A full moment tensor solution for the Rat Islands
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"325",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Alternative Fuel",title:"Alternative Fuel",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Renewable energy sources such as biodiesel, bioethanol, biomethane, biomass from wastes or hydrogen are subject of great interest in the current energy scene. These fuels contribute to the reduction of prices and dependence on fossil fuels. In addition, energy sources such as these could partially replace the use of what is considered as the major factor responsible for global warming and the main source of local environmental pollution. For these reasons they are known as alternative fuels. There is an urgent need to find and optimise the use of alternative fuels to provide a net energy gain, to be economically competitive and to be producible in large quantities without compromising food resources.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-372-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4461-8",doi:"10.5772/851",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"alternative-fuel",numberOfPages:360,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"e6fd051beb23f469c73edd7bd22547bf",bookSignature:"Maximino Manzanera",publishedDate:"August 9th 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/325.jpg",numberOfDownloads:110121,numberOfWosCitations:133,numberOfCrossrefCitations:97,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:5,numberOfDimensionsCitations:205,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:6,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:435,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 8th 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 6th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 12th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 12th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 11th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"27371",title:"Dr.",name:"Maximino",middleName:null,surname:"Manzanera",slug:"maximino-manzanera",fullName:"Maximino Manzanera",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27371/images/3570_n.jpg",biography:"Maximino Manzanera was born in Barcelona, Spain, in 1972. 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Maximino is participating actively in three main lines of research: Anhydrobiotic Engineering, Rhizoremediation and Biofuels of microbial origin.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Granada",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"890",title:"Renewable Energy",slug:"environmental-sciences-waste-management-renewable-energy"}],chapters:[{id:"17583",title:"Biodiesel Production by Using Heterogeneous Catalysts",doi:"10.5772/23908",slug:"biodiesel-production-by-using-heterogeneous-catalysts",totalDownloads:16643,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:25,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:null,signatures:"Rubi Romero, Sandra Luz Martínez and Reyna Natividad",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/17583",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/17583",authors:[{id:"54382",title:"Dr.",name:"Rubi",surname:"Romero",slug:"rubi-romero",fullName:"Rubi Romero"},{id:"57495",title:"MSc.",name:"Sandra Luz",surname:"Martínez",slug:"sandra-luz-martinez",fullName:"Sandra Luz Martínez"},{id:"57496",title:"Dr.",name:"Reyna",surname:"Natividad",slug:"reyna-natividad",fullName:"Reyna Natividad"}],corrections:null},{id:"17584",title:"An Overview of Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions and Alternative Feedstock for Biodiesel Production",doi:"10.5772/24057",slug:"an-overview-of-enzyme-catalyzed-reactions-and-alternative-feedstock-for-biodiesel-production",totalDownloads:5652,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Maria Manuela Camino Feltes, Débora de Oliveira, Jorge Luiz Ninow and José Vladimir de Oliveira",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/17584",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/17584",authors:[{id:"55230",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Manuela",surname:"Camino Feltes",slug:"maria-manuela-camino-feltes",fullName:"Maria Manuela Camino Feltes"},{id:"57306",title:"Prof.",name:"Débora",surname:"De Oliveira",slug:"debora-de-oliveira",fullName:"Débora De Oliveira"},{id:"57307",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge Luiz",surname:"Ninow",slug:"jorge-luiz-ninow",fullName:"Jorge Luiz Ninow"},{id:"57308",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose Vladimir",surname:"De Oliveira",slug:"jose-vladimir-de-oliveira",fullName:"Jose Vladimir De Oliveira"}],corrections:null},{id:"17585",title:"Biodiesel Fuel Production by Enzymatic Transesterification of Oils: Recent Trends, Challenges and Future Perspectives",doi:"10.5772/21905",slug:"biodiesel-fuel-production-by-enzymatic-transesterification-of-oils-recent-trends-challenges-and-futu",totalDownloads:11063,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:26,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Nevena Luković, Zorica