Criminal Behavior and Youth Crime: A Juvenile Delinquency Perspective on Adverse Childhood Experience

Abstract

The chapter aims to explore whether the various forms of early adversity are risk factors for criminal behavior among young adults leading to youth crime and juvenile delinquency. The objective of this study is to take into consideration adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) in understanding youth crime and juvenile delinquency from a criminal behavior perspective among the youths. Through secondary qualitative data, this study demonstrates numerous risk factors associated with a youth’s probability of joining a gang, revealing that the process of entering a gang begins in childhood and progresses through district development stages. Negative life events and fear or experiences of victimization have been linked to joining a gang. Certain family circumstances have been shown to significantly predict gang involvement, including a lack of health insurance, the jailing or imprisonment of a household member, and foster care placement—all of which are considered ACEs. The results of this study suggest that a focused effort on early identification of ACEs, and intervention for ACEs to improve youth life circumstances and prevent criminal behavior, may reduce the likelihood of and costs related to juvenile criminal activities. Primary prevention efforts should be tailored to meet the needs of parents, teachers, health professionals, and law enforcement.

1. Introduction

Adolescents’ criminal behavior is a substantial social problem worldwide with negative physical and mental health effects on both victims and offenders [1]. Familial and peer criminal behavior are considered to be important risk factors for the development of adolescents’ criminal behavior [2]. Because family is the most enduring and central setting of child development [3], points out that similarities between family members’ levels of criminal behavior have often been reported. However, Farrington [4], suggests that social learning mechanisms are assumed to play an important role in these similarities. According to social learning theory, criminal behavior is learned and maintained by observing criminal behaviors and the social consequences attached to those behaviors [5, 6]. The learning and acquisition of antisocial behavior are substantially more likely to occur during early development stages, particularly if the observed behavior is committed by people who are part of the individual’s intimate social circle [6].

It can be stated that early adversity is particularly detrimental when it occurs within the family unit, suffice it to note that family members are the leading role models during child development. Children may view dysfunctional and violent experiences as effective coping mechanisms for difficulties, especially if the people who engaged in the violent behavior were never brought to justice or, worse still, if the violence was supported by other family members [5]. It has been shown that children who have been around violence or who have gone through traumatic events like physical or sexual abuse are more prone to commit violent crimes as adults. Research suggests that children who are exposed to abuse, neglect, or a chaotic home environment during childhood are at a greater risk of serious, violent, or chronic delinquency. It is also reported that they are involved in the juvenile justice system and criminal persistence during early adulthood, compared with youth who did not experience ACEs [7, 8].

Several studies suggest that severe adversity during childhood is linked to the development of psychopathic traits and it is a known risk factor for the development of antisocial personality disorder during adulthood. In fact, from a psychological perspective, children continuously facing dangerous environments, such as persistent physical or sexual abuse, may develop a low responsibility to stress to adapt to persistent severe stress [9].

Negative experiences such as anger, rage, and sensation of entrapment can also be generated from physical and sexual abuse, creating the desire for retaliation and revenge increasing the likelihood of delinquent behavior among the youth as a coping mechanism [10]. Also, children, when abused by perpetrated who appear to be meaningful role models may learn those behaviors as acceptable ways to respond to the similar situation later in life [5]. According to Boullier and Blair [11], the three types of ACEs included abuse: physical, emotional, and sexual abuse; neglect: physical, and emotional; household dysfunction: mental illness, mother-treated violently, divorce, incarcerated relative, and substance abuse.

1.1 Significance of the study

Adolescence is undeniably a time of transition. It is a period when the self, basic personality is still enduring a transformation and is vulnerable to a host of external determinants as well as internal physiological changes. During this time, many young people are subject to emotional instability, experiencing stress, shame, and mood swings. They go through a phase of biological development that happens far more quickly than at any other point in their life, except for infancy. Their weight, height, and sexual preferences all significantly alter within a short period [12].

Youths may go through a life crisis in late adolescence (between the ages of 16 and 18) known as the conflict between ego identification and role dissemination, as described by renowned psychologist Erik Erikson. Youths build their ego identities when they have a complete sense of who they are, which combines how they see themselves and how they fit in with other people. Role diffusion happens when individuals experience personal insecurity, overextend themselves, and depend on others to provide them with an identity they are unable to create for themselves [13]. Additionally, according to psychologists, the desire for independence from parental dominance predominates in late adolescence [14].

