Open Access is an initiative that aims to make scientific research freely available to all. To date our community has made over 100 million downloads. It’s based on principles of collaboration, unobstructed discovery, and, most importantly, scientific progression. As PhD students, we found it difficult to access the research we needed, so we decided to create a new Open Access publisher that levels the playing field for scientists across the world. How? By making research easy to access, and puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
We are a community of more than 103,000 authors and editors from 3,291 institutions spanning 160 countries, including Nobel Prize winners and some of the world’s most-cited researchers. Publishing on IntechOpen allows authors to earn citations and find new collaborators, meaning more people see your work not only from your own field of study, but from other related fields too.
To purchase hard copies of this book, please contact the representative in India:
CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd.
www.cbspd.com
|
customercare@cbspd.com
This experiment was conducted at Elobeid ARC Farm, North Kordofan State, Sudan, and covered hot summer, rainy, winter, and warm summer seasons for 310 days. Thirty-six non-pregnant Desert goats were used in this experiment. One group was randomly allocated to a shaded condition and the other to an unshaded condition. Each group was randomly subdivided into two groups, one group receiving water every day and the other receiving water every other day. Does were mated by using two healthy Desert bucks. For both shaded and unshaded conditions, respiration rate (RR) and rectal temperature (RT) were significantly (P < 0.001) higher in unshaded than shaded conditions. The watering regime seemed to have no effect. Conception and kidding rates were lowest with the every other day watering regime under both shaded and unshaded conditions, while abortion rates were highest with the every other day watering regime under unshaded conditions. Does the mortality rate was highest in the shaded condition with the everyday watering regime and under the unshaded condition with the every other day watering regime? Kids’ mortality rate was 100% under the unshaded conditions with the every other day watering regime. Kids’ birth weights were higher under shaded conditions with every day watering regime or under unshaded conditions with every other day watering regime.
Faculty of Natural Resources and Environmental Studies, Department of Animal Production, University of Kordofan El-Obeid, Sudan
Ibrahim Bushara
Faculty of Natural Resources and Environmental Studies, Department of Animal Production, University of Kordofan El-Obeid, Sudan
Siham A. Rahmatalla
Animal Breeding and Molecular Genetics, Albrecht Daniel Thaer, Institute of Agricultural and Horticultural Sciences, Humboldt University of Berlin, Germany
*Address all correspondence to: hindas2008@yahoo.com
1. Introduction
Goats are good substitutes for traditional animal production in hot climatic conditions owing to their ability to adapt to different environments [1, 2]. The animals possess both phenotypic adaptive features and the genetic mechanism that guarantee thermo tolerance in harsh environments around the world. With combinations of diverse morphological, behavioral, physiological, and genetic traits, goats could adapt to heat stress [3]. Goats are also an essential source of animal protein and family cash income for small-scale farmers in assorted countries around the world [4]. Importance of animal production in Sudan is attributable to high population, large allocation, adaptation to a huge range of environments, and socioeconomic impacts [5]. According to the Sudan Ministry of Animal Resources’ most recent estimate (2021), the main livestock population is over 110 million heads, with 32.081 million cattle, 41.127 million sheep, 32.402 million goats, and 4.944 million camels. Most of this wealth is owned by nomads [6].
Goat production is imperative in Sudan because goats have been raised successfully with very restricted feed resources [7]. Goats’ population is highest in North Kordofan State, followed by South Kordofan State; they are a favorite domestic dual-purpose animal in Sudan, due to their role in the country’s economy and in the lives of many Sudanese communities (milk and meat) [8].
Desert goats are chiefly raised for meat production, especially in rural areas, in Sudan, and other dry environment [9]. Also, they are resources for milk and fiber [10]. They are Savanna type, identical to West African Long-Legged, disseminated in arid areas generally to the north of 10°N in North Kordofan State within arid and semiarid agro-ecological zones and represent about 17% of the goat population in Sudan. It is raised under pastoral and agro-pastoral systems [11]. Although, the wide variety of quantitative traits observed and also they are good animals for adaptation in harsh environments and have a positive impact on performance [12].
