Process steam headers.
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IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"2206",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Global Warming - Impacts and Future Perspective",title:"Global Warming",subtitle:"Impacts and Future Perspective",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Global Warming has become perhaps the most complicated issue being faced by world leaders. Thus, it requires field of attention for many modern societies, power and energy engineers, academicians, researchers and stakeholders. The so-called consensus in the past century anthropogenically induced Global Warming, has recently been disputed by rising number of climate change panelists. Whatever the uncertainties of climate models are, mankind has to strive towards reduction in the amount of greenhouse gases emitted into the atmosphere in order to preserve natural resources and living organisms by introducing new advances on alternative fuels and other related technologies.\nThis book presents the state-of-the-science fundamentals on the origin of Global Warming and other related technologies that can be implemented to reduce human impact as well as to present novel policies that world leader should adopt. In this book, chapters received from various authors are placed in three sub- sections in a sequential and easy manner so as to strive an appropriate balance between breadth and depth of coverage of various topics.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0755-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5008-4",doi:"10.5772/2599",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"global-warming-impacts-and-future-perspective",numberOfPages:366,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"8ba60d80cd4f2a7cb3eaff9e53e5127b",bookSignature:"Bharat Raj Singh",publishedDate:"September 19th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2206.jpg",numberOfDownloads:46597,numberOfWosCitations:53,numberOfCrossrefCitations:63,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:12,numberOfDimensionsCitations:112,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:14,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:228,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"December 7th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"January 11th 2012",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 16th 2012",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 15th 2012",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 14th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"26093",title:"Dr.",name:"Bharat Raj",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"bharat-raj-singh",fullName:"Bharat Raj Singh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/26093/images/9_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Raj Singh is currently working as Director General-Technical, with School of Management Sciences, Technical Campus, Lucknow-226501, India. Born at Raibigo, Distt. Sultanpur, Uttar-Pradesh, India in 1946. \nHe received B.Tech.(Mechanical) in 1972, from SVNIT, Surat, South Gujarat University ; M.Tech.(Analysis & Design of Process Equipments) in 1988, from MNNIT, Allahabad University and Ph.D.(Design & Analysis of Novel Air Engine) in 2011 from UP Technical University, Lucknow. \nHe served many Govt. organizations for 32 years and was recipient of many recognition and awards. For the last 16 years, he is in academics and published 16- books & 21-books chapters and more than 133 papers globally to cut down the carbon foot prints. He attended International and National Symposium, Seminars & Conferences and presented about 55 papers; also published 50 papers in leading International Journals and 28 papers in National Journals. \nHis areas of specialization are in Unconventional Manufacturing Processes, Industrial Engineering and Automobiles. His research field is in Sustainable Energy Resources, Environment and Development of zero pollution air engines. He became Member (M) of The Institution of Engineers (India) in 1978, CE (I) in 1985 and a life Fellow Member, FIE (India) in 1985. Also member of IAENG in 2010 and Life member of Indian Society of Technical Education (ISTE) in 2014; Past-Chairman, IE(I), UP State Centre, Lucknow from 2016-18, and President, MNNIT Alumni Association, Lucknow Chapter, Lucknow for the period 2017-2019 & 2019-2021....more on...(www.brsinghlucknow.com).",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"7",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"626",title:"Climate Change",slug:"atmospheric-sciences-climate-change"}],chapters:[{id:"39195",title:"A New Perspective for Labeling the Carbon Footprint Against Climate Change",doi:"10.5772/48609",slug:"a-new-perspective-for-labeling-the-carbon-footprint-against-climate-change",totalDownloads:1860,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Juan Cagiao Villar, Sebastián Labella Hidalgo, Adolfo Carballo Penela and Breixo Gómez Meijide",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/39195",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/39195",authors:[{id:"146552",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",surname:"Cagiao Villar",slug:"juan-cagiao-villar",fullName:"Juan Cagiao Villar"},{id:"155122",title:"Mr.",name:"Sebastián",surname:"Hidalgo",slug:"sebastian-hidalgo",fullName:"Sebastián Hidalgo"},{id:"155123",title:"Prof.",name:"Adolfo",surname:"Carballo Penela",slug:"adolfo-carballo-penela",fullName:"Adolfo Carballo Penela"},{id:"155125",title:"MSc.",name:"Breixo",surname:"Gomez Meijide",slug:"breixo-gomez-meijide",fullName:"Breixo Gomez Meijide"}],corrections:null},{id:"39185",title:"The Impact on Global Warming of the Substitution of Refrigerant Fluids in Vapour Compression Plants: An Experimental Study",doi:"10.5772/48349",slug:"the-impact-on-global-warming-of-the-substitution-of-refrigerant-fluids-in-vapour-compression-plants-",totalDownloads:2065,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"C. 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Today, optimizing energy consumption, improving energy efficiency, and reducing GHG emissions are essential for a sustainable operation and lower operating cost of an industrial facility such as Oil, Gas, Refining, and Petrochemical facilities. Every industrial facility depends on more than one form of utilities for its operation. Examples of these utilities include power generation, steam system, instrument and plant air, nitrogen system, hot oil system, etc.