Knežević-Jugović and Dejan Bezbradica",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/17585",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/17585",authors:[{id:"45320",title:"MSc",name:"Nevena",surname:"Lukovic",slug:"nevena-lukovic",fullName:"Nevena Lukovic"},{id:"57079",title:"Prof.",name:"Dejan",surname:"Bezbradica",slug:"dejan-bezbradica",fullName:"Dejan Bezbradica"},{id:"57080",title:"Dr.",name:"Zorica",surname:"Knežević-Jugović",slug:"zorica-knezevic-jugovic",fullName:"Zorica Knežević-Jugović"}],corrections:null},{id:"17586",title:"Engine Test of Bio-Diesel Manufactured from Waste Cooking Oil and Reward Preferential Benefit Analyses for Its Promotion",doi:"10.5772/21712",slug:"engine-test-of-bio-diesel-manufactured-from-waste-cooking-oil-and-reward-preferential-benefit-analys",totalDownloads:2898,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Jai-Houng Leu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/17586",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/17586",authors:[{id:"44408",title:"Dr.",name:"Jai-Houng",surname:"Leu",slug:"jai-houng-leu",fullName:"Jai-Houng Leu"}],corrections:null},{id:"17587",title:"Waste Animal Fats with High FFA as a Renewable Energy Source for Biodiesel Production - 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On June 23, 2014, an
The location of the 23 June 2014
The mainshock caused an intention to the seismological society. Some seismologists studied it and published papers on or related to this Rat Islands earthquake sequence:
Ye et al. [3] modeled the source ruptures using both nodal planes. They found the shallow-dip fault plane with strike azimuth Az 205.9° and dip angle 23.6° toward the northwest provides better matches to
Macpherson and Ruppert [2] relocated the aftershocks. To attempt to determine the correct rupture plane, they plotted cross-sections parallel to the dipping directions of the nodal planes as determined by the Global Centroid Moment Tensor (gCMT) project. The gCMT solutions found one nodal plane with subvertical dip (84°) and a strike of 308° and the other with a moderate dip of 26° and strike of 207°. They found that the seismicity is dipping at a moderate angle to the northwest and does not align well with the dips from either of the gCMT nodal planes. They also found the shallow-dip plane does align well with the mainshock hypocenter and a group of unusual oceanic mantle seismicity to the south of the mainshock. They interpret that alignment as delineating the mainshock fault plane, and thus, they prefer the moderately dipping nodal plane as the rupture plane of the
Twardzik and Ji [5] first performed a set of finite-fault inversions to invert the slip history of the
Miyazawa [6] studied the remote and dynamic earthquake triggering phenomena caused by global transient stress changes generated from seismic waves’ propagation of other large earthquakes at a great distance. The author calculated the dynamic changes beneath station ADK and AMKA in the Coulomb Failure Function (∆CFF) for the
Florez and Prieto [7] introduced a relative earthquake depth determination algorithm using depth phases. They applied their method to determine focal depths for 17 larger aftershocks of the
The seismicity and the geological background in the vicinity of the 23 June 2014 Rat Islands, Alaska,
The above authors made contributions to the studies of this
The seismic activity features obtained using catalog data for earthquakes with magnitude ≥ 4.0, occurred before and after seven and half years from the mainshock;
introduction to some of the methods used in our studies;
full moment tensor solution for the mainshock; the double-couple solution retrieved is:
nodal plane 1,
nodal plane 2,
hypocenter relocations for larger aftershocks which have depths obtained using a depth phase method;
source rupture process modeling results;
discussions of some issues.
The catalog data: We retrieved the catalog of earthquakes with magnitude ≥ 4, which occurred between 2007-0101 and 2022-0220 in the
Seismogram data: When we perform a moment tensor inversion, and model source rupture process for an earthquake, we need waveform records. Usually, we retrieve waveform records from IRIS. For this
the Broadband records at tele-stations (some seismic arrays) were retrieved for measuring the time differences between the tele-depth phase pP and the direct P phase to calculate focal depths.
the Broadband records at regional stations were retrieved for measuring the arrival times of P and S phases to relocate those larger aftershocks that have focal depth solutions obtained using a tele-depth phase.
the Broadband records at tele-stations around the epicenter of the mainshock were retrieved for modeling source rupture processes.
the long period mantle wave records at tele-stations globally were retrieved for moment tensor inversion.
An earth velocity model is required for relocations of the aftershocks. We used the velocity model provided by Macpherson and Ruppert [2], to replace the crustal part in the Preliminary Reference Earth Model (PREM; [8]). This revised model was used for aftershock relocations and the source rupture modeling.