Livestock genetic enhancement should take into account not only production characteristics (milk yield, weight gain, and wool production), but also the interaction of those characteristics with environmental factors (i.e. air temperature, relative humidity, and solar radiation) [13], so the reaction of native goats to climatic and environmental factors must be accurately understood before attempts are made to increase their productivity levels. This study was conducted for delineating some environmental factors that cause variability in some physiological responses and reproduction of Sudan Desert goats.
2.1 Some physiological responses to environmental stress
Climate change plays an essential role that threatens the survival of livestock, where variables in temperature, humidity, and radiation are the most serious factors that affect the growth and production ability of livestock [14]. Animals have diverse adaptive mechanisms to cope with the climate change [15]. The adaptive ability of the animals is determined by the morphological, anatomical, physiological, biochemical, and behavioral characteristics of these animals which help them to survive in a particular environment [16]. Physiological adjustments are fundamental to maintain normal body temperature and prevent hyperthermia [17]. Physiological responses like respiration rate, heart rate, and rectal temperature give an immediate response to heat stress and therefore the level of animal discomfort/comfort [18, 19].
Changes in respiration rate, heart rate, and rectal temperature have been usually used as indices of physiological adaptability to heat stress in small ruminants [20, 21, 22, 23]. Increased body temperature and respiration rate are the most principal signs of heat stress in sheep and goats [24, 25].
Respiration rate is an actual and credible measure of heat load and a sign of heat stress [25, 26]. Without confusing the animals, from 4 to 5 meters away [27], or from a non-disruptive distance [21] respiration rate is recorded by counting flank movements/minute. In normal conditions, the respiration rate of goats ranges between 15 and 30 breaths/min [28].
Therefore, measuring respiration rate and determining animal heat stress severity according to panting rate (breaths/min) (low: 40–60, medium: 60–80, high: 80–120, and severe heat stress: >200) appears to be the most attainable method for evaluating the impact heat stress on animals under extreme environment [1, 29].
Respiration rate may access 300 breaths/min with open-mouthed panting is a signal of severe heat stress [1]. Increased respiration rate following heat stress has been noticed in goats [30].
Rectal temperature is conceded as the most suitable indicator for heat load in animal’s body as well as it is considered as a main measure of physiological status [31] and animal’s core body temperature [32]. When an animal exposure to a high quantity of heat stress, the failure to dissipate heat load to maintain body temperature leads to increases in RT [32]. The RT was recorded using a clinical thermometer by inserting the thermometer by 6–7 cm inside the rectum inclined toward the wall of the rectum.
Body temperature is stable in the normal situation and it is one of the indicators of heat stress [29]. Rising in rectal temperature of 1°C or less reduce the majority of livestock species’ performance [33]. Physiological responses to heat stress lead to protect animals from heat stroke but also decrease productivity [34].
Goats’ normal rectal temperatures are between 39.2°C and 39.8°C [35]. Although rectal temperature increased from 37–41°C due to heat exposure [35, 36], but no changes were reported in goats exposed to different heat treatments [25, 37].
However, it is necessary to mention that intricacy and physiological changes due to heat stress response can differ from species to species, individual to individual, and the hormonal status of the animal [13].
2.2 Water scarcity and heat stress effect on goats’ reproductive performance
Small ruminants are an integral part of farming systems in harsh environments areas where the rainfall, is becoming even more irregular and water availability more limited as a consequence of climate change [38]. Water deprivation and water restriction effects on small ruminants in arid and water-limited areas with a view of assessing their adaptive responses or changes in performance are gaining global attention [39]. In semi-arid regions during the dry season period, water intake by an animal is usually restricted to once per day [40]. Small ruminants have gained attention from scientists and communal farmers due to their ability to tolerate different watering regimes during periods of water scarcity without dangerous effects on production indices. However, there exist differences in the level of adaptation to intermittent watering across different breeds. Researches investigating the potential of the adaptable breed to low water intake are still limited, more studies are needed to fully explore water tolerance capacity in adaptable breeds in the form of water restriction or deprivation and across all physiological stages [39].
