Perspective Chapter: The Impact of Human Activities on Wetlands’ Provisioning and Cultural Services in Epworth, Zimbabwe

Abstract

The study assessed the impacts of human activities on wetlands’ provisioning and cultural services in Epworth’s Ward 6 (Overspill), Zimbabwe. The researcher adopted a case study approach which implemented both the qualitative and quantitative approach. Semistructured interviews, questionnaires and field observations were conducted to gather primary data that was synthesised with collected secondary data. Data obtained from the field was analysed through Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS) software version 20.0 and Microsoft excel. Findings show that the majority of households (31.6%) were motivated to utilise wetlands due to the availability of market for agricultural products. Wetland use was influenced by population increase, availability of rainfall and donor funding for sustainable food security projects. The dominant wetland use is agriculture as indicated by 35.1% of respondents. Essential services of the wetland include supply of water for agriculture (26.3%), livestock grazing, spiritual enrichment, cultural heritage, ecotourism etc. Agriculture, urbanisation, dumping of waste and livestock grazing negatively impacted the wetland. The study advocates for support of environmental conservation initiatives from key stakeholders. It also recommends that relevant authorities come up with an integrated land use planning approach that will go a long way in addressing issues of land degradation and fragmentation.

1. Introduction

Wetlands are defined as areas of marsh, fen, peat land, or water, whether natural or manmade, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish, or salt, including sea water with a depth of less than 6 m at low tide [1]. Wetlands provide benefits to humans and the environment which can be categorised as provisioning, cultural and supporting [2, 3]. Provisioning services are those benefits provided or produced by wetland ecosystem for example food, fuel, water and fibre or genetic resources whereas cultural services are non-material benefits from wetland ecosystems [3, 4, 5]. Cultural services include spiritual enrichment, ecotourism, recreation, aesthetics and cultural heritage while supporting services are factors which are necessary for producing ecosystem services for example hydrological cycle, soil formation and nutrient cycling [6].

Wetlands play an essential part in people’s life as supplies of water for residential and irrigation needs, important fishing regions, plant harvesting for roofing and crafts manufacture, food production, and valuable grazing land [7, 8]. Wetlands have provided substantial opportunities for tourism and recreation on a global scale, providing financial benefits to governments, tourism industry, and local residents, with the proceeds being used to finance their protection [9]. Human activities are posing a threat to wetlands all over the world. In 1971, nations assembled in Iran for the Ramsar Convention to address concerns about wetlands and their deterioration [9]. According to Mandishona and Knight [10], the poor directly rely on natural resources for their livelihood, and high poverty levels in most emerging countries have accelerated the rate of wetlands destruction. Kimani [11] further expressed that in developed countries, the consequences of wetlands loss and degradation are frequently mitigated with costly artificial constructions, such as major flood protection schemes or water purification plants, but this is not the case in developing countries, where mitigation measures may take too long to implement, owing to financial and technical constraints. More than half of the world’s population lives in cities, with that number expected to climb to 75% by 2050 [12].

Wetlands in India for example are under threat from overpopulation as well as a variety of human activities such as the construction of houses and roads, agriculture, and overfishing [11, 12]. Kumar [13], opines that agriculture and urbanisation in India have taken over the wetland area due to population growth which has led to expansion of human activities into wetlands hence affecting wetlands provisioning, cultural and supporting services. Ahidur [7], concluded that most people in India are illiterate and live in an impoverished location, they primarily participate in primary occupations such as fishing.

Africa is one of the most urbanised continents, yet this phenomenon has not kept pace with the continent’s economic, social, and political progress [8, 14]. In Africa, urbanisation has been increasing by the rate of approximately 3.9% annually. According to United Nations Population Fund, it is estimated that the population of Africa will be doubled by the period of 2030. High human population growth rates and economic development in Kenya have also resulted in wetlands, forests, ecosystems, and air quality degradation [5]. Sedimentation, livestock wastes, and hazardous wastes, pose a severe threat to lakes. These are washed away from the earth and wind up in rivers, streams, lakes, and seas, causing eutrophication and altering food chains. Most wetlands in Kenya are being impacted by an expanding human population, which means more land is being opened up for cultivation, necessitating increased use of pesticides and other agro-chemicals, which are then washed down through surface run-off, resulting in wetlands pollution [15].

Wetlands in Zimbabwe are under pressure from human activities. Over the last few decades, Zimbabwe has seen a steady loss of wetlands, resulting in major societal losses [6]. In Zimbabwe since 1980 after the country gained independence, the population of the country’s major cities is increasing by the rate of 5% per annum [16]. According to Marambanyika and Beckedahl [5], both the colonial and independence governments’ socio-economic policies and political expediency had a considerable impact on the morphology (form, structure, and population distribution) of Zimbabwe’s towns and cities, affecting wetlands ecological services. Due to increased demand for services, Epworth’s rate of urbanisation and population growth has mostly outpaced existing resources [17]. Based on this background, the goal of this study was to assess the effects of human activities on wetlands’ provisioning and cultural services in Epworth. This was achieved through the following objectives to; (1) determine the major land use activities in wetlands located in Epworth, (2) establish the factors influencing wetland use as perceived by the households, (3) assess the current range of wetland provisioning and cultural services obtained by the local community, (4) examine the impact of human activities on wetland provision and cultural services in Epworth, Harare.

