaldson
\\n\\nChapter 11 Vitamin K2 Facilitating Inter-Organ Cross-Talk by Jan O. Gordeladze, Håvard J. Haugen, Gaute Floer Johnsen and Mona Møller
\\n\\nChapter 13 Medicinal Chemistry of Vitamin K Derivatives and Metabolites by Shinya Fujii and Hiroyuki Kagechika
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'This book serves as a comprehensive survey of the impact of vitamin K2 on cellular functions and organ systems, indicating that vitamin K2 plays an important role in the differentiation/preservation of various cell phenotypes and as a stimulator and/or mediator of interorgan cross talk. Vitamin K2 binds to the transcription factor SXR/PXR, thus acting like a hormone (very much in the same manner as vitamin A and vitamin D). Therefore, vitamin K2 affects a multitude of organ systems, and it is reckoned to be one positive factor in bringing about "longevity" to the human body, e.g., supporting the functions/health of different organ systems, as well as correcting the functioning or even "curing" ailments striking several organs in our body.
\n\nChapter 1 Introductory Chapter: Vitamin K2 by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\n\nChapter 2 Vitamin K, SXR, and GGCX by Kotaro Azuma and Satoshi Inoue
\n\nChapter 3 Vitamin K2 Rich Food Products by Muhammad Yasin, Masood Sadiq Butt and Aurang Zeb
\n\nChapter 4 Menaquinones, Bacteria, and Foods: Vitamin K2 in the Diet by Barbara Walther and Magali Chollet
\n\nChapter 5 The Impact of Vitamin K2 on Energy Metabolism by Mona Møller, Serena Tonstad, Tone Bathen and Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\n\nChapter 6 Vitamin K2 and Bone Health by Niels Erik Frandsen and Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\n\nChapter 7 Vitamin K2 and its Impact on Tooth Epigenetics by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze, Maria A. Landin, Gaute Floer Johnsen, Håvard Jostein Haugen and Harald Osmundsen
\n\nChapter 8 Anti-Inflammatory Actions of Vitamin K by Stephen J. Hodges, Andrew A. Pitsillides, Lars M. Ytrebø and Robin Soper
\n\nChapter 9 Vitamin K2: Implications for Cardiovascular Health in the Context of Plant-Based Diets, with Applications for Prostate Health by Michael S. Donaldson
\n\nChapter 11 Vitamin K2 Facilitating Inter-Organ Cross-Talk by Jan O. Gordeladze, Håvard J. Haugen, Gaute Floer Johnsen and Mona Møller
\n\nChapter 13 Medicinal Chemistry of Vitamin K Derivatives and Metabolites by Shinya Fujii and Hiroyuki Kagechika
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. 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The characteristics of tungsten, which make it the most potential candidate for plasma-facing applications, have been presented along with the shortcomings in pure tungsten. The research work that has been done so far in the field of tungsten-based composites to overcome the problems with pure tungsten has been included. The fabrication, characterization, types of reinforcements and the classes of composites have been reviewed. The behavior of tungsten-based composites under various kinds of loads (i.e. mechanical and thermal) and environments (radiations and oxidizing etc.) has been summarized.",book:{id:"5154",slug:"nuclear-material-performance",title:"Nuclear Material Performance",fullTitle:"Nuclear Material Performance"},signatures:"Owais A. 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Performance of the system during series operation was compromised, indicating the presence of inhibitor in solution at a toxic level. A single unit bioreactor would be the ideal configuration for this consortium. Modified designs of bioreactors were tested for optimization of the process using response surface methodology (RSM), where the system could function optimally at an initial sulphate concentration of 1250 ppm with a flow rate of 1.8 litre/hour. The time course of sulphate reduction yielded a parabolic profile (with coefficient of determination r\n2 = 0.99 and p value < 0.05). The rate of sulphate reduction was found to be independent of seasonal variation as well as the specific design characteristic.",book:{id:"5154",slug:"nuclear-material-performance",title:"Nuclear Material Performance",fullTitle:"Nuclear Material Performance"},signatures:"Shaon Ray Chaudhuri, Indranil Mukherjee, Debabrata Datta,\nChaitali Chanda, Ganesh Prasath Krishnan, Swati Bhatt, Paulami\nDatta, Shashi Bhushan, Sourav Ghosh, Pinaki Bhattacharya, Ashoke\nRanjan Thakur, Debanik Roy and Parthasarathi