The effect of heat stress differs among regions, animal species, and the type of production which could either be positive or negative [41]. Reproduction parameters were very receptive to heat stress but, the stress levels depend on breed types. Exposure of goats to heat stress results not only in changes in physiological functions but also, in an impact on the production and productivity of the animals [42, 43, 44]. Severe surrounding temperatures are the major restraint to animal productivity. Heat stress during summer is a major contributing factor to the low fertility of domestic animals inseminated in the summer months [45]. The effects of heat stress on fertility are more distinct in lactating animals because the huge amounts of heat produced as a result of lactation make it difficult to regulate body temperature during heat stress [46]. In general, heat stress circumstances significantly affect the sexual behavior, decrease the sexual activity, and thus reduce sperm quality resulting in poor conception [47].
Goats and sheep have the ability to adapt to harsh environments, depend on their physiological mechanisms to be tolerant of these conditions, and are able to survive and resist diseases with good reproduction rates. The success of its rearing in arid and semi-arid regions indicates the possibility of being an alternative producer to counter the potential effects of climate change [48].
2.3 Stress - Body weights interactions
As a result of high temperatures, different species reduce feed intake, which leads to a decrease in growth rates thus a loss in body weights [49, 50]. When the ambient temperature increases animals need to dissipate metabolic heat, therefore feed intake decreases as a response to facing heat stress situations [51]. Many studies have been conducted on different species of goats that have proven the negative impact of high temperature and water deprivation on growth rates and body weights [52, 53, 54, 55, 56]. Increasing temperature from 25 to 45°C with humidity at 35–45% significantly causes a reduction in feed intake with increasing in water intake [57].
This experiment was conducted at El-Obeid Agricultural Research Station Farm, in Sheikan Province, North Kordofan (Latitudes 11o: 15′ to 16o: 30’ N and longitudes 27 to 32o E), Sudan. The period of the experiment covered hot summer, rainy, winter, and warm summer seasons, with an average temperature of 32.1°C and an average relative humidity of 48.0%, 26.8°C and 66.0%, 22.7°C and 29.7%, and 25.3°C and 17.7% respectively.
3.2 Experimental animals
A total of 36 non-pregnant Desert goats were used in this experiment. They were brought from Bara Province, 65 km north-east of El-Obeid City. The does were 1–4 years old and weighing 17.7 ± 0.4 kg. Upon arrival the does were ear-tagged, drenched with an antihelmintic against internal parasites, injected with oxytetracycline as an anti-coccidial treatment, and allowed one week adaptation period. Does were then divided into two equal groups in such a way that the different ages and weights were evenly distributed throughout each group. One group was randomly allocated to a shaded condition and the other to an unshaded condition. Shaded pens of 2x3 m2 each was used to accommodate three animals tethered to individual pegs and provided with individual feeding and water troughs. The animals kept under unshaded conditions were treated similarly. Each group was further randomly subdivided into two groups, one group receiving water every day and the other receiving water every other day. When using either regime, the animals were allowed water once a day for 1 hour. All animals were given food ad libitum, which consisted of straw (30%), groundnut seed cake (25.4%), wheat bran (42.4%), bone meal (2.0%), and common salt (0.2%) (Figures 1 and 2).
Figure 1.
Desert goats under unshaded condition. Source: Study results.
Figure 2.
Desert goat orientation to seek shelter under feed trough. Source: Study results.
3.3 Data records
3.3.1 Respiration rate (RR) and rectal temperature (RT)
All animals were weekly monitored for respiration rate (RR) and rectal temperature (RT), were measured twice on the measurement day, in the morning at 08:00 and afternoon at 13:00. RR was measured by counting the flank movements for 1 minute, while RT was determined by using a clinical digital thermometer inserted in the rectum for 1 minute.
3.3.2 Reproductive measurements
Throughout all the experiment period which covered hot summer, rainy, winter, and warm summer seasons, does were naturally mated when observed in heat by using two healthy Desert bucks. Conception, abortion, kidding, and mortality in both does and kids rates were recorded.
3.3.3 Body weights
The body weight of each animal was recorded at the beginning of the experiment, then every two weeks until the end of the experimental period. The does were weighted in the morning following an overnight fast. In addition, kids’ weights were also recorded once at birth.
3.4 Statistical procedures
The data was analyzed as a completely randomized block design using a 2x2 factorial arrangement to study the effect of shade conditions and watering regime on does’ performance. Significant differences between means were separated using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test.
The statistical analyses were done using MSTAT-C and SAS software programs.