2. Materials and methods

2.1 Location of study area

The study area is Ward 6 (Overspill) of Epworth District which is situated in Zimbabwe’s Harare Province and is located about 12 km from Harare city centre (Figure 1). It is located on the north-eastern side of Epworth district and is the second biggest ward in the district between latitudes 17.873°S and 17.899°S and longitudes 31.156°E and 31.203°E. Overspill is one of the most densely populated wards in Epworth District [15]. There is a stream flowing towards Manyame River through the midsection of Overspill which runs seasonally, and in the summer, completely drowns wetlands. Overspill as part of the Southern Africa Highveld, is characterised by gradually undulating ground punctuated by granite outcroppings and magnificent balancing rocks that are popular with tourists and mildly rolling terrain in the upland parts [18, 19]. The soils of the area are primarily silt to clay, characterised prominently by riparian vegetation in the wetlands dominated by reeds. The suburb has been selected as the study area because it consists of the largest informal settlement across urban districts in Harare. In 1980, Epworth had a population of 20,000, in 2002 it had an estimated population of 123,250 and in 2012 it had 167,462 [16]. It is largely dominated by high density residential areas. Ward 6 (Overspill) has a population of 25,597 people.

Figure 1.

Ward 6 of Epworth District, Harare Province.

2.2 Data collection and analysis

Field data were collected between October and November 2021 to solicit data on human impacts on wetlands. The study adopted a case study research design which allowed collection of the data in a realistic setting and increased the researcher’s analytical power as well as ability to learn more about the social issues. The quantitative and qualitative approaches were utilised in the study to explore the impacts of human activities on wetlands provisioning and cultural services in Overspill, Epworth. These techniques utilised semi structured questionnaires, interviews, observations and secondary data from principal land uses on wetlands records. The researchers selected representatives from Overspill (Ward 6) households to respond to the questionnaire as they formed the majority of people who are resident near wetlands and hence possess diverse knowledge on wetland utilisation in the area. Households were also targeted to identify the drivers of the activities that are being done on wetlands and also the impacts of these activities on this ecosystem. Targeted key informants for the interviews included Epworth Local Board employees, Environmental Management Agency (EMA) Officer, Ward 6 councillor and Harare City Council Urban Planning Department as well as Housing Department officials. The officials from Harare City Council’s Urban Planning Department and Housing Department were targeted because they are in charge of administering land within the study area as well as issuing licences. Officials from the Departments of Housing and Engineering were targeted because they have an environmental section in charge of managing all natural resources, including wetlands hence it is their responsibility to safeguard and monitor the environment. In line with the study’s goal, the EMA provided useful information on human activities that affect wetlands as it is the major stakeholder in responsible for wetland management and protection. The councillors were chosen because they represent legislators of the by-laws that govern local wetland use.

Clustered random sampling was utilised to pick target respondents who lived within 1000 m of a wetland within the study area. The targeted households were regarded as part of a heterogeneous community in terms of their benefits from wetlands due to their location. The study adopted the use of random systematic sampling on the households located within 1000 m of concerned wetlands in Overspill (Ward 6). A ground census was carried out in the field to identify the number of households located within a 1000 m radius of wetlands in Overspill, Ward 6 of Epworth District and 300 households were identified in this process. A total of 60 households (20%) was determined as the sample size of questionnaire respondents. A random household was chosen as the starting point from which every fifth household was selected for the study amounting to 60 households. The sampling criteria gave each household an equal chance of selection and reduced any form of bias. The key informants were purposively sampled which allowed the selection of professional interview respondents who possessed attributes or experience requisite in the understanding of the research’s objectives.

The researcher administered face to face questionnaires in order to get in-depth responses from respondents on their perceptions about wetlands. Questionnaires allowed the researcher to capture wider and varying views of participants with regards to wetlands provisioning and cultural services. The questionnaire also allowed respondents to respond freely and better express their positions and opinions towards the effects of human activities on wetland and what they thought could be remedial on the human activities on wetlands. The surveys were self-administered to assure the formulation of complex questions, especially for illiterate people, and to save money. Since it was during COVID-19 era, the researcher took the survey under COVID-19 regulations that is practising social distance, wearing of masks when questioning questions to the targeted group. Also, the researcher took the survey while carrying a small bottle of sanitizer by himself so that he will sanitise the questionnaire before giving him/her questions to answer. The researcher distributed 60 questionnaires, and 57 were returned, resulting in a 95% response rate, which was extremely significant in terms of providing a meaningful sample size from which to draw research conclusions. Saunders and Kalff [20] reiterates that “a research is said to be valuable, reliable and acceptable if at least 60% for the target population provide information for the research”.

In order to obtain data from stakeholders such as Harare City Council officials, Environmental Management Agency (EMA) officials, Epworth Local Board (ELB) officials, and Ward Councillors. Interviews were done as planned, with a 100% response rate from interviewees. The researcher employed semi structured interviews whilst conducting telephonic interviews to save time, uphold COVID-19 safety protocols and allows the respondents to respond freely on their time. The researcher first sought for the consent from the local authority in order to carry out his research. Field observations were employed to acquire data that addressed the study’s aims and research concerns. Observation aids in grasping the actual data of activities that are taking place on wetlands in this case the activities that are being done by humans that affected wetland provisioning and cultural services. Transect walks were also used to observe the selected sites through a systematic stroll across the community area following a designated path (transect) while listening, and observing the major activities on the wetland. The researcher employed direct observation, which entailed going straight to the field to study human activities on wetlands, with the goal of acquiring first-hand data and allowing the data to be supplemented with images. This guaranteed that the study conclusions were backed up by evidence. As a result, the observer had to interpret what was going on around the Overspill (Ward 6) and try to justify their observations.