The
The Aleutian trench is, along the Alaska-Aleutian arc, one of the largest active tectonic margins in the world, spanning nearly 4000 km from the Gulf of Alaska to the Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia. The arc is formed by a convergent plate boundary where the Pacific plate is subducted beneath the North American plate at a rate that varies between 5.4 cm/yr in the east to 7.8 cm/yr in the far west [9]. The Aleutian trench zone is very seismically active. In the Rat Islands region, there are 10 earthquakes with a magnitude ≥ 7 occurred since 1960 (IRIS earthquake catalog). The June 23, 2014 MW 7.9 earthquake occurred at a depth of about 100 km. It is often called an intermediate-depth event. In the following paragraphs, we analyze the seismicity that occurred about seven and a half years before and after the
Figure 3 shows the epicenter distribution of earthquakes with magnitudes ≥ 4.0, which occurred about seven and half years before and after the Mw 7.9 mainshock in the mainshock region and its vicinity. A solid circle shows the epicenter of an earthquake. It was color-coded with focal depth; its size is proportional to the magnitude. The left panel (a) shows the earthquakes that occurred seven and half years before the occurrence of the Mw 7.9. The events within the rectangular are those that occurred in the source region. The right panel (b) shows the earthquakes that occurred after the occurrence of
The epicenter comparison for earthquakes with magnitudes ≥ 4.0, occurred about 7 and half years before and after the Mw 7.9 mainshock, in the mainshock region and its vicinity. (a) the earthquakes occurred 7 and half years before the occurrence of the Mw 7.9 (between 2007-0101 and 2014-0622). (b) the earthquakes occurred after the occurrence of the Mw 7.9 (between 2014-0623 and 2022-0220). The earthquakes in the rectangle of the left panel are in the source region of the mainshocks. The star with the number 7.9 shows the initial location of the
To analyze the seismicity along the vertical direction, we simulated a spatial plane using the hypocenters of 90 earthquakes with magnitudes ≥ 4.0, which occurred below the depth of 80 km from 2007-0101 to 2014-0622. The simulated strike is Az 276.8°; the dip angle is 47.7°. The plane dips at Az 6.8°. Then we projected the hypocenters of earthquakes onto a vertical plane that is parallel to the dipping direction. Figure 4 shows the hypocenter projection comparison for the same earthquakes in Figure 3. The left panel (a) shows that the hypocenter projections beneath about 90 km are along with a dipping of 47.7° direction. Coincidently the hypocenter distribution trend of the aftershocks in the right panel (b) is also approximately along this dipping direction. The trend is neither in the dipping direction of the steep-dip plane nor in the dipping direction of the shallow-dip plane.
The hypocenter projection comparison for the same earthquakes in
To observe the spatial distribution features of the aftershocks of the
Major double couple: moment = 9.16 | Prin. val. | Dev. part | Azimuth | Plunge | ||||
strike 207.4 | dip 27.1 | slip −12.7, dipping at 297.4 (shallow-dip) | P | −8.895 | −9.159 | 192.50 | 44.47 | |
strike 308.7 | dip 84.2 | slip −116.5, dipping at 38.7 (steep-dip) | T | 9.088 | 8.825 | 61.10 | 33.97 | |
Minor double couple: moment = 0.33 | N | 0.597 | 0.334 | 311.60 | 26.36 | |||
strike 93.2 | dip 44.8 | slip −6.6 | Isotropic part: moment = 0.26 (trace = 0.78) | |||||
strike 187.9 | dip 85.3 | slip −134.7 |
A full moment tensor solution for the Rat Islands
Note: prin. val. refers to the principal axis value (1020Nm); dev. part refers to the deviatoric part (1020Nm); P, T, and N mean the compressional, tensional, and null components.
Hypocenter projections onto a vertical plane, perpendicular to the simulated spatial plane using the hypocenters of 184 aftershocks, of which the magnitudes ≥ 4.0. The red star shows the initial location of the mainshock. The simulated strike is 201.7°; the dip angle is 39.4°. The plane dips at Az 291.7° (from north to west 68.3°). These parameter values are close to those of the nodal plane P1: strike Az 207.4°, dip angle 27.1°, dips at 297.4° (
To further observe the spatial distribution trend of the aftershocks, we projected the hypocenters onto two vertical planes. The left panel of Figure 6 a shows the hypocenters projected onto a vertical plane at a steep-dipping direction. The tilted dashed line indicated with the P2 projection shows the projection of the steep-dip plane (P2). Generally, those aftershocks should form a linear trend around that tilted line, if the plane P2 is the real rupture plane. The right panel (b) shows the hypocenters on a vertical plane in a shallow-dipping direction. In the same sense, those aftershocks should form a linear trend around that tilted line indicated with P1 projection, if P1 is the real rupture plane. The trend of the belt formed by the aftershocks in (a) or (b) is not consistent with the P2 projection or P1 projection.
The comparison between hypocenters projected onto dipping planes for the same earthquakes is in
To perform source parameters studies on the
An earthquake source can be described using a seismic moment tensor. The moment tensor can be decomposed into three parts: an isotropic (ISO), double-couple (DC), and compensated linear vector dipole (CLVD) part (e.g., [10]). It can also be decomposed into an isotropic (ISO), a major double-couple, and a minor double-couple part (e.g., [11]). The seismic moment is a 3 × 3 matrices. In linear algebra, a complex matrix can be expressed by the summation of several simple, independent matrices. Applying this principle, Kikuchi and Kanamori [12] expressed an arbitrary moment tensor by summing six different constant moment tensors. Given an earthquake hypocenter and earth model, each of the constant tensors is used to generate Green’s functions and obtain three-component synthetic seismograms at a given seismic station.
There are several ways to generate Green’s functions depending on the wave type used. As the
Once Green’s functions are obtained, synthetic seismograms are calculated using a set of coefficients. A moment tensor inversion is to search for a set of the coefficients used to generate synthetic seismograms, which should be as similar as possible to the observed seismograms in shapes and amplitudes. To do this, two functions are often separately used. One function is to calculate the correlation between the synthetic and the observed seismograms using:
where the subscript
The second function is to calculate the amplitude differences between the synthetic and the observed seismograms:
The factor
where
We, first, use function (1) to obtain a preliminary moment tensor solution, then use (3) to obtain
Crotwell, et al. [15] developed a Taup Toolkit, called “Flexible Seismic Travel-Time and Raypath Utilities.” Using this tool, the travel times for many seismic phases can be calculated.