4.1 Effect of seasons, shade conditions, and watering regime on respiration rate (RR) and recta temperature (RT)
For comparison between seasons, as well as effects of shade conditions and watering regime throughout the experimental period (310 days) showed that goats during hot summer and rainy seasons had significantly (P < 0.001) higher RR than winter or warm summer. RT showed a similar trend except that rainy and warm summer did not show significant differences.
For both shaded and unshaded conditions, RR and RT were significantly (P < 0.001) higher in unshaded than shaded environments. The watering regime seemed to have no effect (Table 1).
Factor
RR (r/min)
RT (°C)
Seasons:
Hot summer
47.3a
38.2a
Rainy
49.1a
37.9ab
Winter
33.4b
36.9c
Warm summer
34.4b
37.5bc
Mean
41.1
37.7
±SE
0.80
0.33
Shade conditions (310 days):
Shaded
30.3b
37.0b
Unshaded
51.8a
38.3a
Mean
41.1
37.7
±SE
0.57
0.24
Watering regime (310 days):
Every day
40.5
37.5
Every other day
41.6
37.9
Mean
41.1
37.7
±SE
0.57
0.24
Table 1.
Effect of season, shade conditions and watering regime on respiration rate (RR) and rectal temperature (RT) of dry desert goats.
a,b,c Means in columns with different superscripts are different at (P < 0.05) according to Duncan’s Multiple Range Test.
Source: Study results.
4.2 Effect of shade conditions and watering regime on reproductive performance
The number of goats that become pregnant in each treatment were 4, 3, 4, and 2 goats, respectively. Conception and kidding rates were lowest with every other day watering regime under both shaded and unshaded conditions, while abortion rates were highest with the every other day watering regime under unshaded conditions.
Does mortality rate was highest in the shaded condition with the everyday watering regime and under unshaded conditions with the every other day watering regime. Kids’ mortality rate was 100% under the unshaded environment with the every other day watering regime. Kids’ birth weights were higher under shaded conditions with every day watering regime or under unshaded conditions with every other day watering regime (Table 2).
Parameters
Shaded
Unshaded
Watering regime
Watering regime
Every day
Every other day
Every day
Every other day
No. of goats
9
9
9
9
No. of goats conceived
4
3
4
2
Conception rate %
44.4
33.3
44.4
22.2
Abortion rate %
0.0
0.0
0.0
50.0
Kidding rate %
44.4
33.3
44.4
11.1
Does mortality rate %
22.2
11.1
0.0
22.2
Kid mortality rate %
25.0
0.0
25.0
100
Av. Kid birth weight (kg) ± SD
2.1 ± 0.92
1.9 ± 0.14
1.8 ± 41
2.0 ± 0
Table 2.
Effect of shade conditions and watering regime on goats’ reproductive performance.
Source: Study results.
4.3 Effect of shade conditions and watering regime on dry desert goats’ final weights
For both shaded and unshaded conditions, the final body weights of dry Desert goats were significantly (P < 0.05) higher in shaded than unshaded environments. The watering regime showed no significant effect (Table 3).
Factor
Initial body Weight (Kg)
Final body Weight (Kg)
Shade conditions (310 days):
Shaded
18.7
19.3a
Unshaded
17.7
18.1b
Mean
18.2
18.7
±SE
0.32
0.33
Watering regime (310 days):
Every day
18.0
18.4
Every other day
18.4
19.0
Mean
18.2
18.7
±SE
0.32
0.33
Table 3.
Effect of shade conditions and watering regime on body weights of dry desert goats.
a,b, Means in columns with different superscripts are different at (P < 0.05) according to Duncan’s Multiple Range Test.
5.1 Effect of seasons, shade conditions, and watering regime on respiration rate (RR) and recta temperature (RT)
Physiological responses like respiration rate, heart rate, and rectal temperature give an immediate response to heat stress and therefore the level of animal discomfort/comfort [18, 19]. The period of the experiment covered hot summer, rainy, winter, and warm summer seasons, with an average temperature of 32.1 °C and an average relative humidity of 48.0%, 26.8°C and 66.0%, 22.7°C and 29.7%, and 25.3°C and 17.7%, respectively. Accordingly, throughout the experimental period (Table 1) showed that goats during hot summer and rainy seasons had significantly higher RR than winter or warm summer. RT showed a similar trend except that rainy and warm summer did not show significant differences. These results are in agreement with the findings of Silanikove [1, 29] were indicated that, measuring respiration rate and determining an animal’s heat stress severity according to panting rate (breaths/min) (low: 40–60, medium: 60–80, high: 80–120, and severe heat stress: >200) appears to be the most attainable method for evaluating the impact of heat stress on animals under the extreme environment where the results indicated that the experimental animals in a level of low heat stress (40–60 breaths/min) during both hot summer and rainy seasons.