Process streams such as gas and liquid are usually heated or cooled by indirect heat exchange with another fluid: either another process stream or a utility stream such as steam, hot oil, cooling water, or refrigerant. Heating utilities are necessary for proper usage of condensers, distillers, and several other integral types of equipment in the hydrocarbon processing facilities. In hydrocarbon processing plants, steam is the most commonly heat utility used.
Steam is used both as utility and a process fluid (heating agent, diluent to absorb heat of reaction, feedstock, and stripping agent in adsorbers and absorbers). It can be used to drive mechanical drivers such as compressors and pumps, heat exchangers, and ejectors (for producing a vacuum). There are few advantages of using steam as opposed to other methods of process heating. For example, see [1].
In general, the supply-side utility systems for industrial facilities are used to produce the required energy for the facility, and the most common system used is steam system. Other alternatives include hot oil and hot water systems.
Steam system is a better choice for a facility with high power demand and high heating demand required by process and at different level of temperatures. Thus, most of the gas plants, refineries, and petrochemicals that are using steam system often include both boilers and Cogen, as the base-case option. The reason behind using steam system for industrial facilities required both heating and power demand can be summarized as follows:
Generating steam at high pressure and using steam turbines to recover the energy available in the steam for power generation will improve the overall system efficiency of the supply side to reach a level over 70%.
Using the lower pressure steam extracted from steam turbines for process heating making use of the available latent heat in the steam for a better heat recovery.
In addition, steam is a clean service that provides energy and heat for the industrial facility.
For a majority of process plants, the bulk of the energy required is supplied through the utility system. On most facilities, the required heating is provided by combined heat and power (CHP) systems. A CHP system is a combination of two or more systems that are used in the generation and distribution of steam and power through gas turbine generators (GTGs), heat recovery steam generators (HRSGs), boilers, and steam turbines. The use of CHP plants means that the efficiency of the processing facility in terms of its energy consumption is reliant on efficiency of both the process side and the operation of the utility system. Steam is used for various purposes such as heating, drying, and providing a heat source for air conditioning or motive energy for a power generation via steam turbines.
As illustrated in Figure 1 (Gas-Turbine-Based CHP Plant), a typical CHP starts with the Bryton Thermodynamic cycle where the combustion of a fuel and air mixture in a gas turbine combustion chamber occurs, the combustion product is then channeled through a series of blades attached to a rotating shaft and a generator, which then generates power and hot flue gas through the gas turbine exhaust system. The exhaust gas, which has a high energy content, becomes the heating medium in the next heat recovery Rankine Cycle of the CHP, the flue gas is channeled through an HRSG to heat up boiler feed water and produce steam. The generated steam is then used to drive a steam turbine generator (known as a combined cycle) or sent to a process plant to be used as a heating medium in a heat exchanger or to mechanically drive rotating equipment such as pumps and compressors (known as cogeneration).
Gas-turbine-based CHP plant.
Figure 2 (Boiler-Based CHP Plant) illustrates an alternative type of CHP system. In a boiler-based CHP system, one or more boilers are used to generate steam, and steam turbine generators (STGs) are then used to generate power. In certain configurations, steam is extracted from the steam turbine generator (STG) to be used for process heating via heat exchangers. Most of Saudi Aramco’s facilities or plants have a combination of both gas turbine and boiler-based CHP systems. For example, see [2].
Boiler-based CHP plant.
The concept of simultaneous process and utility design optimization was developed by Saudi Aramco protected by 2-granted patents. Figure 3 provides an overview of the steps used for the optimization. In Ref.s [3, 4], the techniques used in optimizing new CHP systems are being derived from unit commitment and economic dispatch power generation concepts. Our optimization problem includes integer (binary), linear, and nonlinear relations between the objective function, variables, and constraints.
Key elements of a steam system optimization tool.
The problem formulation for a typical steam system can be summarized as follows:
Where,
NPV: Net Present Value for the project.
LC: Life Cycle of the new facility, normally used 25 years.