We developed a procedure [16] using the relationship that the time duration between the tele-depth phase pP and its reference phase P is roughly positively proportional to the focal depth, to determine focal depths for the larger aftershocks of the Rat Islands,
For a given station, we pick out the station distance from the SAC record at the station;
We select a possible depth range;
Using the station distance and a range of depth, with the Taup tool we calculate several time durations between the tele-depth phase pP and its reference P;
Using Matlab, we plot a line determined by the focal depths and the corresponding calculated time durations pP-P, and obtain a linear formula;
Put the measured time duration pP-P at the selected station in the formula, the calculated focal depth for the aftershock is obtained;
For several stations at which the time durations pP-P are measured, several focal depth solutions are obtained, and the average is used as the final solution for the earthquake.
Earthquake hypocenter parameters are fundamental information for studying earthquakes, as such many people have contributed to earthquake locating methods and computer programs. The hypocenter locating program that we used is a part of a computer program package called SEISAN. The SEISAN (seismic analysis system) is a complete set of programs for analyzing earthquakes. With SEISAN it is possible to locate events, determine spectral parameters, seismic moments, and so on. The hypocenter locating program used in this article in the SEISAN package is a modified version of HYPOCENTER [17, 18, 19].
The commonly used procedure to set up an earthquake rupture model is described below. One of the nodal planes obtained from a seismic moment tensor is used as the earthquake rupture plane. Usually, the
A unit constant rupture slip vector for each sub-fault is divided into two orthogonal vector components (one aligned along the strike and the other aligned along the dipping direction). Any slip vector on the sub-fault is obtained by multiplying the two constant vector components with appropriate coefficients. The goal of the inversion method is to obtain the coefficients of all of the sub-faults. The slip function (source time function) of each sub-fault is depicted by overlapped
If we assume that on a sub-fault
where
In this study, two methods were used to determine the rupture slip distribution—the non-negative least squares (NNLS) method [21] and the simulated annealing (SA) method [22]. For most trial inversions, we used the NNLS method, while the SA method was used at the final step to confirm the solution obtained with NNLS.
The smoothness constraint of the total spatial slip distribution was implemented by a Laplacian differential operator to stabilize the slip solution [23]. To calculate the time delay
Using the methods introduced above we studied the source parameters for the mainshocks and relocated its larger aftershocks that occurred about 20 days following the mainshock. In this section, we present those results.
Using the method outlined above, we performed the full moment tensor inversions for the Rat Islands earthquake using a range of focal depths and provided the moment tensor solution obtained using a focal depth of 105 km.
Since the Rat Islands
We conducted the following tests using a depth range from 80 km to 120 km with a depth increment of 5 km. For each focal depth, (1) we calculated the Green’s functions, (2) took the same length for the observed Rayleigh wave record aligned with the synthetic seismogram, calculated at the focal depth, and (3) performed a full moment tensor inversion. The used source time function was three overlapping triangles. The time length of each bottom side was 20 s. Table 1 lists the obtained parameters for the full moment tensor solution using our preferred focal depth of 105 km. Compared to the scalar moment of the major DC in Table 1, the isotropic (ISO) is 2.88%. At all other depths from 80 km to 120 km (not listed), the ISO as a percentage of the total seismic moment was less than 6%. The smallest ISO occurred at the depth of 95 km.
The trace (trace = 3 × ISO; e.g., [11]) obtained in our inversions was small. As the trace quantifies a volume change in the source region (e.g., [11]), the small trace implied that the change of the earth’s material volume in the source region was small. Compared to the major DC moment in Table 1, the minor DC moment was only 3.64%. The small minor DC and small ISO moments imply that the Rat Islands mainshock was dominated by a major DC event.
To evaluate the creditability of the solutions we need to compare the synthetic seismograms with those of the observed ones. Figure 7 shows the moment tensor projection and the waveform comparison for the first four pairs of seismograms. The similarities between the synthetic and observed seismograms in both the waveform shapes and the maximum amplitude ratios were good. Other pairs at the remaining 53 stations had a similar quality. The good waveform fit implies that the moment tensor solution obtained is reasonable.
(a) The lower hemispherical projection of the moment tensor solution obtained using a depth of 105 km. (b) Comparison between the first 4 observed and synthetic seismograms used in the inversion. For each pair, the upper trace is the observed (solid line), and the lower trace is the synthetic (dashed-line), generated with the solution displayed in panel (a). Both the observed and synthetic waveforms were filtered with a band-pass filter in the range of 135 s to 500 s. The symbols and numbers on the left side of each pair from the top to the bottom indicate the station name, vertical component, station distance in degree, station azimuth in degree, and the ratio between the observed and synthetic maximum amplitudes. The waveform shape similarity and the small bias of the ratios from an ideal case (ratio = 1) show that the fit is good.
