\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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Globalization has fundamentally changed the business environment. In response to this new economic reality, manufacturers and suppliers have embraced third-party logistics (3PL) providers as key players in the supply chain [131]. As dedicated logistic specialists, these firms allow their customers to concentrate on their core competencies and this focus can become a source of competitive advantages. According to [15], coordination redistributing is characterized as common understandings among assembling and administration firms with 3PL suppliers. Lieb [75] defined outsider coordination as redistributing coordination works recently actualized in-house, through outer organizations. Subsequently, outsider coordination can be divided as dealing with numerous coordination benefits by outer redistributing offices in lieu of a customer global organization. Outsider coordination benefits for the most part concentrate on transportation, warehousing, etc., and these 3PL specialist co-ops ought to have proficient involvement in each administration [23]. Due to the expanding significance of coordination re-appropriating, choosing the right 3PL is a basic issue among organizations. Amid the most recent decades, most investigations directed on 3PL in the writing predominantly identify with papers dependent on MCDM, measurable techniques, computerized reasoning, scientific programming, and coordinated strategies [35]. Marasco [82] provided a writing audit on 3PL characterizing 152 articles distributed somewhere between 1989 and 2006 dependent on substance and technique. Aguezzoul [4] analyzed around 67 articles between 1994 and 2013 dependent on 3PL criteria and strategies in different MCDM systems, numerical programming, and measurable methodologies. Among them, half-breed techniques are used to class the most critical evaluation criteria and to choose the best 3PL supplier [108].
Further, no similar examination of the 3PL suppliers is performed utilizing ordinal, limited, and stochastic information [77]. The consistency in their exhibited structure is not verified and the mind-boggling choice emotionally supportive network (DSS) created is not extremely easy to use for the production network directors [63]. Recognizably, their proposed strategy just gives target data to 3PRLP determination without permitting space for the emotional etymological data. Chen and Wu [23] consolidated Delphi and expository system process (ANP) approach to survey coordination benefit providers in the gadgets division. Be that as it may, there is just slight variety in correlation result with their proposed model with existing AHP technique taking variety in estimations of 3PL criteria, subsequently neglecting to demonstrate the heartiness and preferred standpoint of their recommended methodology. Zhang et al. [144] proposed a scientific model consolidating data granulation entropy approach, K-implies bunching, and TOPSIS strategy for choosing a 3PL supplier. Here their investigation neglects to think about the precision of the proposed IGET (data granulation entropy-based TOPSIS) approach in 3PLs, with other existing strategies due to non-presence of benchmark esteems. Likewise, the IGET strategy neglects to plainly look at the significance of different criteria [37]. Incorporated strategy is suggested strategy that joins AHP, DEA, and direct programming (LP) to assess and select the best 3PL supplier in Italy.
In the present business setting, China depends more on local utilization for financial development, which is probably going to additionally animate the interest for coordination and transportation benefits in the nation [49]. Since the presentation of outsider coordination (3PL) benefits in the mid-1990s and especially after China joined the World Exchange Association (WTO) in late 2001, the 3PL business has grown quickly [26, 27, 109]. The aggregate estimation of interest for coordination expanded from RMB 59.6 trillion (US$ 9.6 trillion) in 2006 to roughly RMB 120 trillion in 2016 (US$ 20 trillion) (Exploration and Markets, 2017), speaking to a normal yearly development of 9.5% amid this period. Ongoing development of the Chinese internet business industry [57, 58] evaluated that the showcase size of online business in 2019 will be US$1.97 trillion (advertiser, 2016) and is relied on the development of the Chinese 3PL industry [57, 58].
A later report by [79] finds that hypothetically grounded 3PL research in China is constrained. Besides, in studies where hypothesis is connected, it depends on a sole hypothesis to clarify a specific marvel. Given the logical multifaceted nature in China, utilization of different hypothetical establishing is useful to pick up a more extensive comprehension of the exercises of MN3PLs [79]. We consider three hypotheses, for example, TCE, RBT, and neo-institutional hypothesis (NIT) as hypothetical underpinnings of our exploration. Through a broad writing audit, this examination recognizes 14 difficulties for MN3PLs and gathers them into four test classes, for example, money related, data innovation, HR, and business scene.
Exchange cost financial aspects (TCE): TCE gives a solid establishment to break down coordination redistributing choices [8, 119] which expresses that a firm composes its authoritative exercises to limit its generation costs inside the firm and limits exchange costs inside the market [135]. Here the fundamental standard is that re-appropriating exercises to 3PL specialist organizations will happen when there is a chance to decrease exchange costs. Studies propose that re-appropriating coordination works ordinarily lessens exchange costs that incorporate request combination, unified request preparing, proficient utilization of advantages, and solidification of overhead by an outsider [97, 143]. It is patent that the connection between a redistributing firm (purchaser) and a 3PL specialist co-op (vender) will acquire exchange costs; nonetheless, co-activity, cooperation, and the opportune sharing of data among firms (purchaser dealer) in an inventory network relationship can decrease exchange costs [20, 51].