It is not surprising that the teenage years are a time of disobedience and conflict with authority at home, in school, and in the community given this explosive combination of biological change and yearning for autonomy [12]. Hence the need to formulate effective strategies that demand a solid understanding of delinquency’s causes and prevention. Nevertheless, this study stands for the view that youth are still lacking some mental capacity to measure the benefits of crime and its consequences. The notion of free will cannot be applied to youth offenders, on the contrary, we can consider referring to adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) as a concept that might well explain criminal behavior among youth and how it ends in youth committing crimes.

1.2 Youth and modern society

The problems of youth in modern society are a major national concern especially when they are linked to juvenile delinquency or criminal behavior committed by minors. About 750,000 youths are now arrested each year for crimes ranging in seriousness from loitering to murder. While this number seems high, juvenile arrests have been in decline; more than a million youths were arrested annually just a few years ago [12]. Some young offenders are extremely dangerous and violent despite the utmost juvenile law violation is minor. Egley Jr et al. [15] report that about 850,000 youths belong to more than 30,000 gangs in the United States. Therefore, it can be agreed that violent street gangs and groups can put fear into an entire city.

Youths who commit multiple significant crimes are increasingly understood to be serious social problems. They are known as lifestyle, repeat, or chronic delinquent offenders. Along with addressing a variety of other social issues like child abuse and neglect, school crime and vandalism, family conflicts, and drug misuse, state juvenile authorities also have to deal with these criminals. ACEs are described as “potentially traumatic events that occur in childhood (0–17 years)” by Felitti et al. [16]. One can endure “sexual, physical, and emotional abuse; physical and emotional neglect; witnessing violence at home; living with someone who has a mental illness; parental separation or divorce; parental incarceration; and household alcohol or illicit drug problems” as examples of these unfavorable events. ACEs have been linked to a higher probability of future criminal behavior [8].

Children who are exposed to domestic abuse and who reside in impoverished nations or in nations where victims of domestic violence receive less social assistance may feel more negative emotions and be more vulnerable to victimization [17]. These unfavorable feelings, such as wrath, helplessness, and extreme suffering, might lead to an increase in aggressive and externalizing behavior [10]. Sexual abuse, physical abuse, and physical neglect appear to be important drivers for perpetuating the cycle of violence. Youths who are dabbling in various forms of dangerous conduct such as drug abuse, alcohol use, and precocious sexuality are those considered at risk. Because of the economic, health, or social problems they are living in, their families are unable to provide adequate care and discipline. Siegel and Welsh [12], concede that those living in a single-parent, female-headed household are expressively more likely to suffer poverty than those in two-parent families.

Mary et al. [18] point out that child poverty can have negative effects on mental achievement, instructive attainment, sustenance, physical and mental health, as well as social behavior in the long run. In addition, Mary et al. [18], concede that educational achievement scores between children in affluent and low-income families have broadened over the years, and the earnings and wealth of families have become gradually important determinants of adolescents’ high school graduation, college attendance, and college perseverance and completion.

In particular, studies have found that ACEs increase the likelihood of youth substance use and other delinquent acts [19, 20]. ACEs have been linked to a variety of externalizing behavioral issues, including bullying, physical violence, dating violence, property-related crimes, and carrying a weapon [19, 20] as well as internalizing behaviors, like depression, anxiety, and self-mutilation [21].

According to Walters [22], qualitative research involves the collection and interpretation of subjective data that often is shaped by social, cultural, and political realities that are evident at the time of data collection. According to Johnston [23], secondary analysis is an empirical activity that uses the same fundamental research tenets as studies that use primary data and has similar processes to be followed as with any other research methodology. Large secondary data sets are a good substitute for original data gathering because they frequently give the researcher access to more information than primary data sets do [24]. Although secondary data presents many opportunities for researchers, there are still good reasons for using primary data. One of the problems with using secondary data is the lack of control over the framing a wording of survey items [24]. Through a systematic process, a qualitative secondary data approach was utilized to gather information for this study.