There are two nodal plane solutions in Table 1. One nodal plane is close to the rupture plane of the
The error in the focal depth obtained using a conventional method may be large. The reason is that the travel times of the P and S phases are dominated by the station distance, not the focal depth. We used a combined procedure to relocate the aftershocks.
We searched tele-depth phase pP from the vertical component (BHZ) of teleseismic P-wave records retrieved from IRIS for 23 aftershocks that occurred between June 23 and July 11, 2014, with magnitude ≥ 4.5, and determined focal depths for these 23 aftershocks using depth phase pP [16]. Then the arrival times of the recorded P and S phases at the same four regional stations for these 23 aftershocks were carefully measured, and the SEISAN [24, 25] was used to locate the epicenters at the focal depth obtained using the depth phase pP. The re-located 23 aftershocks were listed in Table 2.
No | Date | Time | Lat. | Lon. | Depath | m | t-err | lat-err | lon-err |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 0.40 | 6.1 | 2.7 | ||||||
2 | 0.31 | 4.9 | 2.1 | ||||||
3 | 2014-6-23 | 22:03:27.1 | 52.064 | 178.471 | 126.7 | 5.1 | 0.52 | 7.8 | 3.6 |
4 | 2014-6-23 | 22:18:35.8 | 52.066 | 178.323 | 137.2 | 4.8 | 0.48 | 7.6 | 3.4 |
5 | 0.45 | 6.5 | 3.1 | ||||||
6 | 2014-6-23 | 22:47:51.7 | 52.012 | 178.421 | 128.5 | 4.8 | 0.33 | 5.1 | 2.3 |
7 | 2014-6-23 | 23:33:51.4 | 51.923 | 178.391 | 109.2 | 4.5 | 0.33 | 5.0 | 2.3 |
8 | 2014-6-23 | 23:39:31.5 | 51.972 | 178.525 | 122.4 | 4.7 | 0.48 | 7.2 | 3.3 |
9 | 0.34 | 5.1 | 2.3 | ||||||
10 | 2014-6-24 | 01:20:11.2 | 51.821 | 178.584 | 108.2 | 4.7 | 0.28 | 4.2 | 1.9 |
11 | 2014-6-24 | 04:33:04.8 | 52.029 | 178.444 | 131.1 | 4.5 | 0.47 | 7.2 | 3.3 |
12 | 2014-6-24 | 06:20:21.0 | 52.048 | 178.384 | 127.4 | 5.2 | 0.26 | 3.9 | 1.8 |
13 | 2014-6-24 | 06:55:29.2 | 52.001 | 178.446 | 123.6 | 4.9 | 0.43 | 6.5 | 3.0 |
14 | 2014-6-24 | 15:15:03.1 | 51.963 | 178.445 | 118.3 | 4.6 | 0.45 | 6.7 | 3.1 |
15 | 2014-6-25 | 00:03:03.9 | 51.983 | 178.452 | 121.9 | 5.1 | 0.32 | 4.9 | 2.2 |
16 | 2014-6-27 | 14:24:47.2 | 52.025 | 178.430 | 125.7 | 4.5 | 0.34 | 5.2 | 2.4 |
17 | 2014-6-28 | 16:24:35.0 | 52.020 | 178.393 | 122.8 | 4.6 | 0.29 | 4.4 | 2.0 |
18 | 2014-6-29 | 08:54:44.4 | 51.806 | 178.528 | 92.3 | 4.8 | 0.59 | 8.5 | 4.0 |
19 | 2014-7-03 | 04:43:40.7 | 51.929 | 178.571 | 118.3 | 5.0 | 0.47 | 6.4 | 2.7 |
20 | 0.30 | 4.2 | 1.8 | ||||||
21 | 2014-7-04 | 13:57:38.1 | 51.978 | 178.477 | 119.4 | 4.5 | 0.48 | 7.2 | 3.3 |
22 | 2014-7-08 | 14:43:31.3 | 52.056 | 178.455 | 116.2 | 5.3 | 0.35 | 5.0 | 2.4 |
23 | 2014-7-11 | 05:53:25.6 | 51.847 | 178.508 | 101.0 | 4.7 | 0.58 | 8.6 | 4.0 |
Catalog of the 23 relocated aftershocks.
Note: lat. means latitude (°); lon., longitude (°); depth in km; m, magnitude; t-err, error in the origin time (s); lat-err, error in latitude (km); lon-err, error in longitude (km). The magnitude values are from the IRIS database. The bold text shows the 5 larger aftershocks.
