Effectiveness of Nonverbal Communicators (CCTV) in Crisis Situations: An Agenda Setting Perspective on the Cameroon Anglophone Crisis

Abstract

Relevance of closed circuit television (CCTV) cameras in the Cameroon Anglophone crisis (CAC) (2016–2020) is explored as effectiveness of nonverbal communicators in crisis situations from a qualitative perspective. Findings reveal that nonverbal communicators are effective and strategic in crisis communication and management. Exploration on CCTV, security and crime prevention (deterrence) demonstrate that the technology is used for security, which according to participants (66.6%), CCTV cameras directly deter intentions of criminal activities within the Buea municipality. Participant’s experiences suggest CCTV cameras have the potential to communicate agenda(s) (active and latent). Nonverbal communication/communicators play important roles in crisis development, escalation and resolution. Increasing digitalization and smart living, call for attention on privacy. Understanding the technologies of nonverbal communication, how they are reshaping media surveillance; influencing decision making processes and policy frameworks of governments, and policing in the era of ‘big data’ and ‘big brother,’ is crucial.

1. Introduction

News report on Cameroon’s Equinox Television during the 2018 Presidential Election in Cameroon described the pre-election, election and post-election events as the internet of things (IoT); in vivid relevance to the transformative effects of technology [1]. This phrase captures the overwhelming presence of contemporary digitalisation on the Cameroon society—a presence, which is changing human existence. Advancements in technology are constantly transforming the traditional space of communication, with the potential to alter, whether for good or evil, human behaviour and interaction. These behaviours and interactions manifest as verbal and nonverbal communication, more so in crisis situations. Understanding the effectiveness of nonverbal communicators in crisis situations is crucial, for as [2] indicated, it is vital to appreciate the ‘technology of nonverbal communication’ as it ushers new perspectives for the future.

The notion of Communication is age old, pre dating the existence of man [3, 4, 5, 6]. Biblical accounts of creation (Gen 1, King James Version) record conversations between God and himself (Gen 1:26), God and man (Gen 2:23) and man and man (Gen 3:36). History is proof that increase in human presence and interactions (communication), most times result in conflicts of interests (crisis situations) as recorded in Gen 11 and by [7]. Ray and Esteban [8] noted that ‘we appear to live in an incredibly violent world’ (p. 3); with complexities of the modern society rooted in some form of conflict [9].

The need to understand (the origin and nature), manage or seek solution to crises, whether self-generated for self-preservation or third-party oversight, has always played a central role in managing such crises, with communication and communication devices driving the process [10]. Irimies [11] says the origin and nature of conflicts (crisis) are varied. These which could be intra, inter or mass, span across every area of human life: emotional, psychological, religious, environmental, social, economic, political and the list continues. Definitive to this are socio-political crises, the Cameroon Anglophone crisis (CAC) in focus that has rocked the two English speaking regions of Cameroon since 2016.

Human progress through different eras (the stone age, Agrarian revolution, Industrial revolution and the Internet age) are characterised by changes in technology and technological advancements in communication tools, gadgets and applications, whose presence and use continually transform the communication space [12]. Increasingly, as these communication technologies facilitate interaction, they also pose as unscripted communication law enforcers; monitoring and conditioning speech patterns (subject matter and rendition), actions and overall communication behaviour [13, 14], with their abilities to set varied agendas.

Communication efforts in crisis situation work at two distinct levels: on the one part in favour of the protagonist and on the other hand the antagonist. And the effective engagement and management of such communication is to a great extent a determinant of the nature of resolution reached [15]. Communication within the CAC since 2016 has taken diverse forms. Both the Cameroon government and Separatists have engaged in the use of verbal and nonverbal modes to communicate agendas. By mid-2016, the separatists had released make-believe posters showing what infrastructural development would be in the South West region (SWR; Meme and Ndian divisions in particular) at the onset of the futuristic country of Ambazonia. Again, the mining and beheading of people by Separatist fighters is a message for ‘black legs’ to toe the line and join the struggle. To the Separatists, this is a prudent way to communicate a ‘divine’ agenda in the crisis.