Barat",authors:[{id:"179765",title:"Dr.",name:"Shaon",middleName:null,surname:"Ray Chaudhuri",slug:"shaon-ray-chaudhuri",fullName:"Shaon Ray Chaudhuri"},{id:"195429",title:"Dr.",name:"Debanik",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"debanik-roy",fullName:"Debanik Roy"},{id:"364809",title:"Dr.",name:"Indranil",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"indranil-mukherjee",fullName:"Indranil Mukherjee"},{id:"364810",title:"Dr.",name:"Debabrata",middleName:null,surname:"Datta",slug:"debabrata-datta",fullName:"Debabrata Datta"},{id:"364811",title:"Dr.",name:"Chaitali",middleName:null,surname:"Chanda",slug:"chaitali-chanda",fullName:"Chaitali Chanda"},{id:"364812",title:"Dr.",name:"Ganesh Prasath",middleName:null,surname:"Krishnan",slug:"ganesh-prasath-krishnan",fullName:"Ganesh Prasath Krishnan"},{id:"364813",title:"Dr.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatt",slug:"swati-bhatt",fullName:"Swati Bhatt"},{id:"364814",title:"Dr.",name:"Paulami",middleName:null,surname:"Datta",slug:"paulami-datta",fullName:"Paulami Datta"},{id:"364815",title:"Dr.",name:"Shashi",middleName:null,surname:"Bhushan",slug:"shashi-bhushan",fullName:"Shashi Bhushan"},{id:"364816",title:"Dr.",name:"Sourav",middleName:null,surname:"Ghosh",slug:"sourav-ghosh",fullName:"Sourav Ghosh"},{id:"364817",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinaki",middleName:null,surname:"Bhattacharya",slug:"pinaki-bhattacharya",fullName:"Pinaki Bhattacharya"},{id:"364818",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashoke Ranjan",middleName:null,surname:"Thakur",slug:"ashoke-ranjan-thakur",fullName:"Ashoke Ranjan Thakur"},{id:"364819",title:"Dr.",name:"Parthasarathi",middleName:null,surname:"Barat",slug:"parthasarathi-barat",fullName:"Parthasarathi Barat"}]},{id:"51035",doi:"10.5772/62856",title:"Introductory Chapter: Introduction to Current Trends in Nuclear material Research and Technology",slug:"introductory-chapter-introduction-to-current-trends-in-nuclear-material-research-and-technology",totalDownloads:2163,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"5154",slug:"nuclear-material-performance",title:"Nuclear Material Performance",fullTitle:"Nuclear Material Performance"},signatures:"Rehab O. 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A historical introduction on the development of materials testing reactors (MTR) nuclear fuels is presented to illustrate comings and goings to reach desired qualification objectives. Several studies performed on UMo probes, miniplates and full size plates are mentioned to contribute to the knowledge of fuel properties and to incorporate new process technologies. Focus is directed to the discovery of the gamma uranium molybdenum hydride and the hot rolling colamination of monolithic UMo with nonaluminum claddings. A scalable process of hydriding, milling and dehydriding (HMD) to comminute the ductile UMo was developed. Monolithic UMo miniplates with Zircaloy‐4 (Zry4) cladding was colaminated for the first time and under irradiation conditions showed excellent performance after high burn‐up.",book:{id:"5154",slug:"nuclear-material-performance",title:"Nuclear Material Performance",fullTitle:"Nuclear Material Performance"},signatures:"Enrique E. Pasqualini",authors:[{id:"178951",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrique E.",middleName:null,surname:"Pasqualini",slug:"enrique-e.-pasqualini",fullName:"Enrique E. Pasqualini"}]},{id:"51079",doi:"10.5772/62708",title:"Oxidation, Embrittlement, and Growth of TREAT Zircaloy-3 Cladding",slug:"oxidation-embrittlement-and-growth-of-treat-zircaloy-3-cladding",totalDownloads:1685,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter analyzes the effects of oxidation, embrittlement, and cladding growth on the Zircaloy-3 alloy used for 25 mil thick TREAT fuel assembly cladding. The fuel cladding is a protective shell which is used to prevent damage to the enclosed fuel. Therefore, its integrity is important to guarantee this protection. The above three factors which can affect the Zircaloy-3 cladding are considered in this chapter and investigated. Limits to operation are determined. The oxidation of Zircaloy-3 in air is of interest to air-cooled reactors and Zircaloy-2 and 4 for accidents in fuel storage pools. The temperature range of interest is from room temperature where the fuel is stored for long periods of time, through the temperature range encountered in normal operation (400 to 600°C) to the highest temperatures which are possible in extreme accident situations. This temperature range is considered in this chapter to be from room temperature to 1200°C.",book:{id:"5154",slug:"nuclear-material-performance",title:"Nuclear Material Performance",fullTitle:"Nuclear Material Performance"},signatures:"Charles W. Solbrig, Anthony LaPorta, Katelyn M. Wachs and James\nR. 