This study used a qualitative technique to address the study’s research questions since this type of research focuses on how individuals learn about and make sense of themselves and others, as well as how they organize and provide meaning to their daily lives. This could imply that crucial questions for your study are not covered by the data. According to [25], the greatest drawback of secondary data is also the major benefit—the data have already been gathered. This study used secondary data from accredited journals and books by the institution for which this research will be conducted, the University of KwaZulu-Natal. The objective of this study is to take into consideration ACEs in understanding youth crime and juvenile delinquency leading to criminal behaviors among the youths. To ascertain the triggering factors of criminal behavior and delinquency among the youth, by exploring the impact of adverse childhood consequences on the youth and to describe possible interventions that can reduce crime among the youth. This study seeks to answer the following questions: (1) What are the triggering factors of criminal behavior and delinquency among the youth? (2) What is the impact of adverse childhood consequences on youth? (3) What are the possible interventions to reduce crime among the youth?

The purpose of this chapter is to demonstrate different triggering factors of youth crime from an adverse childhood consequences point of view that influence criminal behaviors among youth leading to juvenile delinquency. In addition, the chapter seeks to assess the effectiveness of law enforcement, court, and correctional agencies designed to treat youthful offenders who fall into the arms of the law—known collectively as the juvenile justice system, by suggesting more intensive and effective measures to treat and prevent future criminal behaviors among the youths. The study focuses on social issues associated with delinquent behavior, including substance abuse, child abuse and neglect, education, and peer relations.

2. Method

2.1 Scope

According to the objectives of the study, a total of 53 studies were subjected to the analysis. These included published studies on ACEs, youth crime, and juvenile delinquency.

2.2 Procedure

The inclusion criteria were the studies conducted between the years 1995 and 2020 with the following keywords Adverse childhood experiences, Criminal Behavior, Environment, Family, Juvenile Delinquency, and Youth Crime.

The following methods were used to locate studies for inclusion of publish studies; computerized search of the following journals: American Journal of Psychiatry; Psychology of Men & Masculinities; Columbia University Press; Crime and Public Policy; Routledge; Aggressive Behavior: Official Journal of the International Society for Research on Aggression; Journal of Criminal Justice; Child Abuse & Neglect; Child Maltreatment; Roxbury Publishing Company, Los Angeles, California; Pediatrics and Child Health; Cengage Learning; Psychology Today; Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention; American Journal of Preventive Medicine; Journal of Adolescent Health; Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal; Pediatrics; The Journal of Early Adolescence; Child Abuse & Neglect; Australian Journal of Social Issues; Qualitative and Quantitative Methods in Libraries; Oxford University Press; American Psychological Association; Child Abuse & Neglect; Journal of Juvenile Justice; American Journal of Preventive Medicine; Pediatrics; Justice Quarterly; Journal of Family Psychology; Developmental Psychology; Social Science Quarterly; Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry; Aggression and Violent Behavior; An International Journal of Theory & Practice; Journal of Criminal Justice; Child Abuse & Neglect; Crime & Delinquency; Child Abuse & Neglect; Criminology; Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine; Journal of Family Psychology; Duke University Press; Child Abuse & Neglect; JAMA Pediatrics; Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice; Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice; Journal of Crime and Justice. To find the above journals, a computerized search was done via google scholar and Jstor search engines.

Through the use of Google Scholar, Jstor.org, as well as some official websites, the researcher developed a search strategy to gain access to the data. This allowed for the collection of potentially relevant articles, books, and other web-based resources from which secondary data were extracted to address the goal of this study. Articles that protect human subjects in their analysis were described while taking ethical procedures into account. Before the secondary data analysis could be done, such data had to be identified.

2.3 Coding

To summarize the reached studies and to constitute the potential moderator variables for future meta-analytic research, the studies were coded under the four main headings as Adverse childhood consequences and Youth Crime; Violent and Juvenile Offenders; Moral Insanity and Crime among Child; and Common crimes committed by Youth. These codes are described deeply in the discussion session of this chapter.

3. Results

It is found that sexual abuse, physical abuse, and physical neglect appear to be important drivers for perpetuating the cycle of violence from 53 studies. After carefully having analyzed different articles read for this study, it can be argued that childhood adverse events are related to youth delinquent behavior. Indeed, the findings of this study demonstrate that both childhood neglect and exposure to family violence are recognized as important predictors of later involvement in criminogenic behaviors across the life course of the youth.

The analysis points out that the accumulation of ACEs during childhood can be linked to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, criminal behavior, as well as abusive and conflict-ridden adult intimate relationships. The findings show that the family represents the best environment for the development of the personality of the individual. It is the foundation of the community, thus contributing to laying the basis of a well-structured society where each individual can enjoy a safe and sound atmosphere. The analysis demonstrates that between family and society, an inseparable and interdependent relationship is created that should be assured, in a positive way, by generally promoting human values. The findings go on to state that society and family transformations give birth to challenges that the individual has to face.