Regularly, 3PL specialist organizations work in a business situation where they continually experience administrative weights. Through a broad writing audit of both Western and Chinese 3PL research, we recognize 14 difficulties for MN3PL specialist co-ops working in China. These difficulties are then assembled into four larger amount test classifications, for example, money related, mechanical, human asset, and business scene. Money-related difficulties considered in this investigation are value weight, high transport cost, and budgetary dependability. Being an asset, budgetary capacity can give an upper hand and is one of the vital factors in building between firm organizations and vital collusions [64]. Every one of these difficulties is talked about in the following sections.
Since 3PL clients are value delicate, they always put a solid accentuation on cost while assessing the coordination benefit re-appropriating choices [126]. To prevail in such a value delicate condition, 3PL suppliers need to enhance their capacities and offer administrations at lower costs [117, 143]. The test is that 3PL suppliers should be cost cognizant to accomplish higher edges and to keep themselves from being valued out of the market because of expanded nearby work costs, fuel costs, protection premiums, and rising client benefit desires [59]. In China, transportation costs covers normally 54.2% aggregate coordination cost (KPMG, 2016). The Chinese government has invested extensively in the coordination departments to enhance dissemination frameworks [42]. Be that as it may, insufficient coordination framework, high rate of harm in travel, clog at ports and modern streets, and conflicting strategies and directions include extra weight transportation [143, 144].
Money-related strength of 3PL is placed as one of the basic perspectives of their tasks and one of the noteworthy criteria for picking a 3PL firm [59, 143]. A monetarily solid 3PL supplier has assets to contribute for clients and can improve its own operational capacities [121] and fulfill its customers, diminish hazard for coordination accomplices, and impact the long haul connections [97]. IT limit and ability are 3PL firms’ inside assets that can give a continued upper hand [17]. Writing proposes that IT abilities recognize MN3PLs from the other three kinds of nearby 3PL firms in China [124]. Through IT frameworks (e.g., mechanized process), a 3PL supplier can create powerful correspondence with its clients. Besides, IT foundation bolsters synergistic interorganizational connections by diminishing exchange expenses and dangers related with robotized forms [29]. For MN3PL suppliers in China, IT challenges considered in this investigation are identified with capacity, security, similarity, and unwavering quality of data innovation [139]. A short portrayal of every one of these difficulties is given below.
IT ability of 3PL suppliers is a standout among the most basic assets influencing the choice of firms to re-appropriate to 3PL suppliers [100]. To secure IT capacities, firms need to spend assets [78, 136]. The generally speaking test to 3PLs in regard to IT ability is to guarantee that staff has the learning and aptitudes, and comprehension to convey the required dimension of IT usefulness and expectations. In the meantime, it is important to guarantee that the PC and interchange equipment and programming are suitable to include huge esteem and enhance execution for the inventory network accomplices [122]. Security and secrecy of data are imperative issues and can specifically influence 3PL specialist co-ops’ trust improvement [10, 11, 12, 96]. The two shippers and clients trust 3PL specialist co-ops to keep their secret information flawless and blocked off to outsiders under all conditions [98, 99]. The sharing of data among included gatherings definitely prompts security concerns; the data in connection to every one of them ought to be kept private.
The proposed MN3PL challenge system comprises of an organized chain of important test classes and difficulties. To recognize the basic difficulties of MN3PL, in the proposed structure, chiefs need to allocate abstract need weights for judgments.
3PL suppliers without their very own benefits are called lead coordination suppliers. Lead coordination suppliers have the preferred standpoint that they have particular industry skills combined with low overhead expenses, yet they bring down arranging power and less assets than an outsider supplier who depends on a regularly huge organization measure, a great client base, and built-up system frameworks. 3PL suppliers may forfeit proficiency by inclining toward their very own benefits with the end goal to augment their own effectiveness. Lead coordination suppliers may likewise be less bureaucratic with shorter basic leadership cycles because of the littler size of the organization.
Yet, the evaluation of 3PL specialists signifies the subjective criteria for tire fabricating industry [55]. Additionally, affectability examination for checking the overall significance of 3PL administration criteria does not appear in this methodology [141]. Here, the changes in the quantity of potential 3PL specialists or the assessment criteria hardens the procedure [103]. In spite of the fact that the idea of IVFNs is investigated here by the creators to enhance criteria assessment appraisement file framework, computer-based strategy is the need in this examination.
The IT frameworks of the supplier and the customer must be interoperable. Innovation is the best to perceive ability for the customer by method for consistent notices by means of Dispatch Administration Programming and Electronic Information Exchange (EDI) which involves an expense, however it can help maintain a strategic distance from punishments for postponements and ensuing money related misfortunes, for example, from not emptying cargo in time [47].