The Cameroon government has continually communicated its stance towards the crisis through communiqués and public calls from the President of the Republic, Paul Biya, and the Minister of Communication (government spokesman), Rene Emmanuel Sadi. Government’s efforts/actions (military, humanitarian, etc.) to suppress Separatist fighters, loyalists to the struggle and misguided deaths on civilians are indicative of government’s communication strategy on containing and recovering from the crisis situation.

One of the confusing outcomes of the crisis is the blame game between Government and Separatist fighters over atrocities committed. For instance, when the Kumba General Hospital (Meme Division, SWR) was burnt down on February 11, 2019, government spokesperson blamed it on separatists, while separatists on their part circulated propaganda linking the burning to military forces. Similarly, when 23 civilians were killed in Ngarbuh, North West region (13th–14th February, 2020), separatist fighters with some international organisations like Human Rights Watch, even before an official statement from the government (which later came through the Joint Commission of Inquiry on April 21st, 2020 in Yaoundé by the Secretary General of the Presidency of the Republic, Ferdinand Ngo Ngo) attributed the massacre squarely on government excesses. While the Minister of Territorial administration and decentralisation, Paul AtangaNji, in a press conference (March 9, 2020) did not only attribute the killings to separatist fighters, but went further to accuse non-governmental organisations like Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International, International Crisis Group, OCHA, REDHAC amongst others for partnering with enemies of the state to destabilise Cameroon [16].

One way to resolve such a problem is by instituting close circuit television (CCTV) cameras [17], which have proven effective in monitoring—nonverbally so, human behaviour [18, 19, 20], in areas where such atrocities are likely to be committed.

Work place ethics, public space discussions, and other related avenues are increasingly experiencing moderations in negative excessive human behaviour thanks to the presence of non-verbal communicable devices like CCTV cameras. Their use or extensive official use is a relatively new phenomenon in much of Africa. Though it had been in increasing commercial use since the 1940’s, South Africa one of the first African countries to use it, only engaged in its use years later. As of 2019, Kenya and Uganda recorded an over 4300 cameras in operation [21].

An American campaign group has argued that, though good, extensive use of CCTV poses a threat to our way of life and that widespread visual surveillance may well have a chilling effect on free speech and activity [22], especially regarding government and security issues. Conversely, CCTV proponents long argued that, though these concerns exists, if it serves a positive role—inclusive good of society, then it is worth engaging [23]. With the possibility of real time monitoring and feed back in the communication process through CCTV as channel of communication, immediate punishment can be meted on inappropriate actions.

In 2012 following the Boko Haram insurgency in Northern Cameroon [24], and other progressive security concerns in the country which have expansively expressed themselves in the CAC, the Cameroon government engaged in new technology as a means to combat the spread of crime and large scale violence [25]. In 2019, with the ongoing CAC that has plagued the two English speaking regions, government specifically boosted digital surveillance [26] with the inauguration of the CCTV lab in Yaoundé. The ultramodern lab has an over 2000 camera operations capacity, an increase from the 1500 September 2018 maiden installation at the National Gendarmerie. It is expected that this state-of-the-art, Huawei-built technology surveillance system will modernise and improve the performance as well as operational capacities (e.g. identify suspects – person and even vehicle number plates) of the police in Cameroon [27]. The SWR, Buea municipality in particular has benefitted from the installation of several CCTV cameras in major public places and sensitive areas of national interest. Buea and its immediate environs have been experiencing relative calm through much of the CAC. Ghost towns are timidly respected, inhabitants afford to stay out late into the night; two things which have been conspicuously absent in other towns like Kumba, Mamfe, Muyuka in SWR.

As [28] posit, attributions do not just occur for communication behaviours; they also comprise some of what we communicate about; and are about what we have conflict [29]. This chapter substantiates how effective CCTV cameras could be as mediums, and latent agenda setters as the drivers of nonverbal communication are salient, yet would pose tremendous effects in their ability to communicate an agenda(s) in crisis situations (CAC). It questions how behavioural patterns are adjusted when places are laden with CCTV infrastructure.

1.1 Main research question

How useful are nonverbal communicators in crisis situations in Cameroon?