Secondary data was gathered from reports, newspapers, textbooks, journals, and other publications for this study. Secondary data was used to find out what are the main human activities that are being done on wetlands in Overspill. The researcher obtained past and current articles that are related to the study. Some of the secondary data was taken from Harare City Council reports, ELB reports and also EMA reports. The researcher analysed old articles that are related to the study in order to find the information that is relevant to his study.

3. Results and discussion

3.1 Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents

The respondents from the distributed questionnaires had a majority of females (65%) whilst 35% were males (Table 1). The questionnaire survey results show that the majority of the household respondents (67%) were married a position which also had bearing in terms of wetland use types and benefits derived. In terms of age, the most dominant group was that comprising of 36–45 years old respondents who constituted 35.1%, followed by 26–35 (26.3%), 46 years (22.8%) and above then 18–25 years (15.8%) was the least one (Table 1). The dominance (36–45 years) is relevant to the research since it includes of mature persons with job experience who can easily recognise any human activities and affects in wetlands. Research statistics indicate that age respondents of 36–45 years were dominated by economically active people.

	Variable
1	Gender	Frequency	Percentage
	Male	20	35
	Female	37	65
2	Marital status
	Single	19	33
	Married	38	67
3	Age
	18–25	9	15.8
	26–35	15	26.3
	36–45	20	35.1
	46 above	13	22.8
4	Education qualification
	Primary	5	8.8
	Tertiary	17	29.8
	Secondary (O level)	15	26.3
	A level	13	22.8
	None	7	12.3
5	Employment status
	None	14	24.6
	Employed	19	33.3
	Self-employed	24	42.1
6	Employment type
	Temporary	12	21.1
	Permanent	5	8.7
	Full time	14	24.6
	Part time	10	17.5
	Contract	16	28.1
7	Distance
	1 km	19	33.3
	1–2 km	15	26.3
	3–5 km	13	22.8
	5 above km	10	17.5

Table 1.

Socio-demographic characteristics of the household respondents.

Questionnaire survey showed that 29.8% of household respondents attained tertiary education followed by those with Secondary education (O level) (26.3%), then A level (22.8%), and 12.3% were those who never attained any formal education (Table 1). The least respondents constituted 8.8% that is primary level. The researcher also collected information on the respondents’ educational attainment in order to learn more about their knowledge and awareness of the impact of human activities on wetlands providing and cultural services. Respondents from tertiary level (29.8%) contributed significantly to the validity of the results. The better educational background of the Epworth citizens is crucial as it helps them to understand to have crucial thinking on the impacts of human activities on wetlands provisioning and cultural services.

Questionnaire survey highlights that, self-employed household was the majority of the respondents with 42.1% followed by those who are employed with 33.3% then the none employed attains 24.6% (Table 1). Self-employed households were dominant since there is high rate of unemployment in Epworth, hence people tend to engage into different activities influenced water availability in the wetlands. These findings concur with those of Feresu [19] who observed that high rates of unemployment and poverty forced many people to turn to agricultural activities especially on open spaces such as wetlands to improve their incomes and food security. In a study conducted as they indicate that high unemployment forces household to indulge in wetland cultivation for survival.

Questionnaire survey results demonstrated that 33.3% of the respondents reside within a kilometre of the wetlands are the more respondents, followed by those who live 1–2 km (26.3%), and 3–5 km (22.8%) then 5 km and above are the least ones with 17.5%. Respondents who lived a kilometre away from Epworth Ward 6 wetlands played a significant role in the study because they were the ones who are quickly get affected by the impacts of wetland destruction.

3.2 The main land uses on wetlands in Epworth

3.2.1 Agriculture

The results of a questionnaire study revealed that wetlands are used for a variety of purposes. The research findings showed that urban agriculture was the major main land use in Epworth Ward 6 as revealed by 35.1% of the households (Figure 2). According to the researcher’s survey, poverty was the primary motivator for individuals in Epworth Ward 6 to engage in urban agriculture because the wetlands provide rich soil and water for irrigation in their fields. According to ZimStat [16], Ward 6 of Epworth has a higher poverty prevalence rate than the other wards in Epworth. The researcher also observed that maize, tomatoes and sweet potatoes were the crops that were grown by households in Epworth wetlands. The researcher noted that people in Epworth mostly utilise wetlands in winter season due to the characteristics of seasons, so the surrounding area of wetland is occupied by agricultural activities which end up seeing people encroaching into wetland due to poverty which increase the demand of land for agricultural activities. This demonstrates that wetlands are helping to achieve Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 1 and 2, which are to eradicate hunger and poverty, respectively. These findings concur of Feresu [19], who observed that food insecurity, unemployment and poverty has increased the rate of wetland use for agriculture.

Figure 2.

Main land uses on wetlands in Epworth ward 6.

3.2.2 Human settlement

Questionnaire survey shows that 24.5% of the households indicated that, apart from urban agriculture, urbanisation was also another major land use in Epworth Ward 6 (Figure 2). They noted that Epworth’s urbanisation is the outcome of migration, which has resulted in a search for more land to supply housing. One of the Housing Cooperative Heads, in particular, stated that the expanding population as a result of in-migration was putting strain on the land. Housing, according to respondents, can be a significant land use in wetlands. According to the Zimbabwe National Statistical Agency [21], Epworth had a total population of 161,840 people, with 25,597 individuals living in the study area (ward 6). During an interview ELB official highlighted that, shortage of land for accommodation is forcing Epworth Ward 6 residents to build their informal (illegal) settlements stretching into wetlands haphazardly [22] opines that urban growth and rapid urbanisation have been the major drivers diminishing the land resource in sub-Saharan cities.