The bird-view distribution of the obtained 23 hypocenters in Figure 8 shows that the hypocenters are separated into two groups. Group 1 was formed by the hypocenters with the lighter color, while group 2 was formed by the hypocenters with the deeper color. Figure 9a shows the hypocenter projection onto a vertical plane perpendicular to the steep-dip plane (nodal plane 2). Eleven (11) aftershocks in group 2 formed a linear trend in the steep-dipping direction. The other hypocenters are scattered. Figure 9b shows the hypocenter projection onto a vertical plane, perpendicular to the shallow-dip plane, indicated with P1 projection (nodal plane 1). No linear trend was formed by the hypocenters at the dipping (27.1°) direction of the shallow-dip plane.
Distribution of the epicenters for the mainshock and the 23 relocated aftershocks. Each solid circle shows an epicenter. It was color-coded with focal depth. A deeper color shows a deeper depth. The size of each circle is proportional to the magnitude. The epicenters are separated into a shallower group (group 1) and a deeper group (group 2). The strike and the dipping directions of two nodal planes of the mainshock were indicated with strike 1 and dipping 1(shallow-dip plane); strike 2 and dipping 2 (steep-dip plane), respectively. The latitude and longitude of each epicenter were converted to a Cartesian coordinate system for distance comparison. The star with Mw 7.9 shows the epicenter of the mainshock.
Hypocenter projections. (a) The hypocenters of the mainshock and the 23 relocated aftershocks projected onto a vertical plane that is perpendicular to the steep-dip nodal plane (P2). The tilted dashed line indicated with 84.2° is the projection of the steep-dip plane. The number 84.2 is the dip angle. Eleven (11) aftershocks in group 2 formed an about 15 km linear trend along the steep-dip plane. (b) The hypocenters of the mainshock and the 23 relocated aftershocks are projected onto a vertical plane that is perpendicular to the shallow-dip plane (P1). The tilted dashed line indicated with 27.1° is the projection of the shallow-dip plane. It was found that no linear trend was formed along a nodal plane (P1).
In order to observe a spatial trend, we simulated a plane using the hypocenters of the 23 well relocated aftershocks. Figure 10 shows the simulated spatial plane. Its strike is at Az 258.2°; its dip angle is 44.8°. To clearly observe the dipping of the simulated plane we projected the hypocenters of the mainshock and the 23 aftershocks onto a vertical plane which is along the simulated dipping direction. Figure 11 shows that most hypocenters were distributed along the tilted line, the projection of the simulated plane, at dip angle 44.8°. This angle is close to the one (47.7° in Figure 4a) obtained by simulating hypocenters of the earthquakes occurred before the mainshock. They are neither close to the steep-dip angle 84.2° nor the shallow-dip angle 27.1°. The trend may be close to the boundary between the Pacific plate and the north America plate beneath the Rat Islands region.
We performed the source rupture inversions for the Rat Islands earthquake using the procedure outlined above and the inversion code developed by Kikuchi and Kanamori, provided by Lingling Ye (personal communication) with a subroutine we revised to speed up the calculations of the Green’s functions.
The simulated spatial plane uses the hypocenters of the 23 well-relocated aftershocks (
The hypocenters of the mainshock and the 23 relocated aftershocks are projected onto a vertical plane that is along the simulated dipping direction (perpendicular to the simulated spatial plane. The tilted dashed line indicated with 44.8° (dip angle) is the projection of the simulated plane. The red star shows the initial location of the mainshock. The relatively narrow seismicity belt may be assumed to be close to the boundary between the Pacific Plate and the North American plate beneath the Rat Islands region.
For the Rat Islands mainshock, the focal depth published online by ISC is 102.1 km; the centroid depth calculated by the G-CMT group is 104.3 km. The shallowest focal depth for the 23 aftershocks we relocated is 92.3 km. From the consideration that 104.3 km is the centroid depth, the mainshock is a large one with normal faulting, the rupture initial point may be shallower than the centroid depth by tens of kilometers; therefore, we took 92 km as the initial rupture depth. This value is close to that (95 km) used by Ye et al. [3].
In the rupture inversion procedure, the nodal plane 2 of the full moment tensor solution obtained using a depth of 105 km, was used as the rupture plane (Table 1; strike 308.7°, dip 84.2° and slip -116.5°). The epicenter (51.7028°N; 178.6428°E) used in the inversion was retrieved from the IRIS website. The fault model dimensions are 270 km × 210 km, while the size of each sub-fault is 15 km × 15 km. The total number of sub-faults is 252.
To perform the source rupture inversion, we needed a rupture propagation velocity (VR). The rupture velocity (
The variance changes with rupture velocity. The minimum variance occurred at a rupture velocity of 2.0 km/s.