SRQ1: What are the uses of CCTV cameras in the Buea municipality?

Assumption (1): CCTV is effective in communicating desired behavioural patterns.

SRQ2: How have CCTV cameras contributed in preserving calm through the Cameroon Anglophone crisis in Buea municipality?

Assumption (2): CCTV cameras have the potential to reinforce positive action in society.

2. Closed circuit television: implications for use

CCTV is “a surveillance technique thought to prevent crime because of the deterrent effect on potential offenders, when they are aware that the cameras may be watching their activities. Cameras, located at predetermined points to ensure optimal coverage, collect images that are transferred to a monitoring station or are stored for subsequent analysis and review [30]”. In this study, CCTV refers to electronic monitoring systems which make use of video cameras, connected by means of a closed (or non-broadcast) circuit, to capture, collect, record, and/or relay visual information about the event-status of a given space over time [31]. The Constitution Project, a liberty and security committee has identified CCTV’s latest advances to include: (1) observation technologies; (2) recording technologies; (3) tracking technologies; and (4) identification technologies. This chapter focuses on CCTV as an observation technology with the capacity to set agendas.

Importantly, nonverbal communication highlights the nonlinguistic transmission of information through visual, auditory, tactile, and kinesthetic channels [32, 33, 34, 35]. To this end, CCTV’s ability to observe [31] and transmit desired messages either to (a public) or from (a public) makes this information and communication technology (ICT) and artificial intelligence (AI) surveillance device a nonverbal communicator. The all-encompassing circuiliary properties of the CCTV system make it even more potent a communicator. Its ability to see, identify, code and decode information, transmit and store information further makes a case on its complexity as a nonverbal communicator, with a systematic communication process of its own.

Applications and implications for CCTV use are widespread. Amongst these is the availability of power, authority and status. Goodwin [35] acknowledge that social power as a concept is the ability through which one person can influence one or more people or control the outcomes of others. And this in contemporary times can be better achieved through such technological devices like CCTV as opposed to gun battles.

The transformative effect of CCTV in crisis situations has received increasing attention in the twenty-first century. Piza [36] in his study “The crime prevention effect of CCTV in public places: a propensity score analysis” found out that CCTV has the potential as a deterrent against crime, especially auto theft within city streets of Newark, New Jersey. Equally, Ashby [37] in the article, “The Value of CCTV Surveillance Cameras as an Investigative Tool: An Empirical Analysis”, enunciated that it appears CCTV is a powerful investigative tool for many types of crime. Major findings from the study which sought to establish how often CCTV provides useful evidence (How often is CCTV useful?) and how this is affected by circumstances, indicate from analysing 251,195 crimes recorded by British Transport Police that occurred on the British railway network between 2011 and 2015, that CCTV was available to investigators in 45% of cases and judged to be useful in 29% (65% of cases in which it was available). It further revealed that useful CCTV was associated with significantly increased chances of crimes being solved for numerous crime types (investigation of 1223 assaults causing serious injury, 4120 assaults causing minor injury, 1365 personal robberies and 2810 sexual offences).

3. Theoretical perspective

Operationalising CCTV as a nonverbal communicator through the exploration of lived experiences of people as they use and interact with the technology; finds bearing in mass communication, media and technology theories. Of the four theories considered for this study, this paper focuses on the agenda setting theory description of the source and nature of agendas set by users of CCTV (public and private operatives), through the period of the socio-political crisis in Cameroon.

3.1 Agenda setting theory

This theory attempts to determine on the one hand how the popular agenda of the media affects society and on the other, why mass media has gained so much power over the thoughts of people across the globe [38, 39, 40]. Put differently, as Feezell [41] has opined, the theory has been and still is used for a wide array of public issues, with significant implications for attitudes, opinions and use-gratification, to which understanding the effectiveness of CCTV use in crisis situations fits rigidly.

Though the agenda setting theory is accorded significant success in the formation of public opinion—public attention, it does not have a direct influence on attitudes and opinions, which for the most part was the main focus of media-effects research in the 1940s and 1950s [42].