3.2.3 Dumping of waste

Questionnaire surveys results show that 22.8% of the respondents pointed out that, wetlands were also used for dumping of waste (Figure 2). The researcher observed that illegal dumping of garbage and other waste was a threat to the wetland area, which posed several health problems to the community. The researcher also discovered that, the colour of water in wetlands after taking transect walk into field showed that there is a lot of waste that was being dumped in the wetland area. During an interview the EMA officer highlighted that, dumping of waste into wetland is due to the shortage of the resources to the Epworth Local Board to collect garbage on time. As a result, people end up emptying their bins near or open spaces (wetland) thereby affecting wetland quality, its function and also life under water. This conclusion is consistent with Goredema and Sithole [23], who found that people tend to dump their trash in wetland areas because they are considered open and undeveloped.

3.2.4 Grazing

Questionnaire survey highlighted that 17.5% of the households, indicated that grazing was another land use of wetlands in Epworth. Households explained that, the wetland provides palatable pasture and a source of drinking water to livestock including cattle and sheep from the local people. This finding is consistent with that of [16], who state that most rural wetlands, particularly in Zimbabwe, are used for agricultural and cattle grazing, as in Dufuya and Madigane. This is because most temporarily and seasonally waterlogged wetland habitats may provide valuable grazing fields for domestic animals, this decision was made. During an interview the ward 6 Councillor demonstrated that grazing of wetlands was mostly done by farmers who have livestock. These wetlands are used for agricultural purposes as well as animal grazing to keep them healthy. Grazing and agriculture are common uses for wetlands a position also confirmed by Ndlovu et al. [24]. The researcher observed that, people drove their livestock for grazing into wetland areas because that is where they can find good grazing pastures and water for their animals. They did not take any considerations of the importance of vegetation on wetlands because what they care mostly are their livestock. This demonstrates that wetlands are an important element considering the important role that agriculture plays as an important back bone of local communities’ livelihoods.

3.3 Factors influencing wetland utilisation patterns in Epworth, Harare

3.3.1 Availability of market for agricultural products

Questionnaire surveys demonstrate that 31.6% of the respondents (Figure 3) stated that the availability of market for agricultural products influenced wetland utilisation patterns in Epworth Ward 6 (Overspill). In some circumstances, water removal for agricultural irrigation can amplify the impacts of various pressures on wetland ecosystems, resulting in effects that are greater than those expected from dewatering alone. The households highlighted that, most of the people that utilise wetland for growing of agricultural products are females because a large number of men have migrated in search of formal jobs. Types of crops that are grown in wetlands in Epworth include maize, tomatoes, onions and sweet potatoes, these products were not meant for household consumption only but some are meant for selling since they were at the demand at the daily market to generate more income. Households also explained that, trend in market especially in agricultural sector is pushing most of the people in attaining agricultural activities. As a result, external factors such as market dynamics have an impact on wetland resource demand [24]. So, economic trends have prompted individuals in urban areas to engage in urban agriculture, relying on wetlands for other agricultural inputs such as irrigation water.

Figure 3.

Factors influencing wetland utilisation patterns in Epworth.

3.3.2 Availability of water

Rainfall pattern trends influenced wetland utilisation patterns in Epworth. Research findings highlight that 22.8% of the households pointed out that availability of water is also another major factor that influences wetland utilisation (Figure 3). They pointed out that groundwater availability has a significant impact on the nature and function of wetlands. Wetlands are highly dependent on groundwater levels, hence changes in climatic conditions that affect groundwater availability will have a significant impact on the nature and function of specific wetlands, including the types of plant and animal species that live there, analysing groundwater availability as a key driver of wetland changes is an important process [12]. For example, in Matabeleland South located in agro-ecological region 4 with unpredictable rainfall; locals rely on wetlands to absorb rainwater during dry periods [24]. People rely on wetlands to better their livelihoods as a result of poor rainfall. This finding supports Phethi and Gumbo’s [25] observation that the availability of water in Makhita has resulted in the expansion of agricultural activities to meet the growing need for food. In these regions, people drain water from these wetlands for their agricultural activities so that they boost their products and income, but this process affect wetland water table through reducing it to a lower level where it will not be able to cope up with the surrounding conditions therefore degraded. Wetlands ecosystem consists of soil, water and vegetation. Changes in hydrologic actions have an immediate impact on the physical condition of a wetland, such as the depth, duration, and frequency of inundation. Human-caused changes in hydrology can have complete control over a wetland’s existence and characteristics.

3.3.3 Population increase

Questionnaire survey results show that, 26.3% of the respondents pointed out that, population increase poses serious threat to wetlands (Figure 3). During an interview, ELB officials highlighted that in-migration plays a major role in population increase in Epworth which poses serious threats to wetlands natural resources. Population increase has increased the demand of social, economic and environmental services. Human activities such as urbanisation, infrastructure development, recreational, and industrial activities have all posed a threat to urban wetlands [14]. These findings support the findings of Madebwe and Madebwe [26], who claim that population increase, high drought incidence rates, and national and economic development issues led to the establishment of many gardens on the outskirts and within wetlands. One way to relieve pressure on existing land use change is to expand human settlements in wetlands [14].