Evaluated the interrelationships between dangers looked by 3PL suppliers in between classification connection to their partners utilizing DEMATEL. Be that as it may, their exploration needs generalizability by taking just two 3PLs in the specific situation. The creators likewise neglect to catch and orchestrate contributions to uncertain variable, making it risky for specialists in giving just fresh data sources. Keshavarz Ghorabaee [66] proposed another incorporated methodology dependent on the criteria significance between criteria connection (Commentator) and Weighted Accumulated Total Item Appraisal (WATIA) strategies to assess 3PL suppliers with Interim Kind 2 Fluffy sets (IK2FS). In perspective of reasonable uncertain 3PL criteria weights, both emotional data communicated by leaders and target information of choice framework are to be considered in the assessment procedure. Jung [61] addressed 3PL supplier assessment issue considering social maintainability and applying fluffy AHP in assessment structure. Here, the examination neglects to consider analysts’ pre-assessment in checking the possibility of the 3PL criteria, and natural measurement was likewise not considered here. Ecer [35] combined fluffy AHP and assessment dependent on separation from normal arrangement (EDAS) for the determination of a legitimate 3PL supplier. It may seem the determination show, we see that expansion in number of criteria makes intricacy in the basic leadership by heightening the likelihood of holes in emotional judgments. Consequently, a writing study based on existing strategies with their examination holes is quickly talked about. Be that as it may, no adjustment of the BWM alongside WASPAS multi-criteria basic leadership procedures by applying interim harsh number (IRNs) has been broken down in the writing up until this point. As of late, IRN-DEMATEL [92], IRNMAIRCA [92], and IRN MABAC [93] are created.
Coordination is one of the dynamic exercises that empowers the association among generation and utilization [14]. As per the Gathering of Production network Administration Experts, coordination comprises of an arrangement of procedures enveloping arranging, executing, and controlling the stream of merchandise, benefits, and related data [127, 128]. Coordination is a mind-boggling business and can be estimated from alternate points of view. One of the goals of coordination is to ensure the effectiveness and the adequacy of the considerable number of methods from the purpose of beginning to the point of goal while meeting the clients’ required quality, including data dependability and sensibility to clients’ needs. Coordination is not applicable for the creation division; however, it is additionally vital for endeavors from all portions, e.g., banks, retailers, government, and foundations. Coordination assumes a key job in the aggressiveness of associations while making an incentive by giving time and place utility. Waters [131] alludes that “Without coordination, no materials move, no activities should be possible, no items are conveyed, and no clients are served.” To position the correct items near the correct buyer, a few exercises must be performed, including transport, client benefit, data innovation and interchanges, back, warehousing, and re-appropriating [41]. With the end goal to play out these exercises, the investment of a few performing artists is required: cargo forwarders, transporters, outsider coordination suppliers (3PL), distribution centers, shipping organizations, producers, and retailers, to list a few.
First gathering coordination suppliers (1PL) are single specialist organizations in a particular geographic zone that have some expertise in specific merchandise or dispatching strategies. Models are conveying organizations, port administrators, and station organizations. The coordination bureau of a delivering firm can likewise be a first gathering coordination supplier on the off chance that it possesses transport resources and warehouses [90].
Second gathering coordination suppliers (2PL) are specialist co-ops that give their specific coordination benefits in a bigger (national) land zone than the 1PL do. Regularly, there are outline contracts between the 2PL and the client, which control the conditions for the vehicle obligations that are for the most part put here and now. 2PL’s coordination assets like trucks, forklifts, and distribution centers are ready for transport, treatment of load or stockroom administration activities [90]. Second-party coordination emerged over the span of the globalization and the uprising pattern of lean administration, when the organizations started to re-appropriate their coordination exercises to center around their own center organizations. Precedents are messengers, express and bundle administrations; sea bearers, cargo forwarders, and transshipment suppliers.
The most noteworthy distinction between a second gathering coordination supplier and an outsider coordination supplier is the way that a 3PL supplier is constantly incorporated in the client’s framework. The 2PL is not incorporated, as opposed to the 3PL he is just a re-appropriated coordination supplier with no framework combination. A 2PL is frequently accessible if the need arises (e.g., express package administrations) though a 3PL is pretty much educated every time about the outstanding task at hand in the near future. The difference between 2PL and 3PL is the particularities and modification of administrations. A 2PL regularly just gives institutionalized administrations, while 3PLs frequently give benefits that are tweaked and concentrated to the necessities of their client. Cost viability of an outsider coordination supplier is just given over extensive stretches of time with stable contract and benefits. As opposed to that, second gathering calculated administrations cannot be modified, due to the fluctuating business sector with hard rivalry and a value fight on a low dimension. Furthermore, there we have another distinctive point somewhere in the range of 2PL and 3PL: Strength of agreements. 3PL contracts are long haul contracts, while 2PL contracts are of a low sturdiness, so the client is adaptable in reacting to market and value changes. With organizations working comprehensively, the need to build production network deceivability and decrease chance, enhance speed, and diminish costs—all in the meantime—requires a typical mechanical solution [2]. Non-resource–based suppliers perform capacities, for example, counsel on bundling and transportation, cargo citing, money-related repayment, reviewing, following, client administration, and issue resolution [1]. Be that as it may, they do not utilize any truck drivers or stockroom staff, and they do not claim any physical cargo conveyance resources of their own—no trucks, no capacity trailers, no beds, and no warehousing. A non-resource–based supplier comprises a group of area specialists with aggregated cargo industry aptitude and data innovation resources. They fill a job like cargo operators or representatives, yet keep up an altogether more prominent level of “hands on” inclusion in the transportation of items. These suppliers are 4PL and 5PL administrations.