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In the experiments, the Monte Carlo N-Particle eXtended (MCNPX) code was found to be accurate in predicting the uranium fuel depletion, the plutonium production and the buildup of most of the fission products in a nuclear reactor. The goal in this chapter is to analyze the effect of different nuclear fuel grades on the total radioactivity of the reactor core by employing nuclear burnup calculations for the three different fuels: mixed oxide fuel (MOX), uranium oxide fuel (UOX) and commercially enriched uranium (CEU), utilizing simulations with MCNPX code. The calculated results indicate that there is a buildup of plutonium isotopes for UOX and CEU, whereas there is a decline in the plutonium radioisotopes for MOX fuel with burnup time. The study of reactor neutronic parameters showed UOX fuel performs better relative to MOX and CEU. Zircaloy, with low thermal neutron absorption cross-section and high thermal conductivity, produced better results for the effective multiplication factor Keff and hence proved to be a much more effective clad material.",book:{id:"5154",slug:"nuclear-material-performance",title:"Nuclear Material Performance",fullTitle:"Nuclear Material Performance"},signatures:"Raghava R. Kommalapati, Fiifi Asah-Opoku, Hongbo Du and Ziaul\nHuque",authors:[{id:"179935",title:"Dr.",name:"Raghava",middleName:"R",surname:"Kommalapati",slug:"raghava-kommalapati",fullName:"Raghava Kommalapati"},{id:"180165",title:"Dr.",name:"Hongbo",middleName:null,surname:"Du",slug:"hongbo-du",fullName:"Hongbo Du"},{id:"180166",title:"Prof.",name:"Ziaul",middleName:null,surname:"Huque",slug:"ziaul-huque",fullName:"Ziaul Huque"},{id:"180167",title:"Mr.",name:"Fiifi",middleName:null,surname:"Asah-Opoku",slug:"fiifi-asah-opoku",fullName:"Fiifi Asah-Opoku"}]},{id:"51107",title:"Gamma Uranium Molybdenum Alloy: Its Hydride and Performance",slug:"gamma-uranium-molybdenum-alloy-its-hydride-and-performance",totalDownloads:2301,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The high density metastable gamma uranium molybdenum alloy (γ‐UMo) is being qualified as a nuclear fuel for the conversion of high enriched uranium (HEU) to low enriched uranium (LEU) fuels in research nuclear reactors. γ‐UMo, with compositions between 7 and 10 wt.% molybdenum, has excellent properties to allocate fission gases but unacceptable behavior in contact with aluminum in the matrix of dispersed fuels. Development and processing alternatives are welcome to decide final working paths and new nuclear fuels design. A historical introduction on the development of materials testing reactors (MTR) nuclear fuels is presented to illustrate comings and goings to reach desired qualification objectives. Several studies performed on UMo probes, miniplates and full size plates are mentioned to contribute to the knowledge of fuel properties and to incorporate new process technologies. Focus is directed to the discovery of the gamma uranium molybdenum hydride and the hot rolling colamination of monolithic UMo with nonaluminum claddings. A scalable process of hydriding, milling and dehydriding (HMD) to comminute the ductile UMo was developed. Monolithic UMo miniplates with Zircaloy‐4 (Zry4) cladding was colaminated for the first time and under irradiation conditions showed excellent performance after high burn‐up.",book:{id:"5154",slug:"nuclear-material-performance",title:"Nuclear Material Performance",fullTitle:"Nuclear Material Performance"},signatures:"Enrique E. Pasqualini",authors:[{id:"178951",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrique E.",middleName:null,surname:"Pasqualini",slug:"enrique-e.