3.3.4 Donor funding for sustainable food security projects

Questionnaire survey demonstrate that, 19.3% of the household respondents state that, donor funding also plays a role in influencing wetland utilisation (Figure 3). Household respondents show that the majority of the donors are Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs). These donors provide items to local people, which they employ in the implementation of wetland-based food security projects that require the usage of wetlands. Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) provide wetlands fence and distribute farming inputs such as inorganic fertilisers, seedlings, and farm implements. Due to lack of knowledge from the community people end up utilising the donor’s resources poorly to an extent that they destroy wetlands. This conclusion is in line with Schuyt’s [27] who observed that, wetlands ecosystem is under strain due to poorly implementation of food security projects. This was confirmed by Marambanyika and Beckedahl [5] in a separated study conducted in semi-arid communal areas.

3.4 Provisioning and cultural services obtained by the surrounding community

3.4.1 Provisioning services derived from wetlands by the local community

According to the results of a questionnaire survey, 26.3% of families strongly agree that they get water from the wetlands to support their agricultural activities as well as for domestic usage in their homes (Figure 4). They indicated that they grow crop throughout the whole year as long as water is available in wetlands. This finding tallies to that of Dehnhardt et al. [22], who stated that wetlands provide a variety of services that contribute to human livelihoods by providing food and economic opportunities. About 28.1% of the households agree that food is also a major provisioning service that they obtain from the wetland (Figure 4). They agreed that the wetlands provide water and food for their cattle as well as the rest of the town. This finding is consistent with that of Svotwa et al. [28], who found that cattle grazing in wetlands has increased in Mwaonazvawo due to the availability of water and pastures on wetlands. According to the findings, 15.8% of households indicate that they also get wetland materials such as lumber for home roofing and other applications. The respondents indicate that they obtain timber at a minimal scale. Results show that 22.8% of the household’s respondents highlight that they neither agreed nor disagreed that they also obtain medical plants from the wetland ecosystem. This is related to the perception that many Epworth Ward 6 households adopt western cultural practices that ignore local tradition. As a result, the majority of the residents in the area rely on clinics or hospitals for medical care.

Figure 4.

Provisioning services obtained by the surrounding community. Strongly agree—SA, agree—A, neutral—N, disagree—D, strongly disagree—SD.

Results obtained from the survey demonstrate that households’ respondents (26.3%) strongly agreed that water is the major resource they obtain from wetlands, because of their proximity to the wetland ecosystem. Most of the respondents lived 1 km (33.3%) from the wetland ecosystem, indicated that most of their activities were done using water for example, irrigation, building of infrastructure and also water for their domestic use since the area is located to a place where there are no water pipes to each and every household. These finding concur with that of Mandishona and Knight [10] who reiterated that wetlands are among the most productive ecosystems, offering households with several opportunities to tap especially for urban inhabitants. Apart from water, the results also show that 28.1% of households agree that they get their food from the wetland habitat. This is because, during their yearly drying, the floodplains become extremely rich in food for aquatic living species, providing a fertile nursery and feeding area for larvae and hatchlings. These findings are also in line with the findings of Madebwe and Madebwe [26] and Mbereko et al. [29], who claimed that during dry periods, wetlands become the only source of moisture, and farmers rely on them for agriculture. Results in Figure 4 show that households disagree that they obtained timber (26.3%) and medical plants (24.6%).

3.4.2 Cultural services derived from wetlands by the local community

It was established that 19.3% of the households strongly agree that they obtain recreational services whereas 22.8% of the households agree that they utilise wetlands for education and research services (Figure 5). Results also show that about 22.8% of the household respondents, wetlands give a significant possibility for tourism as well as academic services. Turpie et al. [30] also found that wetlands have educational value since researchers and students from diverse research institutes visit to investigate various elements of wetlands. There was an equal agreement from the respondents as 28.1% neutrally agreed that ecotourism was also a benefit to the community. About 28.1% of the households also highlighted that spiritual enrichment was also another benefit. These findings revealed that the community was already receiving a lot of cultural services (Figure 5). During an interview the ward councillor indicated that culture dilution/modification is affecting wetlands in providing numerous cultural services as they were used to be. These concur with the findings of Ongoro [31] who observed that the effects of modernisation, cultural services are rarely observed. As far as conservation was concerned, certain of the beliefs were no longer respected, and some of these cultural values were deemed restrictive. Only 17.5% of the household respondents agreed that they use wetland for spiritual activities such as worshiping through baptism of their worshippers. This finding is consistent with that of [16] who found that wetlands provide spiritual activities on a small scale because such practices were abandoned owing to cultural and technological developments.

Figure 5.

Cultural services obtained by the community in Epworth. Strongly agree—SA, agree—A, neutral—N, disagree—D, strongly disagree—SD.