In the present results, it could be seen that the net impact of thermal radiation was more pronounced on goats’ performance than water restriction, this is substantiated by Doreau et al. [40] who indicated that small ruminants have gained attention from scientists and communal farmers due to their ability to tolerate different watering regime during periods of water scarcity without dangerous effects on production indices. However, there exist differences in the level of adaptation to intermittent watering across different breeds. Researches investigating the potential of the adaptable breed to low water intake are still limited, more studies are needed to fully explore water tolerance capacity in adaptable breeds in the form of water restriction or deprivation and across all physiological stages.
Body temperature was maintained in spite of fluctuations in environmental temperature. However, this species was unable to increase their diurnal body temperature by more than 1–2°C in response to heat stress. Panting was used preferentially to sweat to maintain body temperature. Yet heat tolerance depended on water availability to support evaporative loss. During the rainy season, high humidity seemed to have depressed evaporative heat loss and added to the heat load. This was reflected by the high body temperature observed in animals exposed to the unshaded condition under both watering regimes.
5.2 Water scarcity and heat stress effect on goats’ reproductive performance
Water deprivation and water restriction effects on small ruminants in arid and water-limited areas with a view of assessing their adaptive responses or changes on performance are gaining global attention [40]. In the present study (Table 2), the combination of exposure to solar heat load and water restriction reduced conception rates, which was more pronounced in animals exposed to heat stress with water restriction. Similarly, it has been shown that an increase of 1°C in ambient temperature caused a decrease of 2% in conception rate [58], this is in agreement with the findings by [43, 44, 45] reported that reproduction parameters were very receptive to heat stress but, the stress levels depend on breed types. Exposure of goats to heat stress results not only in changes in physiological functions but also, in an impact on the production and productivity of the animals.
Generally, the kidding rate was low under all treatments, it decreased with water restriction but was very much reduced with exposure to heat load. Does and kid mortality rates bear no relation to each other. Does mortality rate was high under shaded conditions with water offered every day and was the same to those exposed to heat load while being watered every other day. The mortality rate was nil for does watered every day under unshaded conditions. The kids mortality rate was 100% under heat stress conditions, but nil under shaded conditions when does watered every other day. Kids were more susceptible to heat stress conditions. Birth weights in the present results were within the normal range reported by [59, 60]. In the present study, kids were born in different seasons and their mortality could be related to the season of birth.
5.3 Effect of shade conditions and watering regime on dry desert goats’ final weights
Numerous studies have been conducted on the effect of climatic factors on feed intake by controlling the factors in laboratories, but it is difficult to apply the same accuracy in the field because of the large differences between climatic factors in the natural field [51].
In the present study (Table 3), the changes in body weight due to the watering regime were not significant. However, goats exposed to solar heat load showed significant losses in body weight, similarly with many studies have been conducted on different species of goats that have proven the negative impact of high temperature and water deprivation on growth rates and body weights [52, 53, 54, 55, 56]. The same observation was reported by Helal et al. [61], who found that exposure of goats to solar radiation increased the loss in the live body weight of the goats.
It could be concluded that exposure of animals to direct solar heat radiation had a more adverse effect than water restriction. The condition was further exacerbated in the hot humid environment experienced by animals during the rainy season. Although the conception rates were low, but the low does’ mortality rates indicated that Sudan Desert goats are well adapted to the harsh environment and climate change.