A fourth gathering coordination supplier has no claimed transport resources or distribution center limit. They have an allocative and mix work inside an inventory network with the point of expanding its proficiency. The possibility of a fourth-party coordination supplier was conceived in the 1970s by the counseling organization Accenture. Firms are re-appropriating their determination of outsider coordination supplier and the enhancement procedure of the reconciliation of these to a PL as a mediator. That decreases costs and the 4PL must have a diagram about the entire coordination market to pick the perfect 3PL for all agent-calculated exercises. For having the capacity to give such a perfect arrangement, fourth gathering coordination suppliers require a decent learning of the coordination branch and a decent IT foundation. A fourth gathering coordination supplier chooses the 3PL suppliers from the market that are most appropriate for the strategic issues of his client. The capacity of a 4PL in the production network is the main feature of a 3PL supplier as the agent logistics [60].
Fifth gathering coordination suppliers (5PL) give production network administration and offer framework situated counseling and inventory network administrations to their clients. Progressions in innovation and the related increments in inventory network deceivability and between organizations’ correspondences have offered ascend to a generally new model for outsider coordination activities—the “non-resource–based coordination provider” [40].
Third-party logistics suppliers incorporate cargo forwarders and dispatch organizations and also provide different organizations’ coordinations, offering subcontracted coordination and transportation administrations. Susanne and Monica [50] describe four classifications of 3PL suppliers.
This is the most fundamental type of a 3PL supplier. They would perform exercises, for example, pick and pack, warehousing, and conveyance (business)—the most fundamental elements of coordination. For a dominant part of these organizations, the 3PL capacity is not their primary action. Globalization has in a general sense changed the business condition. In light of this new money-related reality, creators and suppliers have gotten a handle on third social gathering collaborations (3PL) providers as key players in the generation organization. As submitted key stars, these associations empower their customers to center around their inside capacities [112, 143] and this middle can transform into a wellspring of high grounds [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 54]. The dependence that re-appropriating makes can test customer-supplier relations [70, 89, 130]. Fundamental work observes that notwithstanding the way that resistance is a typical for any free market, both trust and duty are vital to keep up a productive exchange. In these incredible and dependent associations, accomplishment or dissatisfaction relies upon the proximity of cooperation and the nonattendance of shrewd practices. Enduring composing has found that trust can propel joint effort and information sharing between dependent associates, which convert into extended operational efficiency [34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 91].
This sort of 3PL supplier will offer their clients propelled esteem included administrations, for example, following and following, cross-docking, particular bundling, or giving an extraordinary security framework. A strong IT establishment and an attention on economies of scale and extension will empower this sort of 3PL supplier to play out these kinds of undertakings. The dynamic limit suggests firms that work in powerful markets need to gain, facilitate, reconfigure, and release advantages to make a whole deal high ground [46, 76]. These dynamic limits introduce plans that affiliate to make regard and respond to publicize powers. Firms create both convincing and helpful plans that are affected [36, 129]. In spite of the way that analysts have considered the activity of learning presentation on forceful execution [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 38, 44, 105, 123, 140].
Its impact in the key setting says, all things considered, are unexplored [21]. Panayides [94] provided a structure on how various leveled learning adds to compelling relations between collaborations, expert communities, and their customers, yet additional observational examination that extends this model is advocated. Learning can give a viable high ground to firms, especially in a sketchy and forceful condition. In any case, learning is not an inherent typical for a firm; it is the consequence of a culture that hopes to make it. Learning acquaintance is a fondness with development the anchoring of data and firms that regard it will as a rule ask delegates to address various leveled principles. These practices are basic when the contemporary condition is sketchy, rough, and genuinely engaged. Firms that can perceive monetary circumstances (e.g., intrusions and customer needs) and are masterminded to develop helpful responses (i.e., spry) are most likely going to achieve more critical execution [18]. The current work looks to tentatively test the effect of learning presentation on firm execution (Figures 1 and 2).
Few points described under the advantage and disadvantage of 3PL.
Cycle from manufacture to distributor to retailer to customer.
This kind of 3PL supplier comes in line with the client and basically assumes finish control of the organization’s coordination exercises. The 3PL supplier enhances the coordination drastically yet does not build up another administration. The client base for this kind of 3PL supplier is ordinarily very little. As shown by the social view [33], there are four sources that can make between progressive high grounds: (1) interests in association-specific assets, (2) proficient plans, (3) complementary resources/capacities, and (4) reasonable organization. In our examination, we joined trust and obligation as the “effective organization” to upgrade 3PL re-appropriating execution. According to [34], the well-developed organization can reduce trade expenses and advance regard creation. In addition, easygoing self-maintaining organization (e.g., trust and obligation) is more suitable than outcast executing government (e.g., legal contracts) or formal self-approving organization (e.g., detainee) in creating social rents. Trust and obligation are seen as basic enabling specialists of productive business associations [89] and can be an advantage prepared for making functional high grounds (e.g., [13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 137]). Trust can be portrayed as the conviction that the relationship assistants would not act sagaciously. In the composition, trust between relationship associates has been seen as the most important organization framework [32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133].