This study conceptualises the core elements of the agenda setting theory as follows:

1. Message repetition = the silent agenda in unspoken words

2. position of story = positioning of CCTV cameras

3. length of story = the duration of use of CCTV

Furthermore, following agenda settings improved perspectives of highlighting not just what to think, but more what to think about and how, CCTV was seen as asking people to think about security issues and how well to behave, as there is an eye watching. The theoretical interlace that follows show dynamism of CCTV use and possible implications (Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Source code model.

4. Methodology

Qualitative-exploratory design, following in Husserl’s descriptive phenomenological method is used [26, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47]. The lived experiences [43, 48, 49] with the use of CCTV cameras in Buea municipality by: 12 infrastructures (both public and private) with CCTV installations, and 16 inhabitants in Buea who resided around or visited CCTV camera spots at the time of this study constitutes the population. Buea is the capital of SWR and one of the only two regions directly experiencing the CAC (2016–2021).

Maximum variation is used to understand the experiences of users of publicly controlled CCTV installations, academic institutions, medical institutions, financial institutions, shopping centers and leisure, and hospitality establishments. To [50] Maximum variation sampling is appropriate for use in capturing a central theme from across varied participants. Equally, through extreme case sampling, data is collected from areas assumed to be CCTV-rich neighbourhoods in Buea municipality, notably: Molyko, Buea Station, Muea, GRA, Mile 16, Clerks and Federal Quarters, Great Soppo and Bonduma.

Key informants (managers/directors/heads of establishments and CCTV operatives) who constitute one part of the population are purposefully sampled to elicit substantive data: providing information on policy framework and day-to-day interaction with the cameras. Buea inhabitants who resided around or visited CCTV camera spots are conveniently sampled [51] on behavioural adjustments these cameras trigger.

Interviews are used as instrument for data collection: structured interviews (21 questions) for CCTV owners and unstructured interviews (3 questions) for the general public (Buea inhabitants). The interview is effective for a one-on-one inquiry with participants for detailed information about a phenomenon—the effectiveness of nonverbal communicators (CCTV cameras) in this case. The interview process lasted from July 5th to August 30th 2020, with a total of 28 (12 structured and 16 unstructured) interviews completed. Data analysis followed in Moustakas modified 7 step van Kaam systematic procedures [52, 53], with the aid of Nvivo 10 for advanced descriptive models’ generation.

5. Findings

5.1 SRQ1. What are the uses of CCTV cameras in the Buea municipality?

All users of CCTV said their use of CCTV is for security. One user, with 2.15% of coded reference coverage recounted an incident that occurred in 2018: ‘we are in a crisis zone for example. We had our cars smashed here. The wind screens of our cars were smashed! Items get missing in the shop. Only these cameras have helped us to get the culprits.’ Another user (1.22% coverage) said the cameras are ‘used for security and to beef up security measures’. Similarly, one other user (0.68% coverage) added that ‘it reduces the amount of theft that you may have on the yard’. Also, two users (16.7%) mentioned that CCTV is used for communication. According to one of the users, the cameras are used for ‘modelling behaviour’. Equally, another user said because of the cameras, ‘the workers and students themselves are alert that there are cameras, so no more late coming and movements in and out of class’.

Table 1 indicates that, all 12 users make use of fixed cameras, that have the capacity to function in both natural light (day) and artificial lighting (night) and operate 24 hours a day every other week. Also, one user (8.3%) said they use analogue and infrared cameras and another user (8.3%) said they use network cameras. Two users disclosed that there is need for an upgrade on their system, to meet up with growing security needs and enjoy other benefits of the IoT: ‘when these cameras came up, at the time, the digital system was still under testing. So, we got a reliable analogue system that has been running from that time till now… so far, there is a possibility for an upgrade. But so far due to the difficulties we are facing now, lets say the political crisis, we have not upgraded till now. Actually, we intended to upgrade to what we call IP cameras’ and ‘But they have been upgraded. With the most recent being the year 2020. The older ones were removed to improve on quality and overall functioning’.

Type of camera	Number of users (N = 12)	Percentage of users (%)
Fixed cameras	12	100
Day and night cameras	12	100
Analogue cameras	1	8.3
Infrared cameras	1	8.3
Network cameras	1	8.3
Duration of surveillance (24 hours, 7 days a week)	12	100

Table 1.