In addition to the above, this study shows that within the psycho-behavioral construction of the individual, education embodies the dialectic function, as the family offers the first guiding marks on life, with all its patterns. The analysis points out that the living environment is the one that influences the individual since childhood when we learn how to live and how to adapt to society, and to immunize against it, as it is in a permanent change, imposing stereotype patterns of thinking and action. This study adds significantly to the literature linking physical and sexual abuse neglect to criminal behavior. The findings further demonstrate that early exposure to ACEs is significantly related to a greater risk of serious or violent offending as well as later involvement in the juvenile justice system. The analysis concludes that unless the factors that control the onset and termination of a delinquent career are studied in an orderly and scientific manner, developing effective prevention and control efforts will be difficult.

4. Discussion

The objective of this study is to take into consideration ACEs in understanding youth crime and juvenile delinquency from a criminal behavior perspective among the youths. Emotional abuse, physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional neglect, physical neglect, violent treatment toward mother, household substance abuse, household mental illness, parental separation or divorce, and having an incarcerated household member were identified as risk factors for chronic disease in adulthood by researchers [26]. They were first described in 1998 in the seminal study “Relationship of childhood abuse and dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) study” [16].

Empirical evaluation has shown that ACEs are common, highly interrelated, ad exert a powerful cumulative effect on human development [27]. High ACEs score has been linked to several sexually risky behaviors, such as having 50 or more sexual partners, having intercourse before age 15 and getting pregnant while still in high school [28]. According to research by Bellis et al. [29], individuals with higher cumulative ACE scores are more likely to smoke, drink excessively, be locked up, be morbidly obese, have poor educational and career results, and have recently engaged in violent behavior.

In the field of criminology, we are aware that, even after controlling for prior delinquent behavior, experiencing physical abuse as a child and other types of maltreatment are associated with higher rates of self-reported total offending, violent offending, and property offending among offenders [30]. The strong correlation between parental divorce and criminality has also been widely established, with meta-analyses on the subject revealing moderate impact sizes [31].

Using adoptive and biological families, [32] were able to show that the connection with delinquency was driven by the experience of parental divorce rather than mediated by common genes. Delinquency and other maladaptive behaviors have been linked to exposure to parental incarceration, according to research by Geller [33]. Murray and Farrington [34] found that parental imprisonment, above and beyond other types of separation, predicted antisocial and delinquent outcomes, even after controlling for other childhood risk variables, up to age 32, by looking at 411 males in a longitudinal study. According to the results, exposure to domestic violence was a predictor of referral to a juvenile court. These findings support prior research, including meta-analyses, indicating that exposure to domestic violence leads to a range of internalizing and externalizing behavior problems [35].

Criminologists and psychologists have found that individuals who commit serious violent crimes tend to have high rates of trauma, abuse, and other harmful experiences in childhood, even when controlling for other environmental and biological factors [36]. Increased traumatic exposure and childhood maltreatment have been demonstrated to be associated with a higher likelihood of substance use and substance use disorder. Additional literature has indicated that ACE exposure increases the risk of drug and alcohol use/abuse among juveniles and adults.

4.1 Adverse childhood consequences and youth crime

ACEs are proposed to children stressors affecting health and well-being across the lifespan [16]. ACEs include abuse and household dysfunction in childhood, family mental health, domestic violence, and family criminal behavior [16]. Leban and Gibson [37] concede that high exposure to ACEs in childhood is related to “health-risk behaviors,” including drug use, alcoholism, violence, and crime. A study conducted by Mersky et al. [38] conducted a study aiming to examine the relationship between ACEs and substance use in a sample of minority Chicago youth and found that higher ACE scores were associated with increased substance use (tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana use), worse mental health, and overall health in adulthood [37].

Childhood abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction have demonstrated implications for adolescent development ranging from negative consequences for neurological development and self-regulation deficits to exponentially increasing the likelihood of suicidal behavior, substance use [39], human trafficking victimization, and antisocial and criminal behavior. That youth in already disadvantaged neighborhoods are differentially exposed to such childhood maltreatment [40] is entirely relevant. Deficiency of access to physical and mental health services as well as social services are widespread in areas such as socioeconomically disadvantaged and are at an amplified exposure to community violence, which worsens the insinuations of traumatic exposure and limits the probability of youth who are exposed to receive the help that boosts their resilience.