One of the huge impediments of creation system and collaborations in organization enhancement in China is the serious inadequacy of qualified collaborations and stock system organization authority [124]. Studies demonstrate that an essential test for 3PL firms is to select and hold talented specialists [112, 124]. Both worldwide and neighborhood vital pro associations perceive the nonattendance of capacity as one of the key troubles of working in China [30, 62]. The absence of administrators with huge collaboration guidance and getting ready on both conventional and key measurements blocks viability of the 3PL zone in China [134]. In any case, to beat such an issue, worldwide associations rely upon planning, headway, and training to vital close-by capacities, instead of utilizing banishes with high costs [134]. All people in the store have unique association culture, which isolates them from each other [52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 142]. In any case, seeing each other’s lifestyle and various leveled characteristics is a fundamental factor to be engaged in business [120]. Agents of multinationals working in China should think about adjacent culture [97]. Social conflicts frequently result in changed solicitations, unexpected costs, and on occasion a negative impact on associations [65].
This is the most abnormal amount that a 3PL supplier can achieve as for its procedures and exercises. This happens when the 3PL supplier coordinates itself with the client and assumes control over their whole coordination work. These suppliers will have couple of clients, however, and will perform broad and nitty-gritty assignments for them.
Redistributing may include a subset of a task’s coordination, abandoning a few items or working advances immaculate in light of the fact that the in-house coordination can take the necessary steps preferable or less expensive over an outside provider. Another vital point is the client introduction of the 3PL supplier. The supplier needs to fit to the structures and the necessities of the organization. This could easily compare the pure investment funds of 3PL suppliers for plain demonstration. The client introduction in type of versatility to changing client needs, unwavering quality and the adaptability of outsider coordination supplier were made reference to as substantially more essential than unadulterated cost reserve funds. The proposed MN3PL challenge framework contains a sorted out dynamic arrangement of test orders and troubles. To perceive the fundamental challenges of MN3PL, in the proposed structure, boss needs to consign passionate weights for judgments.
Additionally, since AHP is prepared for overseeing emotional parts of criteria with dynamic judgment [88], the use of AHP as an examination strategy is an appropriate philosophy for recognizing fundamental challenges looked by MN3PLs working in China. AHP does not require incalculable for examination. Clearly, AHP is the typical responses of senior heads and authorities to find out the issues under investigation [71, 73] and the eventual outcomes of the AHP-based examination are not affected by a little precedent gauge [104, 113].
Coordination benefit viability is characterized as the degree to which conveying coordination benefit is proficient [94]. Powerful administration may incorporate on-time conveyance, convenient reaction to demands, exact data stockpiling, and critical thinking [16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86], which may eventually expand business execution [67]. In this manner, we suggest that a 3PL’s trust in and pledge to key clients and learning introduction all affect its coordination benefit adequacy.
With the collaboration between learning introduction, trust, and responsibility from the dynamic ability point of view, authoritative learning is a nonstop powerful procedure of misusing interior and outside assets to more readily adapt to the changing condition [125]. In this procedure, learning associations will in general develop great associations with their accomplices with the end goal to advance shared alteration, accordingly expanding their trust in and promise to accomplices [106]. From the social view, the mix of assets’ cross-associations needs the help of dynamic abilities, particularly organization capacities or cooperation elements through learning and coordination [7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 33, 39].
Trust, responsibility, and administrative advancement of a cozy connection between social partners enhance execution [53, 84]. Trusting and submitted connections are especially vital for 3PLs on the grounds that they may lessen wasteful aspects caused from advantage and resource specificity [138]. Firms might be persuaded to volunteer trust and responsibility as a result of the possibilities of accepting expanded, joint adjustments from collaboration [48]. Social trust and duty additionally flag a company’s accentuation on esteem creation through authoritative joint efforts as opposed to protections keeping the astute conduct. It increases the personal circumstance stake and accomplishment between reliance [48]. Authoritative trust and responsibility empower a regenerative cycle decreasing advantage and upgrading collaboration. As the social view proposes, trust and duty are casual self-implementing shields that may enhance hierarchical execution.
The principle predecessor of full of feeling duty is trust, as exhibited by an accomplice association’s straightforward and generous conduct [45]. For instance, Morgan and Hunt [89] contended that no responsibility could be culminated except if the accomplices feel the foundation of whole trust. In the profoundly associated inventory network setting, Kwon and Suh [68, 69] recognized trust as main determinant of duty. On the off chance that a gathering feels that a relationship will bolster its interests and react to its needs, it will probably rely upon, and cling to, the relationship [74]. In this manner, we propose the following: a 3PL company’s trust in its key clients is emphatically identified with its responsibility to its key clients. Connection of learning and trust/responsibility as critical segments may likewise direct the impact of learning introduction on execution. We contend that larger amounts of trust and duty could fortify the connection between learning introduction and coordination benefit viability. On the other hand, bringing down dimensions of trust and duty may baffle the connection between learning introduction and compelling coordination execution.