Types of CCTV cameras used.

Assumption (1): CCTV is effective in communicating desired behavioural patterns.

Findings in Table 2 show that 11 (91.6%) users specifically said they engaged in the use of CCTV cameras for security reasons. According to one (0.9%), ‘… the principal or primordial purposes of installing the cameras is to secure the company and secure the customer, that’s the bottom line.’ Similarly, another (0.9%) said, ‘it was to protect the infrastructures and the operations linked to the infrastructure.’ This user (2.6%) was specific on the type of major security concern that prompted their use of the cameras: ‘It was important for security. We have recorded theft both in-house (from workers) and externally from vandals… increased theft at the supermarket’.

Specific reasons for the use of CCTV	Number of users (N = 12)	Percentage of users (%)
For security	11	91.6
Because of security concerns prompted by CAC	3	25
Control behaviour	2	16.6
Maintain order	1	8.3
Other functions of CCTV cameras
Functions
Behaviour modification	9	75
Instill order	4	33.3
Comparative usefulness of CCTV cameras
Usefulness
Omni presence (it does more than regular security guards)	12	100
Behaviour modification	1	8.3

Table 2.

Reasons that prompted the use of CCTV cameras (uses and usefulness).

Users (3, 25%) also attributed the push factor for their immediate engagement with the use of CCTV cameras to the ongoing CAC. To one user (2.2%), ‘the Cameroon Anglophone crisis too, was one of the major reasons why we had to set up these cameras’.

In direct premise of CCTV cameras being nonverbal communicators, with the potential to both actively and in latency set agendas, tow users said, they got into the use of CCTV cameras to be able to control people’s behaviour. One (7.4%) said ‘And I’ll tell something, if you do anything here, the cameras are watching you. … You cannot do anything without the camera seeing you. … If you’re a thief and you come here you’re finished.’

Nine (75%) users said another function of CCTV cameras, besides security, is its use for behaviour modification. To the user (1.2%) ‘I control everything and the customers who are there.’ To another (2.1%), ‘it has helped us to control the way people (both customers and workers) behave in the shop’. Other users shared their experiences as ‘the cameras have been able to redirect students to added levels of discipline’ (1.4%); and ‘cause people to act different around places where they (cameras) are installed’.

Similarly, 4 (33.3%) users on their part said the cameras are used to instill order. The positioning of the cameras set passive injunctions on possible injunctions: ‘they are positioned everywhere, to see everything happening. The front entrance, in the corridors and 10 miles view in the back’ (2.9%); ‘survey places and present unseen injunctions to people’ (0.5%); ‘people behave well and we don’t have intruders’ (0.5%); ‘through these cameras, we can view people’s activities…It is important to keep sharp eyes on peoples movements and communication’ (3%).

All 12 (100%) users said one distinct quality the cameras have over regular guards is that they give omnipresence. Through the cameras, the monitor views multiple locations in surveillance without physically having to be there. A user (1.9%) said, ‘With the cameras, we can be present in multiple places at ones, something the available guards cannot do’. Another user (12.6%) shared extensively their experience with CCTV cameras. To this user, the cameras are able to: ‘trick you into a trap, lock you in a cage until the police arrive, they can trigger an alarm, they can turn on the fire extinguisher’ of importance too, the user noted that because the cameras are integrated via the IoT, ‘they actually interact. The camera can actually ask the refrigerator, why is there smoke? And the refrigerator will report, my temperature is above normal, and the camera will shut it down.’ A regular guard does not have the ability to function within such parameters.

To this user (2.7%) the cameras effect stricter accountability measures and help regular security guards enjoy the holidays, especially during festive periods, as the guards can monitor from home, through their phones. Because the cameras are able to record first hand evidence, implementing company rules and objectives without the presence of a manager are possible (1.3%). The user adds that ‘you can control when the company opens, when the company closes’ and distance between chairs, especially within the Covid-19 prevention prescriptions.

5.2 SRQ2. How have CCTV cameras contributed in preserving calm through the Cameroon Anglophone crisis in Buea municipality?