4.2 Violent and juvenile offenders

One of the most significant and recurring findings in the literature is that Serious, Violence, and Chronic (SVC) juvenile offenders are unreasonably victims of trauma, abuse, neglect, and maltreatment during childhood, as compared to the less severe or non-offending juvenile population [41]. According to research, 90% of juvenile offenders in the United States had some type of traumatic event as children, and up to 30% of justice-involved American juveniles fit the criteria for post-traumatic stress disorder as a result of childhood trauma [41].

Additional research has demonstrated that those who experienced abuse or neglect as children are far more prone to engage in violent behavior than people who did not [42]. Even after gender, ethnicity, financial level, and family structure were taken into account in the Rochester Youth Development Study, maltreated children had a considerably higher risk of committing violence between the ages of 14 and 18 [43]. The ground-breaking studies on child abuse by Maxfield and Widom [44] also discovered that exposure to trauma and abuse as a kid raised the likelihood of juvenile aggressive conduct by more than 200% [41]. Similarly, Howes et al. [45], are of the view that abusive families also have difficulty regulating anger in their children. Fox et al. [41], are of the view that “these effects can produce dramatic changes in the emotional development of the child and may be connected to higher levels of externalizing violent behavior.” Geller et al. [33], concede that the experience of parental imprisonment is also linked to delinquency and other maladaptive behaviors.

4.3 Moral insanity and crime among children

When adults possess the following impetuous passions of children, psychiatrists call them moral madmen, and we call them born criminals. The desire for revenge: The child frequently shows a desire for revenge. Even at the age of 7 or 8 months, a child may scratch his nurse when she withdraws her breast and return the slaps he receives. Children who become jealous through love or possessiveness react violently. Most children prefer breaking a toy and giving it to someone else.

Lying: According to Montaigne, children’s bodies expand in proportion to how obstinate and lies people are. Bourdin claims that “all children are liars, particularly foundlings, who lie for fun” in a similar vein. Children may tell lies to get something that is forbidden or to get away with something bad. Sometimes they tell lies to get more candy by saying they have not eaten it yet or to appear to be in a lot of pain when they fall. For instance, if they do not want to go somewhere, they may lie about being sick [46]. Children start to lie when they are 3 or 4 years old because of a fear of punishment brought on by the way we question them and wait for their response. And frequently, they just lie for amusement or to appease their vanity [46].

Children’s impulsivity and an underdeveloped or imperfect sense of the truth are two factors that contribute to lying. They dissimulate in ways that we would not think were feasible among more mature people, easily altering the truth like savages and criminals. In addition, during their first few months or even their first year of life, children lack any moral sensibility. Whatever their parents allow or forbid is good or bad in their eyes. They are incapable of recognizing wrongdoing on their own; they only begin to develop a sense of justice and ownership after being punished and informed of their transgressions [46].

Children also do not have any natural affection. They are drawn to attractive people or pleasurable objects, particularly small creatures that can be tortured, and they are put off by strange or violent things. Although children can forget a mother they seemed to admire even at the age of 7, they do not experience affection. Nevertheless, one of the most prevalent traits of kids is harshness. As Broussais has noted, there are very few boys who do not bully others who are weaker. Children typically prefer bad to good. He feels tremendous emotions and feels he has boundless power; thus, he is crueler than gentle. Intellectual laziness is another trait that both children and born criminals share. Children avoid monotonous tasks and anything that does not appeal to them. When they wet their mattresses rather than get out of bed, for example, their actual bodily laziness might sometimes make their cerebral laziness worse. Gambling, obscenities, and alcoholism. People from higher social classes are unaware of children’s fervor for booze. Children are also known to have a propensity for gambling, but it is not necessary to focus on this. Despite the insufficient development of their sexual organs, toddlers aged three to four do not lack obscene tendencies.

Anomalous and monstrous sexual tendencies, like criminal behavior, begin in childhood. Because moral insanity is both a trait of children and the equivalent of criminality, we can see why great criminals reveal their tendencies at an early age.

4.4 Common crimes committed by youth

According to earlier research [7], children who experience abuse, neglect, and/or a chaotic home environment as children are more likely to engage in serious, violent, or chronic delinquency, as well as involvement in the juvenile justice system and criminal persistence during early adulthood.