Without trust, volitional data traded between social accomplices might be incorrect [31]. One extraordinary doubt may pollute data shared between associations [95]. At least an absence of trust may cause wasteful correspondence. Data trade may make chance for the accomplishment of giving data since learning overflow may happen [56]. Data asymmetry may debilitate one social accomplice’s situation by making a lopsidedness of intensity. Without the capacity to confide in their accomplice, sharing data puts the information proprietor at a focused detriment [28]. Expanded trust and duty enhance correspondence exactness prompting enhanced execution. For instance, Inkpen and Currall [56] contended that trust is “a key variable and a type of cash that decides learning openness.” The dynamic capacity infers that learning instruments can create dynamic abilities in this way giving an upper hand, and the social view proposes that trust and responsibility as interorganizational linkage are a wellspring of upper hands.
3PL suppliers center their business activities to re-appropriate their coordination exercises for coordination benefits. Re-appropriating gives a specific power that is not accessible inside an association’s inward divisions. This power can have numerous measurements: economies of scale, process ability, access to capital, access to costly innovation, and so forth. By re-appropriating coordination exercises, firms can save money on capital venture and along these lines diminish budgetary dangers [3, 5]. Numerous 3PL organizations give an expert coordination benefit. In the worldwide store network frameworks, ventures attempt to re-appropriate the coordination. 3PL suppliers are one of the decisions. Picking the 3PL suppliers giving the best choice issues is a fascinating and imperative subject of organizations with face when endeavoring to choose a reasonable and long haul 3PL organization. Aguezzol [4] presented a clear picture of 3PL choices focusing on criteria and strategies. In light of the examination of 67 articles distributed between 1994 and 2013, this investigation recognized 11 entry criteria as far as 3PL determination. Cost is the most generally embraced rule, trailed by relationship, administrations, quality, data and hardware framework, adaptability, conveyance, polished methodology, money-related position, area, and notoriety, and as far as strategies for 3PL assessment are concerned, 5 bunches were distinguished to be specific: MCDM systems, measurable methodologies, man-made consciousness, numerical programming, and half and half techniques. Numerous chiefs or specialists select providers dependent on their experience and instinct. These methodologies are clearly emotional. Then again, various criteria basic leadership or different properties basic leadership (MCDM/MADM) is the methodology managing the positioning and determination of at least one provider from a pool of suppliers. The MCDM gives a powerful structure to provider correlation depending on the assessment of numerous contention criteria [114]. One of the strategies for taking care of MCDM issues is explanatory pecking order process (AHP). AHP is an abstract instrument with which to examine, in light of a fresh 9-point scale, the subjective criteria expected to produce elective needs and inclinations. AHP empowers chiefs to develop complex issues in a straightforward various leveled shape and to assess a substantial number of quantitative and subjective factors in a precise way regardless of the nearness of numerous clashing criteria.
Coordination is the center fitness of outsider coordination suppliers. Suppliers may have better related learning and more prominent skill than the delivering or offering organization and may likewise have more worldwide systems empowering more noteworthy time and cost efficiencies.
The gear and the IT frameworks of 3PL suppliers are always refreshed and adjusted to coordinate the prerequisites of their clients and their clients’ providers. Delivering or offering organizations frequently do not have room schedule-wise or for assets or skill to adjust their gear and frameworks as quickly [117].
Assuming most or every single agent work is redistributed to a 3PL supplier, there is typically no requirement for the customer to possess its very own stockroom or transport offices, bringing down the measure of capital required for the customer’s matter of fact. This is especially helpful if an organization’s stockroom has high varieties in limit use, prompting over purchasing of distribution center limit and lessening productivity.
Coordination redistributing enables organizations with restricted coordination skill to center around their center business. Expanding unpredictability in business proposes that organizations profit by not committing assets to regions in which they are not skilled [117].
Outsider coordination suppliers can give higher adaptability to geographic dissemination and may offer a bigger assortment of administrations than customers could accommodate themselves. This additionally enables organizations to typically deal with their assets including workforce size and to transform settled expenses into variable costs [118].
Third party logistics sounds like a slam dunk, does not it? Well, before you sign on the dotted line with your friendly, local 3PL rep, let us look at both sides of the equation. One major disadvantage of using 3PL is that it leads to some loss of control over your shipping functions. This business strategy puts a third party in control of one of the business functions with the most impact on customers and the greatest effect on customer satisfaction. In addition, turning these functions over to a 3PL firm is a major commitment, since your in-house logistical team may lose much of the relevant market knowledge that you will need should the relationship with your 3PL provider ever become untenable. Bringing the shipping function back in-house could prove difficult when this institutional knowledge is lost. The cost factor is not crystal clear either. A 3PL firm may be cheaper up front, but over time, it will likely be more expensive than handling the shipping functions in-house, provided those in-house functions are operating efficiently.
One drawback is the loss of control a customer hosts by utilizing third gathering coordination. With outbound coordination, the 3PL supplier for the most part accepts correspondence and cooperates with a company’s client or provider. To alleviate this, some 3PLs endeavor to mark themselves as their customers, for example, applying customers’ logos on their advantages and dressing their representatives like their customers’ employees [115].