The total capital cost includes major equipment used in the optimization analysis as decision variables
Capital cost would be function of number and sizes of major equipment (i.e., decision variables for the optimization algorithm):
Boilers
Cogeneration units
Steam turbine generator
New steam turbine drivers
Motors-driven equipment as alternative drives with steam turbines and
Water desalination facilities and makeup system
The total operating cost is function of the equipment performance and the impact on the energy consumption of the facility. The operating cost includes the following key elements:
Fuel consumption
Power export and import tariffs
Makeup water treatment and chemicals
CO2 emissions
In the optimization analysis, there are key constraints that have to be met by the optimizer to confirm the validity of the results. Some of these constraints are related to equipment limitations and others related to systems limitations. Below are some examples of the key constraints used in the optimization analysis:
Equipment constraint: such as steam generation from boiler should be less than maximum limit and greater than minimum generation limit.
System constraint: steam production from steam supply equipment shall be greater than or equal to steam demand required.
System constraint: available steam reserve from boilers should be more than or equal to required steam reserve.
Steam constraint: input to a steam header should be equal to steam out from steam header
Mathematical model constraint. Non-negative flows in the steam distribution network
Below is a generic mathematical representation for the steam system:
Steam balance representation includes:
Where i and n are representing the equipment connected to this steam header.
Boiler Feed Water (BFW) Balance is calculated as per the formula below
Makeup water compensates for all loses from steam system, thus makeup water is equal to all loses in the steam system.
BFW makeup balance is calculated as follows:
Whereas,
BFW: Boiler feed water.
B_BFW: Boiler feed water to boilers.
COG_BFW: Boiler feed water to Cogen units.
DSH_BFW: De-super heater water into steam network.
BD: Blow down flow.
Bstm: steam generation from boilers.
COG_stm: steam generation from Cogen units.
Steam users.
This section covers the (CHP) optimization assessment to identify the optimum configurations and equipment sizing for the supply side of a new petrochemical complex. References [5, 6, 7] include other examples, which can help explaining the concept further.
The assessment for the optimum configuration started with reflecting the utility’s initial design data into a newly developed (CHP) for design. The CHP model key input is shown in Table 1 summary.
Steam Demand | ||
---|---|---|
VHP | 101 | T/h |
HP | 978 | T/h |
MP | 936 | T/h |
LP | 413 | T/h |
Returned Condensate % | 65% |
Process steam headers.
Note: Five different cogeneration frames from different GT manufacturers have been used for the CHP optimization analysis. This is just to give a better understanding and more accurate outcomes from energy efficiency point of view. It is worth highlighting that the analysis for each case is based on the average result of the different frames and not for any specific one.
For new facilities, 70% (HHV basis) is considered as the minimum efficiency of a site’s overall CHP systems thermal efficiency. CHP systems’ thermal efficiency for the site can be defined as the ratio between all useful energies generated by the system and total energy input as fuel:
Where:
The CHP optimization study evaluated four design scenarios. The CHP analysis and its related economics considered the optimum configuration meeting operational and design requirement. The design requirement accounts for one steam supply unit under T&I and a trip of another unit. The CHP analysis covered the following cases:
Base Case: (5 Cogen Units – 1 standby boiler).
Case-1: (4 Cogen Units – 2 boiler Units).
Case-2: (3 Cogen Units – 3 boiler Units).
Case-3: (2 Cogen Units – 4 boiler Units).
Base Case: The base case composed of five gas turbines each with its heat recovery steam generator and two STGs and with one spare boiler, as shown in Table 2.
Equipment | Number of units | Avg. size per unit |
---|---|---|
Cogen | 5 | 260 (MW) |
Boiler | 1 (standby) | 341 (T/h) |
STG | 2 | 100 (MW) |
Base-case scenario.
Table 3 shows that the average CHP model’s output from overall supply-side thermal efficiency is in the range of 69%, which is slightly lower than the minimum efficiency requirement of (70%).
Option | System eff.% | Tot. fuel (MMBTU/H) | Tot. STGs (MW) | Net pwr gen (MW) | CO2 emissions reduction (MM ton Co2/year) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cogen A | 71% | 10,310 | 170 | 1225.2 | 2.9 |
Cogen B | 70% | 10,289 | 147 | 1174.9 | 2.6 |
Cogen C | 69% | 10,937 | 182 | 1284.9 | 3.0 |
Cogen D | 68% | 14,012 | 278 | 1813.7 | 4.8 |
Cogen E | 69% | 11,994 | 230 | 1459.0 | 3.6 |
Base-case CHP model output.
Case-1: In this case, the CHP configuration includes four Cogen units, two boiler, and two STGs. The result showed that the average steam system efficiency for the different frames is around 70–73% (Tables 4 and 5).
Equipment | Number of units | Avg. size per unit |
---|---|---|
Cogen | 4 | 260 (MW) |
Boiler | 2 (1 standby) | 341 (T/h) |
STG | 2 | 80 (MW) |
Case-1 design basis.