A growing body of research has examined the effects of ACEs on life outcomes across the life course and has concluded that early ACE exposure is linked to a variety of health, psychiatric, and behavioral issues in adolescence and adulthood [16, 47]. Felitti et al. define ACEs as potentially traumatic incidents that happen to kids between the ages of 0 and 17. One can encounter “sexual, physical, and emotional abuse; physical and emotional neglect; witnessing violence at home; living with someone who has a mental illness; parental separation or divorce; parental incarceration; and household alcohol or illicit drug problems” as examples of these unfavorable events. Researchers have discovered that ACEs are widespread, with 25% of adult samples showing exposure to three or more different types of ACEs and nearly two-thirds of samples reporting exposure to at least one [48]. Sociologists and criminologists have recently utilized ACEs as an organizing research framework and show that ACEs are associated with delinquency, violence, and more chronic/severe criminal careers [49]. Indeed, recent studies consistently show that early exposure to ACEs is significantly related to a greater risk of serious or violent offending as well as later involvement in the juvenile justice system [7].

Prior research has found numerous risk factors associated with a youth’s probability of joining a gang, revealing that the process of entering a gang begins in childhood and progresses through district development stages [50]. From the peer domain, low prosocial peer association/commitment and early initiation into delinquent behavior were consistent predictors of joining a gang [50]. More generally, negative life events and fear or experiences of victimization have been linked to joining a gang [51]. Certain family circumstances have been shown to significantly predict gang involvement, including a lack of health insurance, the jailing or imprisonment of a household member, and foster care placement—all of which are considered “adverse childhood experiences” [52].

5. Conclusion

Childhood adverse events are related to youth delinquent behavior as suggested by previous literature. Indeed, both childhood neglect and exposure to family violence have been recognized as important predictors of later involvement in criminogenic behaviors across the life course. The accumulation of ACEs during childhood has also been linked to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, criminal behavior, as well as abusive and conflict-ridden adult intimate relationships. Family represents the best environment for the development of the personality of the individual. It serves as the community’s cornerstone and lays the groundwork for a well-organized society where everyone can live in safety and security. An unbreakable and interdependent bond is formed between the family and society, and this link should be ensured positively by generally supporting human values. Changes in society and families create difficulties that each person must overcome.

As the family provides the earliest guiding markings on life, with all its patterns, education embodies the dialectic role within the psycho-behavioral formation of the individual. Since we learn how to survive, how to adapt to society, and how to immunize against it as it is constantly changing, the living environment is the one that has the most influence on an individual, even from an early age. It imposes stereotyped ways of thinking and doing. This study adds significantly to the literature linking physical and sexual abuse neglect to criminal behavior. Sexual abuse, physical abuse, and physical neglect appear to be important drivers for perpetuating the cycle of violence. Early exposure to ACEs is significantly related to a greater risk of serious or violent offending as well as later involvement in the juvenile justice system. Unless the factors that control the onset and termination of a delinquent career are studied in an orderly and scientific manner, developing effective prevention and control efforts will be difficult.

ACEs not only increase the chances of involvement in the juvenile justice system but also increase the risk of re-offense. A focused effort on early identification of ACEs, and intervention for ACEs to improve youth life circumstances and prevent criminal behavior, may reduce the likelihood of and costs related to juvenile criminal activities. The needs of parents, teachers, health professionals and law enforcement must be personalized as the primary prevention efforts. For parents, an effort can be to improve public awareness of adult behaviors, which can optimize or hamper children’s brain development. Parenting skills and early childhood brain development have to be emphasized during the prenatal period and well-child checkups after birth. Successful interventions in childhood have the potential to stop the intergenerational risks of ACEs, thereby multiplying cost savings. Early childhood intervention programs addressing ACEs have demonstrated significant benefit-cost ratios. Youth development programs for children, parents, and teachers should integrate activities that build resilience and address ACEs so that children develop confidence, self-control, and responsibility. Very little research has examined the link between ACE scores and criminal behavior. By understanding the impact that trauma and adversity in childhood have on the increased risk of serious, violent, and chronic juvenile offending, a more proactive stance on the prevention and reduction of childhood abuse and SVC offenders should be developed.

Conflict of interest

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest concerning the research, authorship, and/or publication of this chapter.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.