Assumption (2): CCTV cameras have the potential to reinforce positive action in society.

Table 3 shows findings from user’s experience with the use of CCTV cameras through the CAC (2016—the start; 2017—escalation; 2018, 2019, and 2020—towards a resolution). The question that addresses this concern was primarily framed to describe how the cameras influence the decision making process, and thus, implicit through the various experiences, though three (25%) users shared specifically on the a priori concept.

CCTV’C relevance	Number of users (N = 12)	Percentage of users (%)
Effective in deterring crime	8	66.6
Relevant, evidence on intervention	5	41.6
Influenced the decision making process	3	25

Table 3.

Relevance of CCTV cameras through the CAC.

According to eight (66.6%) users, the experience they had with the use of CCTV cameras through CAC was the cameras effectiveness in deterring crime. This user (4.8%) said the cameras were ‘very effective in preventing crime. We can attest to this. When people come to the Pharmacy, they act different because they see cameras pointed directly in their faces; they adjust.’ To another user (3.8%), ‘… I think the presence of the cameras creates some awareness on how people behave around, knowing they are been watched.’

The user (6.4%) gave a timeline on how the presence of the cameras has drastically reduced theft at their shop since the installation of the cameras: ‘We recorded so much loses at the wine and whisky spots… Before the installation of the cameras, we used to record theft twice every 3 months. But since the 2018 set up, not even a single theft has been recorded.’

According to this user (6.2%), an error in confirming whether or not the cameras were set on record and not just monitoring before they left the Pharmacy caused them some unrecovered loses: ‘we had a serious theft incident but were unable to apprehend the thieve(s) because on checking the cameras, it was only then we realized that there was a failure or malfunctioning. The camera was on, but recording had been disabled, and we forgot.’ Nonetheless, the Pharmacy has been able to resolve an incident of internal theft, thanks to the cameras.

In describing how relevant CCTV cameras have been to them, these users said, it has influenced their decision making process on security issues. A user (3.6%) explained that due to the Anglophone crisis, they took the decision to increase on their cameras: ‘the Anglophone crisis instead along the line made us to multiple the cameras. So that is where the Anglophone crisis came in. … we thought it wise to increase the number of cameras and in strategic places to cover the entire circumference of the yard.’ On their part, this user (3.2%) said ‘for the short time that I have been around, I think the cameras have been useful and should continue to be. We are reinstalling by tomorrow, hopefully.’ This came after their cameras suffered a breakdown, within which period they experienced a theft incident in Church (August, 2020).

Equally, all 12 CCTV users admitted that, from observation, the presence of CCTV in their establishments has caused behavioural adjustments in visitors. To them, the presence of the cameras has caused people to be punctual, cautious and declining in attempts to commit crime. A user (6.1%) shares their experience by saying ‘the presence of the cameras has done much. Remember the killing spray that started in secondary schools around the national territory few years now, these cameras have really helped to create some order on possible things like that; whether we know it exactly or not. Students understand now they are constantly being watched.’ To this user (1.1%) ‘ithas caused so much adjustment. From punctuality from staff and reduction of theft and many more.’ To another (0.8%), ‘though we have them just outdoors, it gives a presence of caution’; ‘It makes workers to be on guard, no one takes things that do not belong to them, when customers see that they are being monitored, they adjust their behaviour’ (3.5%).

This corroborated with findings from unstructured interviews of 16 Buea inhabitants who attested that they are aware of the presence of the cameras and the cameras cause adjustments in their behaviours. 13 (81.3%) users said the presence of CCTV cameras in the Buea municipality has influenced their behaviour in one or more ways: According a user (59.1%), ‘The presence of these cameras makes me cautious because I can’t take anything from the shop without authorization.’ Another user (58.9%) said ‘I won’t behave very free knowing that somebody is always at a watch and knowing that there is a camera.’ To the user, the cameras still people’s freedom. The user added that ‘at times I might want to touch something but am scared to be shouted at so I won’t touch.’