Option | System eff.% | Tot. fuel (MMBTU/H) | Tot. STG (MW) | Net pwr gen (MW) | CO2 emissions reduction (MM ton Co2/year) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cogen A | 73% | 8475 | 113 | 957.5 | 2.1 |
Cogen B | 72% | 8976 | 123 | 1005.2 | 2.1 |
Cogen C | 70% | 11,436 | 200 | 1428.2 | 3.6 |
Cogen D | 71% | 9821 | 161 | 1144.5 | 2.6 |
Cogen E | 72% | 10,462 | 178 | 1297.3 | 3.2 |
Case-1 CHP model output.
Case-2: In this case, the configuration is composed of three Cogen units, three boilers, and two STGs, where the average steam system efficiency is around (74%) (Tables 6 and 7).
Equipment | Number of units | Avg. size per unit |
---|---|---|
Cogen | 3 | 260 (MW) |
Boiler | 3 (1 standby) | 341 (T/h) |
STG | 2 | 50 (MW) |
Case-2 design basis.
Option | System eff.% | Tot. fuel (MMBTU/H) | Tot. STG (MW) | Net pwr gen (MW) | CO2 emissions reduction (MM ton Co2/year) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cogen A | 75% | 7098 | 95 | 728.0 | 1.3 |
Cogen B | 75% | 7204 | 79 | 740.7 | 1.3 |
Cogen C | 74% | 8860 | 122 | 1042.8 | 2.4 |
Cogen D | 75% | 7649 | 93 | 830.0 | 1.7 |
Cogen E | 75% | 8129 | 105 | 944.6 | 2.1 |
Case-2 CHP model output.
Case-3: in this case, the CHP configuration composed of two Cogen units, four boilers, and two STGs resulted in steam system supply-side efficiency around 69%. The reason for having a larger STG in this case is to reduce the power import as much as possible (Tables 8 and 9).
Equipment | Number of units | Avg. size per unit |
---|---|---|
Cogen | 2 | 260 (MW) |
Boiler | 4 (1 standby) | 341 (T/h) |
STG | 2 | 100 (MW) |
Case 3 design basis.
Option | System eff.% | Tot. fuel (MMBTU/H) | Tot. STG (MW) | Net pwr gen (MW) | CO2 emissions reduction (MM ton Co2/year) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cogen A | 67% | 7520 | 218 | 640.5 | 0.6 |
Cogen B | 67% | 7771 | 223 | 664.4 | 0.6 |
Cogen C | 75% | 7154 | 114 | 728.0 | 1.3 |
Cogen D | 69% | 8120 | 236 | 728.0 | 0.8 |
Cogen E | 73% | 7482 | 168 | 728.0 | 1.1 |
Case-3 CHP model output.
To identify the optimum steam and power systems configurations for petrochemical complex, all options have been simulated via CHP optimization model as shown in the previous section.
The study evaluated (4) different cases and compares the outcomes with the base case to identify the best configuration. In summary, in all cases there exist at least two GT frames that can meet the 70% minimum steam system efficiency requirement (Figures 4–6).
System efficiency summary of the different design configurations.
Base case: Petrochemical complex steam system CHP.
Case 3: Petrochemical complex steam system CHP.
The CHP model includes all the elements involved in the generation and distribution of energy to drive the process and supporting infrastructure. Optimizing such complex system requires a sophisticated model.
Within Saudi Aramco, the CHP model of each operating facility was found to be extremely useful in understanding the interactions between the various utilities’ components. The interactions between these components could have been very complex without constructing a reasonably accurate mathematical model. Such tools are used during the design phase of capital projects to optimize cogeneration system sizes and configurations, explore alternatives, and conduct thermal efficiency synthesis to estimate what the final design would look like.
For operating facilities, the CHP model is used to evaluate potential efficiency enhancements, monitor the performance of existing equipment, identify energy saving opportunities, change operation and control based on optimum operational advice, and evaluate the impact of process variations on the CHP utilities system. The features of the model can be summarized in the following points:
Excel-based model along with Visual Basic (user-friendly)
Utilize a powerful solver optimization tool
Include all steam properties
For real-time asset management, consider connecting the CHP model to a data historian for real-time data
Account for all system constraints
In summary, having a systematic approach for analyzing operational improvements is viable using CHP optimization solutions. These solutions have been found to be useful with the right features to support plant operation. Following list gives a summary of typical optimization handles from the model for operational modification actions:
Minimize steam flow to fin-fan condensers
Optimize steam turbine operating load (switch ability of running steam turbines and motors)
Boiler load management
Maximize cogeneration operation
Maintain operation within optimum set points
In addition, optimum design of a new facility will help saving major capital and operating cost. As shown in the example from the case study, the potential benefit from a case and optimum case can exceed 15% in the NPV of the project life cycle.
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