Figure 13 shows the source time function and the final slip distribution obtained using an initial depth of 92 km and a VR = 2.0 km/s. The initial point is indicated by a star sign *. The largest slip (3.52 m) occurred at a depth of about 120 km. The rupture area is about 60 × 60 km2. Figure 14 shows a waveform comparison between the observed and synthetic seismograms. The fit in each pair between the observed (upper) and synthetic (bottom) traces was generally good, except that at station AAK. This station is in the strike direction of the steep-dip nodal plane.
(a) Lower hemispherical projection of the double couple focal mechanism (
Comparison between the 27 observed and synthetic seismograms. For each pair of waveforms, the upper trace is the observed (solid line), and the lower trace is the synthetic (dashed-line), generated with the slip distribution in
Based on the well-relocated hypocenter trend, we used the steep-dip plane as the rupture plane. This was the same as that by Twardzik and Ji [5]. However, Ye et al. [6] found that the back-projection images were more straightforwardly reconciled with the shallow-dip plane. They also found their waveform misfits were comparable when the steep-dip plane or the shallow-dip plane was used as the causative plane, and some signals were better fitted using the steep-dip plane. As a result, their preference for the shallow-dip plane was mild. We also performed trial inversion with the key parameters used by Ye et al. [3], VR = 1.5 km/s, and the initial depth = 95 km. Figure 15 shows the rupture distribution we obtained. The largest slip (3.33 m) occurred at a depth of about 115 km within the largest patch. Figure 16 shows a waveform comparison between the observed and synthetic seismograms. The fit in each pair between the observed (upper) and synthetic (bottom) traces was also good.
(a) Lower hemispherical projection of the double couple focal mechanism (
Comparison between the 27 observed and synthetic seismograms. For each pair of waveforms, the upper trace is the observed (solid-line); the lower trace is the synthetic (dashed-line), generated with the slip distribution in
To observe the misfit between the observed and the synthetic seismograms, we found the fit at station AAK (Az 308°) was better in Figure 16 than that in Figure 14. Ye et al. [3] found that the shallow-dip fault plane toward the northwest provides better matches to P waveforms at azimuths from 300° to 340° (their Figure S2) than does the steep-dip fault plane solution (their Figures S3 and S4). This result is exactly the same as that we obtained.
To confirm that the record at AAK does not have a problem, we retrieved the records in the station AAK region, plotted the seismograms, and found the waveform shapes are similar (Figure 17). This implies that the recording quality at AAK does not have a problem, so the better waveform fit at AAK support to select the shallow-dip plane as the rupture plane.
Vertical P-wave displacement records in station AAK region (63°N–66°N; 50°W–54°W). It is clear that the shapes of these waveform records are similar, showing that the record at AAK does not have a problem. Along the bottom trace, UCH/BHZ three ruptures are indicated. The first one is small, the second one is larger, and the third is a combination of at least two large ruptures. The station (UCH) distance is 7300 km.
Based on the simulated spatial plane obtained using the well-relocated hypocenters, we found the majority of the hypocenters distributed around a mild dipping plane (Figure 11; dip 44.8°). We may assume that the mainshock ruptured on that plane. We performed trial inversions with the values of input parameters, rupture velocity VR = 1.5 km/s, and the initial depth = 95 km. Figure 18 shows the rupture distribution obtained. Figure 19 shows a waveform comparison between the observed and synthetic seismograms. The observed waveforms are exactly the same as those in Figure 16. The fits at stations AAK, KIP, and MIDW are not good; the ratio of the maximum amplitudes at several stations is not close to 1 (the ideal ratio is 1). The average variance (0.2720) is larger than those in Figures 14 and 16. The obtained maximum slip is about 3.36 m, which occurred at about a depth of 70 km within a smaller patch. Logically the maximum slip should occur at a depth below the initial depth (95 km), owing to the normal faulting. Since the misfit at several stations is not good, the ratio between the observed and synthetic maximum amplitudes at several stations is far from the ideal value, and the maximum slip occurred at a too shallow depth, the simulated plane is not acceptable to be the rupture plane.
(a) Lower hemispherical projection of the simulated focal mechanism. (b) Source time function. (c) Distribution of the slip on the simulated plane. The star sign * with “start point” shows the assigned location of the initial rupture. The arrow at a sub-fault shows the direction and the amount of the slip. The obtained maximum slip is about 3.36 m, occurred at about a depth of 70 km. The used rupture velocity VR = 1.5 km/s. The dashed circles show the rupture propagation.
Comparison between the 27 observed and synthetic seismograms. For each pair of waveforms, the upper trace is the observed (solid-line); the lower trace is the synthetic (dashed-line), generated with the slip distribution in
This
Beneath the Rat Islands at a depth of 100 km, the shear wave velocity is about 4.5 km/s. Using the PREM earth model and the assumed rupture velocity formula
Two nodal planes can be retrieved from an earthquake moment tensor solution. One of them is assumed to be close to the rupture plane and used for establishing a rupture slip model. Ye et al. [3] preferred the shallow-dip plane for rupture modeling. Twardzik and Ji [5] relocated larger aftershocks. Based on the relocated hypocenters they selected the steep-dip plane as the rupture plane. When Miyazawa [6] calculated the dynamic changes in the Coulomb Failure Function for the
When the steep-dip plane was used as the rupture plane, the major rupture patch we retrieved was distributed in a depth range from about 80 km to 140 km (Figure 13, the largest patch). The maximum slip we obtained was about 3.5 m, which was well consistent with that (3.7 m) obtained by Twardzik and Ji [5].