3.5 Impacts of human activities on wetland provision and cultural services in Epworth, Harare

3.5.1 Household perception of human impacts on wetlands

The majority of household respondents (31.6%) strongly agreed that agricultural operations have a greater influence on wetlands, according to poll results. Followed by urbanisation (22.8%), then dumping of waste (19.3%) and lastly grazing with 15.8% (Figure 6). Household respondents in Epworth indicated that agricultural activities remain the predominant activity over the past decade. Household respondent pointed out that, agricultural activities are the dominant activities that plays a big role in wetland destruction. According to Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency [16], Ward 6 of Epworth has a higher poverty prevalence rate than the other wards in Epworth. During an interview with the ELB official, he stated that since the rate of poverty is high in Epworth ward 6, people tend to engage into agricultural activities. This is because, people wanted to improve their income and household food security. About 19% of the 35.1% of the people aged 36–45 respondent that, due to the availability of market for agricultural products and also availability of water in wetlands pushed many people to engage themselves in agriculture. This is because some of them are among the economically active group that is of 36–45 years. Maize, Onion, Tomatoes and Sweet potatoes are some of the types of crops that are grown into wetlands. Household respondents indicated that these products are being sold to nearer urban areas that are found in Harare (Mbare, Chitungwiza etc). These several agricultural activities in wetlands resulted in their depletion. Household respondents indicated some of the agricultural practices which include, ploughing, tilling, weeding, harvesting and cultivation. This finding concurs with that of [18] who discovered that several agricultural practices which include land clearance through deforestation resulted in wetland degradation.

Figure 6.

Major impacts of wetlands in Epworth. Strongly agree—SA, agree—A, neutral—N, disagree—D, strongly disagree—SD.

About 26.3% of the household respondents agreed that urbanisation also have negative impacts on wetlands which affected them in continue providing both provisioning and cultural services. Urbanisation is a process that has increased as a result of population growth, expansion, and the spread of developed structures in a given area. During the interview with Ward 6 Councillor, he reiterates that, population increase has resulted in high demand of land for settlement. So, people end up building their structures into wetland areas therefore affecting the biological and hydrological function of wetland. The poor are the most susceptible in Epworth, according to the researcher, because they lack the financial means to purchase pricey land. As a result, the establishment of informal settlements occurred. This finding is consistent with that of Marongwe et al. [32], who discovered that the impoverished are the ones who build slums and informal communities like Hopely farm and other parts of Epworth.

Questionnaire survey results indicated that, household respondents (31.6%) neither agreed or disagreed that, dumping of waste plays a big role in wetland destruction. Household respondents who live 1 km and 2–3 km from the wetland areas reiterates that, dumping of waste has a role in wetland degradation in Epworth. Other household respondents from areas ranging 5 km away from the wetlands also are among the (31.6%) respondents who neither disagreed that dumping of waste in wetlands has negative impact to wetlands. From the questionnaire results the researcher obtained, household respondents pointed out that, the inconvenience of ELB team that is responsible for carrying garbage’s forced many residents to utilise any open space for disposing away garbage’s. So, some of the open space include wetland areas. During an interview with the ELB official, he opines that, the ELB has experiencing resource shortages including equipment’s in transport so that they can practice their duties in time especially the one of carrying garbage’s. From the interview the researcher conducted to EMA, EMA official opines that not only garbage’s are thrown into wetland areas, also waste from industries and construction activities are flowing into wetland areas. This finding concurs with that of Goredema and Sithole [23] show that waste is dumped in wetland areas because they are considered open and unutilized.

Questionnaire survey demonstrate that, about 14% of the household respondents neither agreed or disagreed that livestock grazing has a negative result on wetlands. Self-employed household respondents, pointed out that apart from agriculture, urbanisation and dumping of waste, also grazing is continuously contributing to wetland degradation. They opine that, availability of water and green pastures on wetlands drove people (farmers) to come with their livestock’s (sheep, cattle and goat) to feed them with grass and watering them. Decrease in wetland vegetation resulting in bare land was attributed to livestock grazing as highlighted by 15.8% of the household respondents who were aged 18–25 years. They demonstrate that, there is an increase in the number of livestock in their ward 6 over the past decade. These all livestock during dry periods, were all fed from wetland products and resulting in bare land. This is because wetlands provide good pastures for livestock. This finding concurs with that of Musamba et al. [33], they recognised that wetlands provide suitable pastures for livestock grazing and are also a constant source of water for livestock, creating a potential condition that could lead to wetland degradation.

3.5.2 Most affected wetland aspect

Questionnaire survey results indicated that about 40% of the household respondents highlighted that water is the most affected wetland aspect in the community followed by vegetation (37%) and soil (23%) (Figure 7). Household pointed out that water was affected more because it was used for several activities both social and economic activities. According to Jain et al., [34] the process of runoff from agricultural fields is a major cause of non-point pollution in Indian rivers. As shown on Figure 3, availability of water also pushed people in wetland utilisation, this enlighten that water was the major aspect that was being used by the community for agricultural activities mostly. During an interview with the EMA official, he pointed out that water was the most affected aspect since it was being used for a variety of activities. It was being affected by illegal dumping of waste being disposed into it for example sewage (human and animal dump) disposal, pesticides and fertiliser thereby affecting water quality. These findings matched those of Luan and Zhou [35], who claim that pesticide and fertiliser runoff, as well as industrial and municipal wastewater discharges, promote eutrophication in practically all Asian rivers, lakes, streams, and wetlands.

Figure 7.

Most affected wetland aspect.