1.Silanikove N. The physiological basis of adaptation in goats to harsh environments. Small Ruminant Research. 2000;35:181-193. DOI: 10.1016/S0921-4488(99)00096-6
2.de Silva GA, De Souza BB, Alfaro CEP, et al. Efeito da época doano e período do dia sobre os parâmetros fisiológicos de reprodutores caprinos no semi-árido paraibano. Revista Brasileira de Engenharia Agrícola e Ambiental. 2006;10:903-909. DOI: 10.1590/S1415-43662006000400018
3.James D, Abioja MO, Iyasere OS, Oke OE. The resilience of dwarf goats to environmental stress: A review. Small Ruminant Research. 2021;205(4):106534. DOI: 10.1016/j.smallrumres.106534
4.Alabi OO et al. Animal agriculture: A viable tool for rural women empowerment and redemption from poverty. International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology. 2019;10(2):2365-2373
5.MARF. National Estimation of livestock in Sudan. In: Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries. Animal Husbandry, Dairy and Veterinary Science. An Open Access, Peer Reviewed Journal. Khartoum, Sudan; 2011;05(02). Online ISSN: 2513-9304. DOI: 10.15761/AHDVS.1000142. Available from: www.oatext.com › livestock-in-the-republic-of-the-sudan-policies-producti
6.Ali AM. Prevalence of Tick Infestation in Domestic Ruminants and Associated Risk Factors in Omdurman Locality-Khartoum State-Sudan’. [thesis]. Sudan University of Science and Technology; 2019
7.Wilson RT. Livestock in the Republic of the Sudan: Policies, production, problems and possibilities. Animal Husbandry, Dairy and Veterinary Science. 2018;2(3):1-12. DOI: 10.15761/ahdvs.1000142
8.Faki H, Nur E. Poverty Assessment and Mapping in the Sudan. A Study Draft Report, ICARDA and IFAD. ICARDA publications; 2008
9.Escareño L et al. Dairy goat production systems. Tropical Animal Health and Production. 2012;45(1):17-34
10.Farrington DW et al. Poly (lactic acid) fibers. Biodegradable and Sustainable Fibers. 2005;6:191-218
11.IFAD-WSRMP. Livestock Breed Characterization in the Western Sudan Resource Management Program (WSRMP) Area. El-Obeid, Sudan: IFAD-WSRMP, Federal Ministry of Agriculture; 2012
12.Ahmed Abi Abdi Warsame and Benson Turyasingura. Of phenotypic Characterization Sudanese Desert Goat [Internet]. 2022. Available from: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
13.Al-Dawood A. Towards heat stress management in small ruminants: A review. Annals of Animal Science. 2016:8-10. DOI: 10.1515/aoas-2016-0068
14.Thornton PK. Livestock production: Recent trends, future prospects. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences. 2010;365:2853-2867
15.Alameen AO, Abdelatif AM. Metabolic and endocrine responses of crossbred dairy cows in relation to pregnancy and season under tropical conditions. American-Eurasian Journal of Agricoltural & Environmental Science. 2012;12:1065-1074
16.Das R, Sailo L, Verma N, Bharti P, Saikia J. Impact of heat stress on health and performance of dairy animals: A review. Veterinary World. 2016;9:260
17.Lowe TE, Cook CJ, Ingram JR, Harris PJ. Impact of climate on thermal rhythm in pastoral sheep. Physiology & Behavior. 2001;74:659-664
18.Helal A, Hashem ALS, Abdel-Fattah MS, El-Shaer HM. Effects of heat stress on coat characteristics and physiological responses of Balady and Damascus goats in Sinai, Egypt. American-Eurasian Journal of Agricultural & Environmental Sciences. 2010;2010(7):60-69
19.Sanusi AO, Peters SO, Sonibare AO, Ozojie MO. Effects of coat color on heat stress among west African dwarf sheep. Nigerian Journal of Animal Production. 2010;38:28-36
20.Marai IF, El Darawany AA, Fadiel A, Abdel-Hafez MAM. Physiological traits as affected by heat stress in sheep - A review. Small Ruminant Research. 2007;71:1-12
21.Adedeji TA. Effect of some qualitative traits and non-genetic factors on heat tolerance attributes of extensively reared west African dwarf (WAD) goats. International Journal of Applied Agricultural Research (IJAAR). 2012;8:68-81