‘Personally’, this user (55.3%) thinks the cameras make them cautious: ‘it also makes me cautious if I was someone who steals and then I realize that cameras where watching at me, I will try to do the right thing. With cameras, people won’t touch things they don’t want to buy and put little things like gums into their bags without buying.’ Similarly, others (51.5%) said ‘the cameras make me cautious as it makes me know how to go about things and avoid embarrassment’. This user went further to explain that the CCTV cameras ‘at times … takes away my freedom because in Africa we are not used to things like that especially in Cameroon there are things you will want to do that cannot be done just because a camera is watching at you or recording you.’

Conversely, 3 (18.7%) users said the presence of the cameras does not influence their behaviour. According to one (52.6%), these cameras do not influence them because they ‘know what is right and what is supposed to be done in the midst of cameras or not.’ This other user (38.5%) said they are ‘used to it’. Also, another user (7.7%) when they visit shops, for example, they ‘go there just to take what I want to buy and then I leave.’

6. Discussions

6.1 The nonverbal discourse: the agenda setting function of CCTV (active and passive)

Ashby [37] avers that nonverbal communicators (CCTV cameras) have great potential to influence work place ethics, public space discussions, and related avenues of interaction. Corroborating this, [12, 13, 14] equally submitted on the applicability of CCTV cameras as a nonverbal communicator, that these technologies communicate as law enforcers: monitoring and conditioning speech pattern (subject matter and rendition), actions and overall communication behaviour. These dynamics on the applicability of CCTV cameras find explanation in the external variables (EV), behavioural intention (BI) and actual system use (ASU) which [54] added to the two major pillars of technology acceptance model (TAM) (perceived usefulness (PU) and perceived ease of use (PEU)).

The agenda setting function of CCTV cameras is at two fronts: active and passive agendas. This study had operationalised CCTV as a channel and source in one function (active agenda) and in latency—source (passive agenda). The active agenda which expresses the exact reasons why the owner or user decided to engage in the use of CCTV cameras was demonstrated as follows: All 12 users said the cameras are used for security. The users purchased and set up a CCTV system to prevent abuse of property and persons; Thus, by installing the cameras, the owner ‘places and present unseen injunctions to people’. The second front of agenda—passive agenda describes the latent potential of the technology. This agenda builds on the notion of relativity. CCTV cameras implicitly communicate the need for order and or change, and very much so in negative situations. The latency of CCTV cameras is seen as the unintended effect of CCTV cameras. This potential deviates from the exact intended purpose of use for which the camera was bought.

Findings from the study show that the presence of CCTV cameras in Buea municipality unconsciously makes people watch their actions when they visit places under surveillance (elucidating on the agenda setting element of message repetition operationalised as the silent agenda in unspoken words in this study). One user said ‘the cameras have been able to redirect students to added levels of discipline on campus and why not the general school population’. This agrees with the assertion that CCTV’s potential to hold visual as well as textual information on computerised databases introduces one mechanism where CCTV systems may increase disciplinary power [55]. Equally, all 13 of 16 users in the unstructured interview attested that the cameras have influenced their behaviour.

Furthermore, the other elements of position of story and length of story of the agenda setting theory, operationalised as positioning of CCTV cameras and the duration of use of CCTV cameras were equally addressed by findings. All 12 users said their cameras function 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. This duration of CCTV camera operation goes to explain how important the use of the device is in fulfilling the purpose of purchase. With this, users fully monitor their of premises. Users place their cameras at strategic positions for maximum effect. To a user, because of wrong placements, cameras were disconnected at the hospital and patients robed.

Though CCTV camera’s potential to saliently influence change is admired by many [22] contended that, making extensive use of CCTV cameras threatens normalcy of life and while government and security issues take precedence, such use would infringe on free speech and activity. For ‘at one point in time when I pick something, it’s like I have stolen and on my way out of the shop, I still get the feeling I will be called back that I stole something.’

Jansen et al. [56] have argued that as much as CCTV cameras are increasingly been viewed as playing an important part in influencing possible decisions by an audience, people are also very much influenced by their inherent personality traits (locus of control, need for approval, self-monitoring and social value orientations).