Questionnaire results demonstrate that, 37% of the household respondents agree that apart from water, also vegetation was also a target aspect from the community (Figure 7). Wetland vegetation was being used for several activities in the community as household respondents highlight. Household respondents show that, there are some people in the community who obtain their medical from wetland vegetation, so people utilise vegetation for their medication. During an interview with the ELB official, it was highlighted that, people obtain timber from wetland vegetation which they used for roofing. The Overspill ward councillor revealed that there is an increase in the number of livestock’s (cattle, goat and sheep) in his ward since the year of 2000 up to 2022 as his book statistics said therefore which resulted in an increase in bare land from grazing of animals. According to Marambanyika and Beckedahl [5] cattle grazing alters vegetation and causes trampling, which leads to an increase in bare areas. Therefore, wetland vegetation was mostly affected through grazing since there was good pastures for livestock in wetland. This shows that human activities such as cattle grazing have unbearable consequences as they reduced areas of palatable pastures to areas devoid of vegetation.

According to the survey’s findings, soil was another factor that affected wetlands for 23% of the household respondents (Figure 7). Household respondents highlight that, poor agricultural activities in wetlands led to soil erosion therefore resulting in the decline of soil fertility. During an interview with the elderly household respondents who were above 46 years, shows that anthropogenic activities have caused a dramatic drop in the soil fertility of wetlands over the last decade. Results obtained from an interview conducted by the researcher to ELB officials show that, informal landholders settled in wetland areas used various agents in fertilising the soil. They indicated that, they used these fertilisers with the aim of improving the soil pH. Poor application of these fertilisers led to the loss of soil nutrients hence decline in the soil fertility. From the interview conducted with the EMA official, he respondent by highlighting the impacts of organic and synthetic fertilisers on soil, showing that from the last results they undertake in the field on soil quality, results demonstrate the presence of high nitrogen values. The group concluded that environmental issues resulted from poor nitrogen and phosphorus fertiliser application in terms of soil quality. This finding concurs with that of [5] who believes that various anthropogenic activities in metropolitan areas have resulted in water chemical changes, biodiversity loss, habitat loss, and soil erosion in most wetlands.

3.5.3 Impact of each human activity on wetland provisioning and cultural services

Questionnaire survey results demonstrate that, 40.3% of the household respondents (Figure 8) highlight that agriculture has severe impact on wetland which contributes to wetland degradation. The household results show that agriculture has more severe threats to wetlands as compared to other activities as it results in alteration of wetland components such as water and vegetation due to clearance and excessive abstraction. During an interview with the ward 6 Councillor, he stated that agriculture poses more threats to wetland since more people in his ward engage into several agricultural activities. The ward 6 councillor indicated some of the activities that are done in wetlands under agriculture which include, ploughing, planting, weeding, hand crafts, pest and disease control, and harvesting the yields. This finding is similar with that of Feresu [19], he noted that urban agriculture encompasses a variety of agricultural activities, some of which include land clearance by tree removal, resulting in huge deforestation, while irrigation development may also be used to compensate for irregular rainfall patterns. The constant process of agriculture that is increasing year after year as answered, but ELB officials when interviewed said that these cultivation activities exhaust the nutrients in the soil, necessitating fertiliser application to boost yields. This also destroys the soil of wetland from fertile to unfertile therefore reducing the quantity and quality of provisioning services (food, water, etc.) that are being obtained from wetlands. This resulted in food insecurity in the community. So, from the results obtained in the field demonstrated that agriculture was more severe to the destruction of wetlands in Epworth.

Figure 8.

Impact of human activity on wetland provisioning and cultural services in Epworth.

Results show that 40.3% of the household respondents revealed that urbanisation has moderate impacts on wetlands, followed by 31.6% (severe), 19.3% (not severe) and the least was 8.8% (no impact) (Figure 8). Urbanisation usually negatively impact wetlands both the surface and underground perspectives. Urbanisation include the process of population increase, area expansion and built up of structures in an area. Household respondents (40.3%) revealed that urbanisation has moderate to wetland soil. Through interviews the researcher conducted to ELB officials and EMA officials, they stated that growing of population in an area or community has resulted into an increase in social demands (land). Several wetland losses have occurred around the world as a direct result of human economic activity [2].

Questionnaire survey demonstrated that 33.3% of the respondent’s highlight that, dumping of waste has neither or no severe impact to wetland areas (Figure 8). Those who live far away from the wetland pointed out that they did not throw away their garbage into wetland. So, they neither agree nor disagree that dumping of waste into wetland did not have severe impact to wetland since they did not experience their impacts. Goredema [23] opines that resident dispose waste in wetland areas because it has gone some days without being collected. Leaves falling from trees, paper (pampers) and metallic components and also liquid wastes are some of the dump materials that are being disposed into wetland.

The survey’s findings reveal that 8.8% of the household respondents pointed out that grazing has posed severe impacts to wetland status (Figure 8). During an interview with an EMA official, he pointed out that grazing has severe impacts to wetlands because almost every household that kept livestock, feed their livestock from wetland products during dry seasons. He pointed out that, wetlands face some serious threats from livestock grazing mostly during dry periods because they produce green pastures for livestock. Livestock grazing affect water, vegetation and also soil but at a minimal scale. Livestock grazing leave a bare land which exposes soil to erosion therefore leading to wetland sedimentation. This will affect the quality of food and also quantity of water obtained from wetland. Household respondents indicated that grazing reduces the quantity of medical plants obtained by the community. They also highlight those negative impacts of livestock grazing result in wetland depletion hence affecting recreational activities, ecotourism and spiritual enrichments. Most rural wetlands in Zimbabwe (Dufuya and Madugane) Marambanyika and Beckedahl [5], are used for agriculture and cattle grazing. Several other studies have documented the harmful consequences of cattle grazing on wetlands species, such as the negative effects of trampling on eggs, resulting in habitat loss for wetland species.