-pasqualini",fullName:"Enrique E. Pasqualini"}]},{id:"50376",title:"Tungsten-Based Composites for Nuclear Fusion Applications",slug:"tungsten-based-composites-for-nuclear-fusion-applications",totalDownloads:2404,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"This chapter provides a comprehensive knowledge about the potential role of tungsten-based composites in fusion reactors and the research work which has been done in this very important area of nuclear materials. The characteristics of tungsten, which make it the most potential candidate for plasma-facing applications, have been presented along with the shortcomings in pure tungsten. The research work that has been done so far in the field of tungsten-based composites to overcome the problems with pure tungsten has been included. The fabrication, characterization, types of reinforcements and the classes of composites have been reviewed. The behavior of tungsten-based composites under various kinds of loads (i.e. mechanical and thermal) and environments (radiations and oxidizing etc.) has been summarized.",book:{id:"5154",slug:"nuclear-material-performance",title:"Nuclear Material Performance",fullTitle:"Nuclear Material Performance"},signatures:"Owais A. 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An approach using efficiencies measured with point sources combined with theoretical procedures was applied for obtaining the peak efficiency ε(E) for disk sources measured with a NaI(Tl) detector. The transfer method was applied for the computation of the efficiency of an HPGe detector using as a reference a point source placed at 10 cm height from the face of the detector. The method was applied both for point sources and volume sources with varied compositions and densities. To correct the experimental values of the efficiencies, coincidence summing effects were evaluated using GESPECOR Monte Carlo code. The study of the response function characterization of the ISOCART and Segmented Gamma Scanner WS1100 gamma-ray spectrometry systems was related. GEANT 3.21 Monte Carlo code was used to simulate the spectra expected to be obtained for the photon energy range from 50 to 2000 keV. A big volume represented by a 220l cylindrical source was considered to be measured with the two systems. The full energy peak efficiency and the total efficiency were evaluated.",book:{id:"5154",slug:"nuclear-material-performance",title:"Nuclear Material Performance",fullTitle:"Nuclear Material Performance"},signatures:"Daniela Gurau",authors:[{id:"178770",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Gurau",slug:"daniela-gurau",fullName:"Daniela Gurau"}]},{id:"51079",title:"Oxidation, Embrittlement, and Growth of TREAT Zircaloy-3 Cladding",slug:"oxidation-embrittlement-and-growth-of-treat-zircaloy-3-cladding",totalDownloads:1685,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter analyzes the effects of oxidation, embrittlement, and cladding growth on the Zircaloy-3 alloy used for 25 mil thick TREAT fuel assembly cladding. The fuel cladding is a protective shell which is used to prevent damage to the enclosed fuel. Therefore, its integrity is important to guarantee this protection. The above three factors which can affect the Zircaloy-3 cladding are considered in this chapter and investigated. Limits to operation are determined. The oxidation of Zircaloy-3 in air is of interest to air-cooled reactors and Zircaloy-2 and 4 for accidents in fuel storage pools. The temperature range of interest is from room temperature where the fuel is stored for long periods of time, through the temperature range encountered in normal operation (400 to 600°C) to the highest temperatures which are possible in extreme accident situations. This temperature range is considered in this chapter to be from room temperature to 1200°C.",book:{id:"5154",slug:"nuclear-material-performance",title:"Nuclear Material Performance",fullTitle:"Nuclear Material Performance"},signatures:"Charles W. Solbrig, Anthony LaPorta, Katelyn M. Wachs and James\nR. 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She has been a faculty member at the University of California, Riverside in the School of Education since 2016. Her research focuses on translational studies to explore the reward system in ASD, as well as how anxiety contributes to social challenges in ASD. She also investigates how behavioral interventions affect neural activity, behavior, and school performance in children with ASD. She is also involved in the diagnosis of children with ASD and is a licensed clinical psychologist in California. 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At the Ministry of Justice of Slovenia, she is a member of examination boards for court expert candidates and judicial appraisers in the following areas: economy/finance, valuation of companies, banking, and forensic investigation of economic operations/accounting. 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Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. 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