6.2 CCTVs relevance through the CAC

The Cameroon government engaged in the wide scale use of CCTV cameras in Cameroon partly because of rising insurgence within and without its borders [57]; as it suggests, to beef up security measures. Between 2018 and 2020, the purchase and use of CCTV cameras in Cameroon increased tremendously [58] as it proved very relevant, as this user affirmed ‘more people have actually engaged in the use of the technology because of the crisis. Through my installations and sub-monitoring, I have noticed the trend.’

Effectiveness in deterring crime (8, 66%), relevant with evidence on intervention (5, 41.6%) and influenced the decision-making process (3, 25%), are major reasons advanced on the relevance of CCTV cameras. Without fully functional cameras, it is impossible to reap the maximum benefits of using the technology. A user mentioned that they forgot to set the cameras on record/not just monitoring and this error caused them much.

Information systems have proven to be useful in decision making by providing accurate and time-based information [59]. CCTV camera surveillance systems are one of such information systems. Media surveillance operationalised as the use of ICT related devices for surveillance (CCTV cameras) has been a major source of information to decision makers, especially in the fields of security and communication. A user said ‘In general, we say information is vital and information is key’. The user added that they ‘in the communication department see it as a plus to enable us give the right information at the right time and right place.’ As information has the potential to modify societal behaviour. Norris [55] has noted that CCTV cameras have provided prospects for law enforcement to make decisions on issues beyond just criminal investigations.

7. Conclusions

To conclude, the study explored (described) the effectiveness of CCTV camera use in crisis situations—CAC. This resonated aptly with [2] as it grasped an appreciation of the technology of nonverbal communication, crucial to guide new perceptions for the future. It equally created an understanding of the effectiveness of nonverbal communicators in crisis situations, as they shift cognitive frames, elicit emotional responses, trigger specific behavioural response, and inform strategic management of such crisis.

CCTV cameras have the potential to communicate agenda(s) (active and latent—see The Source Code Model). The active agenda(s)—for security, represents the intent for which the cameras were purchased and used. While the passive agenda is nonverbal communication signals, largely described as a thought experience. Through the cameras, users are able to ‘survey places and present unseen injunctions to people’, with a high propensity to directly deter intentions of criminal activities and other deviant behaviour in society. These unspoken signals cause people to: be cautious; not steal; act maturely in public places; not to intrude into another man’s property; how to move so as not to attract unwanted attention, and more.

8. Recommendations

In part, this pioneering study on the effectiveness of nonverbal communicators in crisis situations in Cameroon recommends that: as much of communication (80%) is nonverbal, need exists for more research in this domain especially amongst communication researchers as it sets new precedence on nonverbal communication dynamics in this age of smart technologies. Information and communication technologies have come to stay and are revolutionising everyday life. Central to ICT is ‘C’ for communication, which serves a link between ‘Information’ and ‘Technology’, describing the ‘what’ and ‘how’ the information is communicated through technology.

Also, in this age of digitalisation, the watch dog role of the journalist has incorporated an active persona—CCTV. CCTV camera’s potential to watch society, unlike just print, radio or television places new challenges and prospects for the media practitioner. This study sheds light on new perspectives on the understanding and usefulness of CCTV cameras in society, as the IoT and resettling of over 8 billion humans as digital natives is transforming the media surveillance (digital watch-dogging and data collection by journalists) function of the media.

More so, Government and other policy makers in fostering the digital agenda for Cameroon, by 2035, to be specific and the world at large should find suggestions from this study on the need to pay close attention to issues of privacy and laws governing the use of CCTV cameras in Cameroon. As the demand and use of CCTV cameras increases, need exists for much focused non-security based trainings on technical operations on nonverbal communication dynamics. Government agencies like the National Agency for Information and Communication Technologies (ANTIC) and the National Centre for the Development of Computer Services (CENADI), and law enforcement should find this document helpful in driving CCTV camera and general ICT policy.

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the contribution of the Roman Catholic Church, Buea Dioces, NEXTEL Telecommunications Company Buea branch, Emma4Christ Electronics, Catholic University Institute of Buea, Buea Municipal Council, University of Buea, Biaka University Institute of Buea, Chariot Hotel Complex, other Government institutions, and other private institutions that chose anonymity, to the success of this research.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.