4. The nexus between human activities, ecosystem services and the perceived impacts on wetland ecosystems

Results from the present study demonstrate that the majority of the households in Epworth are self-employed a position which pushes then to look for other means to enhance livelihood strategies. Households are therefore left with no option except to turn to wetlands for their survival a position which has also been motivated by the availability of market for agricultural products especially in urban centres such as Harare. Wetland use is also largely driven by other factors such as population increase, rainfall availability and donor funding for sustainable food security projects due to existence of semi-arid conditions. Results also show that the dominant wetland use is agriculture as indicated by most of the households and was also reported to be changing wetland conditions. These specific human activities which are undertaken in wetlands in Epworth were affecting the wetland’s ecological components in different several ways which will compromise the ability of the ecosystems to continuously provide goods and services in the near future if they remain unchecked and monitored. These activities were draining water from the wetlands, a situation which would possibly result in wetland degradation and possibly loss which will affect the broad spectrum of goods and services that the wetlands have been providing for instance water for drinking as well as opportunities for eco-tourism and habitat loss. Of all the human activities agriculture and urbanisation severely impacted on the wetland’s component such as soil and water. Pertinent to note is the fact that agriculture, urbanisation, dumping of waste and livestock grazing are the main contributors to wetland loss a situation which requires further interrogation through site specific studies. The study advocates for strong support of environmental conservation stakeholders from the government through including these stakeholders on financial budget.it also recommends that EMA and Epworth Local Board to come up with an integrated land use planning approach that will go a long way in addressing issues of land degradation and fragmentation.

The findings show that the wetlands were experiencing habitat loss, biodiversity loss and declining hydrological conditions due to human activities. In light of this it is difficult to maintain wetland conditions if wetland use and access is not regulated and backed by sound environmental practise. Therefore, using the proposed framework in Figure 9, there is need to conduct further detailed studies which focus on wetland use activities and their impacts on the wetlands ecological framework using developed frameworks such as the WET-Sustainable Use and WET Health frameworks which inform decisions makers based on a cite of scores and magnitude against the perceived impact in relation to land use activities. This will ultimately contribute to sound decision making as information is based not only with a partial view of reality but is all encompassing.

Figure 9.

Framework to enhance sustainable use of wetlands and proffer wetland conservation.

5. Conclusion and recommendations

The article examined the impacts of human activities on wetland provisioning and cultural services in Epworth, Harare. The findings demonstrate that wetlands are mainly used for agriculture activities mainly related to vegetable production followed by human settlement and due to increasing population density being exposed to waste dumping as some households viewed them as waste lands not worthy of management. Households were motivated to utilise wetlands due to the readily available moisture that was mainly used agriculture for agricultural activities for food and income generation. Increased human population was also highlighted as one of the key drivers to wetland use as households were left with no option except to exploit the resources at their disposal. Research findings indicated that local people obtained provisioning and cultural services from the wetlands. It is well known that wetlands provide several services to the surrounding community. Research results demonstrate that ward 6 community obtain several provisioning services from wetlands which include, water, food, timber, firewood. They pointed out that they obtain medical plants from wetlands but at a minimal scale. Household respondents revealed that, there were also some cultural services they obtain from wetland but at a minimal scale. Cultural services obtained by the community include, cultural heritage, spiritual enrichment, recreation, ecotourism and education and research services. These cultural services were now obtained at a minimal scale due to anthropogenic activities taking place in wetlands. This shows that wetlands have been contributing towards the attainment of Sustainable Development Goals 1 and 2 on poverty reduction and zero hunger through sustainable activities within the wetland.

The findings further demonstrate that although wetland have contributed to human livelihoods immensely, human activities such as crop production and livestock grazing have a significant bearing on the provision of good s and services derived. Household indicated that human use activities have a wide range of impacts such as wetland sedimentation, food insecurity, and soil erosion, alteration of hydrological and biological processes of wetland and habitat loss. Households revealed that although they were obtaining some of the provisioning and cultural services from wetlands, the rate is continuously declining, meaning that they are obtaining them at a minimal scale. This was because these wetlands were being used unsustainably hence their depletion. Therefore, in light of this, the Environmental Management Agency and Epworth Local Board should come up with an integrated land use planning approach which is the best way forward in addressing issues that have a hand with human activities and their impact on wetland provisioning and cultural services. This strategy will go a long way towards tackling wetland fragmentation and degradation. Since community participation and stakeholder involvement is key towards the success of any programme, residents surrounding wetlands in Epworth should be educated and encouraged more to engage themselves in practicing Indigenous Knowledge System (IKS) practices for example in steady of using modified fertilisers for improving pH of the soil, it is wise to use inorganic fertilisers such as cow dung or manure etc. Residents surrounding wetland ecosystems should be included in decision making systems which is a good way forward since it reduces conflicts in managing these wetlands.

Author contributions

Conceptualization, Tatenda Musasa (TM); methodology, Kudakwashe Muringaniza (KC), Emmanuel Mhlanga (EM) and (TM). Software, TM; validation, TM and KC.; formal analysis, TM, KC and EM. investigation, TM, EM and KC, data curation, TM; writing—original draft preparation, TM and KC; writing—review and editing, TM and KC; visualisation, TM, KC, EM. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

“The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript.”

Competing interests

“The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.”

Data availability

“The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.”