22.Gupta M, Kumar S, Dangi SS, Jangir BL. Physiological, biochemical and molecular responses to thermal stress in goats. International Journal of Livestock Res. 2013;2013(3):27-38
23.Sharma S, Ramesh K, Hyder I, Uniyal S, Yadav VP, Panda RP, et al. Effect of melatonin administration on thyroid hormones, cortisol and expression profile of heat shock proteins in goats (Capra hircus) exposed to heat stress. Small Ruminant Research. 2013;112:216-223
24.Al-Haidary AA. Physiological responses of Naimey sheep to heat stress challenge under semi-arid environments. International Journal of Agriculture And Biology. 2004;2004(6):307-309
25.Alam MM, Hashem MA, Rahman MM, Hossain MM, Haque MR, Sobhan Z, et al. Effect of heat stress on behavior, physiological and blood parameters of goat. Program Agriculture. 2011;22:37-45
26.Okoruwa MI, Adewumi MK, Igene FU. Thermophysiological responses of west African dwarf (WAD) bucks fed Pennisetum purpureum and unripe plantain peels. Nigeria Journal of Animal and Science. 2013;15:168-178
27.Shilja S, Sejian V, Bagath M, Mech A, David CG, Kurien EK, et al. Adaptive capability as indicated by behavioral and physiological responses, plasma HSP70 level, and PBMC HSP70 mRNA expression in Osmanabadi goats subjected to combined (heat and nutritional) stressors. International Journal of Biometeorology. 2015;60(9):1311-1323. DOI: 10.1007/s00484-015-1124-5
28.Robertshaw D, Dmi'el R. The effect of dehydration on the control of panting and sweating in the black Bedouin goat. Physiological Zoology. 1983;56:412-418
29.Silanikove N. Effects of heat stress on the welfare of extensively managed domestic ruminants. Livestock Production Science. 2000a;67:1-18
30.Facanha DAE, Oliveira MGC, Guilhermino MG, Costa WP, Paula VV. Hemogasometric parameters of Brazilian native goats under thermal stress conditions. In: Proc. XI International Conference on Goats. Gran Canaria, Spain; 2012b. p. 72
31.Bligh J. Temperature regulation. In: Yousef MK, editor. Stress Physiology in Livestock. Basic Principles. Vol. 1. Boca Raton, FL, USA: CRC Press Inc.; 1985. pp. 75-96
32.Stull CL. Stress and Dairy Calves. Davis: University of California; 1997
33.Shebaita MK, El - Banna IM. Heat load and heat dissipation in sheep and goats under environmental heat stress. In: Proc. VI International Conference on Animal and Poultry Production. Zagazig, Egypt: University of Zagazig; 1982. pp. 459-469
34.Fasoro BF. Heat Stress Index in Three Breeds of Goats. Abeokuta, Nigeria: Agric. Project, Dept. of Animal Breeding and Genetics, University of Agriculture; 1999. pp. 6-28
35.Okoruwa MI. Effect of heat stress on thermoregulatory, live body weight and physiological responses of dwarf goats in southern Nigeria. European Science Journal. 2014;10:255-264
36.A l - Tamimi HJ. Thermoregulatory response of goat kids subjected to heat stress. Small Ruminant Research. 2007;7:280-285
37.Facanha DAE, Sammichelli L, Bozzi R, Silva WST, Morais JHG, Lucena RMO, et al. Performance of Brazilian native goats submitted to a mix supply under thermal stress conditions. In: Proc. XI International Conference on Goats. Gran Canaria, Spain; 2012a. p. 343
38.Migongo-Bake W. Rumen Dry-Matter Digestive Efficiency of Camels, Cattle Sheep and Goats in a Semi-Arid Environment in Eastern Africa. Rome, Italy: FAO, The complementarity of feed resources for animal production in Africa; 1992
39.Akinmola OF, Muchenje V, Fon FN, Mpendulo T. Small ruminants: Farmers’ Hope in a world threatened by water scarcity. Animals. 2019;9(7):456. DOI: 10.3390/ani9070456
40.Doreau M, Corson MS, Wiedemann SG. Water use by livestock: A global perspective for a regional issue. Animal Frontiers. 2012;2:9-16