We also performed trial inversion using the shallow-dip plane as the rupture plane and found the average variance (0.1545) is almost the same as that (0.1570) obtained using the steep-dip plane. This implies that the rupture plane indeed cannot be identified using the mismatch between the observed and synthetic seismograms.
Since the majority of aftershocks are distributed along a moderate-dipping plane, it may be thought that the mainshock ruptured along the moderate-dipping plane. Test inversions using the simulated plane as the rupture plane were performed. It was found that the waveform fits at stations AAK, KIP, and MIDW are not good; and the ratio of the maximum amplitudes at several stations is far from the ideal ratio. The average variance (0.2720) is much larger than those in Figures 14 and 16; so, the simulated moderate-dipping plane was denied to be the rupture plane of the mainshock.
Based on the assumption that the immediate aftershocks occurred on the rupture plane of the mainshock or near the edges of the rupture [27], aftershock distributions are often used to select the rupture plane from the two nodal planes. When Kikuchi and Kanamori [28] studied the 1994 Shikotan
A hypothesis may be able to explain that the majority of aftershocks occurred along a moderate-dipping plane, which may be close to the boundary between the Pacific plate and North American plate beneath the Rat Islands region—most parts of the huge rupture fault were immediately locked under a tremendous pressure blow about 80 km of the depth after the occurrence of the mainshock, the stress in the source region was re-distributed, and migrated to the boundary region beneath the Rat Islands region, so most aftershocks distributed along that boundary, rather than the rupture plane of the mainshock.
This huge earthquake is very unique. For example, it had a vigorous aftershock sequence; other intermediate-depth earthquakes were usually followed by few or no aftershocks [1]. Solve the mysteries behind the observed phenomena requires more studies.
This research was supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada under the Discovery Grant programs. We gratefully acknowledge the constructive comments and suggestions from the academic editor Gaurav Chauhan for INTECHOPEN LIMITED. The waveform records were processed using SAC2000,
The seismograms, the earthquake catalog, and G-CMT solution used in this study were collected from the Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology (IRIS) database at http://www.iris.edu (last accessed the 20 February 2022).
The Internet has irrevocably changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing. Consequently, we find it necessary to indicate, unambiguously, our definition of what we consider to be a published scientific work.
",metaTitle:"Prior Publication Policy",metaDescription:"Prior Publication Policy",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/prior-publication-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\n\nThe significance of Peer Review cannot be overstated when it comes to defining, in our terms, what constitutes a published scientific work. Peer Review is widely considered to be the cornerstone of modern publishing processes and the key value-adding contribution to a scholarly manuscript that a publisher can make.
\n\nOther than the issue of originality, research misconduct is another major issue that all publishers have to address. IntechOpen’s Retraction & Correction Policy and various publication ethics guidelines identify both redundant publication and (self)plagiarism to fall within the definition of research misconduct, thus constituting grounds for rejection or the issue of a Retraction if the work has already been published.
\n\nIn order to facilitate the tracking of a manuscript’s publishing history and its development from its earliest draft to the manuscript submitted, we encourage Authors to disclose any instances of a manuscript’s prior publication, whether it be through a conference presentation, a newspaper article, a working paper publicly available in a repository or a blog post.
\n\nA note to the Academic Editor containing detailed information about a submitted manuscript’s previous public availability is the preferred means of reporting prior publication. This helps us determine if there are any earlier versions of a manuscript that should be disclosed to our readers or if any of those earlier versions should be cited and listed in a manuscript’s references.
\n\nSome basic information about the editorial treatment of different varieties of prior publication is laid out below:
\n\n1. CONFERENCE PAPERS & PRESENTATIONS
\n\nGiven that conference papers and presentations generally pass through some sort of peer or editorial review, we consider them to be published in the accepted scholarly sense, particularly if they are published as a part of conference proceedings.
\n\nAll submitted manuscripts originating from a previously published conference paper must contain at least 50% of new original content to be accepted for review and considered for publication.
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\n\nAs with the conference papers and presentations, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the newspaper or magazine that published the work, and indicate that they have done so in a note to the External Editor.
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\n\nWhite papers, working papers, technical reports and all other forms of papers which fall within the scope of the ‘Luxembourg definition’ of grey literature do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense.
\n\nAlthough such papers are regularly made publicly available via personal websites and institutional repositories, their general purpose is to gather comments and feedback from Authors’ colleagues in order to further improve a manuscript intended for future publication.
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