Third-party logistics was propelled to bear the weight of obligations from various organizations. At first, it had distinctive jobs to perform, yet its prosperity and viability supported worldwide organizations as well as it lifted the measures and productivity of various organizations in the aggressive market. Lead coordination suppliers however do not have quite a bit of their benefits yet their skill in the field makes them champion. They have low overhead costs, great correspondence, and compelling investigation with their solid system framework. Their proficiency and affectivity in their fields are strikingly extraordinary because of their group’s potential. At the point when outsider coordination is contrasted and second gathering coordination, it demonstrates the distinction unmistakably. Second gathering coordination does not have an incorporated framework and edge work for their dealings and administration giving assignments. The outstanding task at hand of outsider coordination is very high as they oblige future objectives and undertakings. In addition, there have been diverse ways to deal with and think about the viability of outsider coordination, yet none of the proposed model or procedure suits the best element for questioning outsider coordination.
We humans are very practical creatures. We modify our surroundings to suit our needs—thus, we have been reshaping nature so that it would serve us best in a utilitarian and/or aesthetic sense. Throughout the history, a variety of gardens has been created—historical gardens (preserved or merely written about)—that today can give us a good insight into how resourceful humans were in a particular period of history or even provide us with ideas for our own living environment. Today, the term urban horticulture has become impossible to overlook—as stated by the United Nations: “today, 55% of the world’s population lives in urban areas, a proportion that is expected to increase to 68% by 2050” [1]; therefore, it is even more appropriate to look back—just to see the future more clearly.
\nThe definition of horticulture emphasizes the scientific and artistic way of managing plants with the goal of obtaining food and different materials or providing comfort and decoration. We can trace the origin of horticulture back to ancient civilizations—the Persians were great experts in this field. As Relf [2] nicely pointed out when interpreting the definition of horticulture as a synthesis of plants and humans, horticulture “encompasses PLANTS, including the multitude of products (food, medicine, O2) essential for human survival; and PEOPLE, whose active and passive involvement with ‘the garden’ brings about benefits to them as individuals and to the communities and cultures they comprise.” Humans and plants are therefore an essential part of horticulture. It was man’s desire to take a particular plant from its natural environment and integrate it into the environment close to his home, which led to the emergence of designed gardens. And the idea of a designed garden could only be born when the people’s goal was no longer survival and when the individual had free time and energy to beautify his or her surroundings [3].
\nGardens have grown over time, as human knowledge has grown (in the fields of horticulture, mechanics, construction, etc.), and today historic gardens are a wonderful treasure trove of examples and ideas of how humans once incorporated nature into their living environment and how they can do that today or in the future. In this chapter, we will look at some examples from the history of garden design, and through these we will try to present some possibilities for future urban horticultural gardens.
\nAmong most popular garden motifs are water motifs. While these require mostly engineering skills, knowledge of aquatic plants, including their specificities, and requirements is an important part when designing a water motif. The Renaissance brought a real wealth of water motifs which were further enhanced by the Baroque. Renaissance cascades,1 for example, at Villa Lante in Italy, and water jets splashing out of sculptures or directly from the water surface, for example, at Villa d’Este in Italy (e.g., Figure 1), were common garden features which later, in the Baroque period, grew in magnitude, as evidenced by, for example, the cascades in the German Kassel (e.g., Figure 2) or the pompous fountains with ruler iconography in Versailles (e.g., Figure 3; [4, 5]). However, even if these motifs seem to be suitable only for aristocratic gardens and are a remnant of past ages, contemporary landscape architectural projects indicate the opposite. Namely, such historic examples of water motifs were a useful source from which masters, such as the American landscape architect, designer, and teacher Lawrence Halprin (1916–2009), have drawn their ideas. Halprin created several recognizable water features with cascades in which the art of Renaissance and Baroque as well as the art of unspoiled of nature are combined (e.g., Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial in Washington DC from 1997). Today, water has also entered urban areas in such a way that it is no longer clearly separated from its surroundings—as was the case with water motifs in historical gardens. Today water is a part of the surface on which the user of the garden (or open public space) walks; it has crossed the borders and become a part of public surfaces. An example is the water motif above Ross’s Landing Riverfront Park in Chattanooga, Tennessee, where water flows down multiple levels, connecting the city and the river. Similarly, high water jets, the most prominent element of Baroque fountains, are today merged with town squares and offer playgrounds to children and adults, allowing them at least to cool down on hot days (we could find examples all over the world—let us only mention Smale Riverfront Park, Cincinnati, whose planning stared in 1997 [8], and Viertel Zwei in Vienna whose construction started in 2007 and where the water jets are placed in a small square connecting newly built apartment buildings and service facilities (e.g., Figure 4). Among the variety of water motifs in today’s cities, we can also find dry motifs that turn into water motifs only when water (mostly rain) is provided. An example is a canal on a narrow medieval street in Ljubljana, Slovenia, where small sculptures of a prominent Slovenian sculptor Jakob Brdar are placed in a canal and a vertical pedestal, also marked by the sculptor’s work, points to the change in horizontal structure of the street. When it starts raining, the canal is filled with water and the sculptures look like they are swimming in the canal (e.g., Figure 5).