41.Sejian V, Kumar D, Gaughan JB, Naqvi SM. Effect of multiple environmental stressors on the adaptive capability of Malpura rams based on physiological responses in a semi-arid tropical environment. Jorunal of Veterinary Behaviour. 2017;17:6-13
42.Kadzere CT, Murphy MR, Silanikove N, Maltz E. Heat stress in lactating dairy cows: A review. Livestock Production Science. 2002;77:59-91
43.Ribeiro MN, Ribeiro NL, Bozzi R, Costa RG. Physiological and biochemical blood variables of goats subjected to heat stress–a review. Journal of Applied Animal Research. 2018;46:1036-1041
44.Osei-Amponsah R, Chauhan SS, Leury BJ, Cheng L, Cullen B, Clarke IJ, et al. Genetic selection for thermotolerance in ruminants. Animals. 2019;9:948
45.Hansen PJ, Drost M, Rivera RM, Paula-Lopes FF, Al-Katanani YM, Krininger CE, et al. Adverse impact of heat stress on embryo production: Causes and strategies for mitigation. Theriogenology. 2001;55:91-103
46.Hansen PJ. Effects of heat stress on mammalian reproduction. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 2009;364:3341-3350
47.Dwyer C.M. The behavior of sheep and goats. In: The Ethology of Domestic Animals: An Introductory Text, Jensen P. (eds). CABI, 2nd ed. Ch. Vol. 12. 2009; pp. 161-174
48.Nardone A, Ronchi B, Lacetera MS, et al. Effects of climate changes on animal production and sustainability of livestock system. Livestock Science. 2010;39:326-336. DOI: 10.1016D j.livsi.2010.02.01
49.Tizikara C, Akinokun O, Chiboka O. A review of factors limiting productivity and evolutionary adaptation of tropical livestock. World Review of Animal Production. 1985;XXI(4):42-46
50.Montsma G, Luiting P, Verstegen MWA, Hel W, Zijlker JW. Effects of High Ambient Temperatures on the Metabolism of West African Dwarf Goats. CAB Abstracts; 1985
51.NRC. Effect of Environment on Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals. Washington D.C., USA: National Academy Press; 1981
52.Maloiy GMO, Tylor CR. Water requirements of African goats and haired sheep. Journal of Agricultural Sciences (Cambridge). 1971;77:203-213
53.Ghosh PK, Khan MS, Abichandani RK. Effect of short term water deprivation in summer on Marwari sheep. Journal of Agricultural Sciences, Cambridge. 1976;87:121-123
54.Khan MS, Ghosh PK, Saidharan. Effect of acute water restriction on plasma proteins, blood and urinary electrolytes in Barmer goats of the Rajasthan Desert. Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 1978;91:395-398
55.Baccari F, Goncalves HC, Muniz LMR, Polastre R, Head HH. Milk Production and Serum Thyroxin of Saanen x Native Goats Subjected to Thermal Stress. CAB Abstracts; 1988;8:9-14
56.Shalaby TH, Aboul-Ela MB, Heider A. Physiological Responses of Different Breeds of Goats to Water Deprivation and Muscular Activity under Desert Conditions. CAB. Abstracts; 1989
57.Dahlanuddin – Thwaites CJ. Feed – Water intake relations in goats at high ambient temperature. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition. 1993;69(4):169-174
58.Ingraham RH, Stanley RW, Wagner WC. Relationship of temperature and humidity to concept rate of Holstein cows in Hawaii. Dairy Sciences. 1976;59:2086
59.Wilson RT. Livestock production in Central Mali: Environmental factors affecting weight in traditionally managed goats and sheep. Animal Production. 1987;45(2):223-232
60.Maia M, Costa AU, Neves-Costa A. Evaluation of the reproduction performance of Caninde goats in a semi-arid areas in Rio Grande de Norte in Brazil. Revista-da-Sociedade-Brasileira-de-Zootecnia. 1997;26(1):46-53
61.Helal A, Hashem ALS, Abdel-Fattah MS, El-Shaer HM. Effects of heat stress on coat characteristics and physiological responses of Balady and Damascus goats in Sinai, Egypt. American-Eurasian Journal of Agriculture and Environment Science. 2010;7(1):60-69
Written By
Hind Abdelrahman Salih, Ibrahim Bushara and Siham A. Rahmatalla
Submitted: 24 February 2023Reviewed: 25 February 2023Published: 19 May 2023
Open access peer-reviewed chapter