\nThe One Hundred Fountain (Le Centro Fontane) at the Villa d’Este, Tivoli (near Rome), Italy.
Herkules with Oktogon and Großen Kaskaden, Kassel-Wilhelmshöhe, Germany.
Bassin du char d’Apollon, fountain in the Parc de Versailles, France.
Water jets in Viertel Zwei (after 2007), Vienna, Austria.
Architectural biro Medprostor and sculptor Jakob Brdar (project realization in 2014), Ljubljana, Slovenia.
The abovementioned water motives include waterfalls or spurts of water in fountains, but in historical gardens there where also calm surfaces of water reflecting the sky and sun and the objects near the water, usually emphasizing their meaning. Narrow or wide canals or smaller and larger pools were initially meant to provide water for the gardens. Thus, ancient civilization used them as part of their irrigation systems. However, in the New Ages, the canals and pools provided other uses closely tied with symbolic meaning. The best example is king’s garden in Versailles, the gardens of monarch Louis XIV, who wanted to be presented as an absolute monarch, untouchable and distant, as the Sun King, and to demonstrate his absolute power, even over nature. There is an abundance of motives filled with symbolic meaning in the Versailles garden, but let us look at the water parterre composed of two large pools near the Versailles castle. Those pools had a very practical purpose, as well as a symbolical one. The pools reflect the sun’s rays and light up the outside wall of the Hall of Mirrors, bringing the light also inside, increasing the lightness of the Hall. One of the pools was decorated with sculptures representing male allegorical figures of four main rivers in France, emphasizing the greatness of the king’s territory. The magnificence of the ruler was celebrated also in the grand canal which was about a mile long; it was used for naval demonstrations and had gondolas donated by the Republic of Venice, steered by gondoliers. Furthermore, large water surfaces that provided space for such demonstrations (water battles and rides with gondolas) were not so rare, - they could also be found in the Baroque king’s gardens in Hanover and München (Germany; [4, 9, 10, 11]). The reflective quality of the still water that doubled the presence, beauty, or power of the surrounding objects and also gave an observer a second window to what he/she gazed upon (calling into question the limits of the present world) was popular in Baroque and Rococo gardens (e.g., Figure 6). In the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries—with the new English landscape garden—calm water surfaces gain new role. They become a part of an idyllic pastoral landscape that the new garden style aimed to create. Lakes and ponds in the garden were walked around or crossed over. They had natural shapes and in their vicinity there was usually a pavilion or some other smaller architectural object. Their main aim was to create a romantic, even sentimental atmosphere, to bring tranquility to to the garden’s users and to create a picturesque scenery for walkers to enjoy with each step they made. This role of the lake or pond that recreated a part of natural scenery in a human made garden was transferred into cities. It became a part of the human quest to bring nature into the city. A good example is Central Park in New York, where the landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted and the designer Calvert Vaux created a city park with lakes in 1857 (completed in 1876). Today lakes and ponds are part of numerous city parks. When a new neighborhood that includes green designed spaces is planned within a city, such lakes and ponds are often part of the built area. A nice exampl is Viertel Zwei in Vienna, where a lake is the central point of the open space between the business buildings, providing a calming view through the window and a soothing atmosphere for lunch breaks (e.g., Figure 7; [12]).
\nWater canal in Rococo garden and summer residence Sanssouci in Potsdam, Germany.
Lake in Viertel Zwei (after 2007), Vienna, Austria.
Water is an important element in the human environment. It has always been attractive to people, not only because of the necessity of survival but also because of the cold, humidity, relaxation, and play that it offers during the hot months. Water is invigorating, not only visually and haptically but also in an auditory sense. The murmur of water inspired the old masters to seek ways to give the water even more voice. To this end, hydraulis, an organ-like machine, was created in antiquity. It was a manually operated machine. During the Renaissance, which is certainly considered to be the most innovative era in the history (especially the garden history) of the western world, the so-called hydropneumatic automatophone was created. The beginnings of this Renaissance invention date back to around 1550 at the aforementioned Villa d’Este, where Cardinal Ippolito II d’Este (1509–1572) created a magnificent Renaissance garden with numerous water features: 500 liters of water per second passed through 51 wells, 364 fountains, 220 pools, and other water motifs. Pirro Ligorio, who created the garden, gathered his knowledge by examining the nearby Hadrian’s Villa. The creators and the garden owner himself also drew knowledge from older literature, e.g. Vitruvius’ De architectura libri decem, which was translated into Italian in 1567 and contains chapters on hydraulic installations. In the garden of the Villa d’Este stood the Fontana dell’Organo (organs fountain; e.g., Figure 8) and Fontana della Civetta (owl fountain), made by the French engineer Luc Leclerc and his nephew Claude Vernard. Both fountains created special sound effects for the visitors to enjoy, imitating the birds chirping (at the owl’s fountain) or the sound of water organs (at the organs fountain), accompanied by richly decorated surroundings. The Fontana dell’Organo (consecrated in 1571) had a sophisticated mechanism hidden behind the fountain. Water was routed through pipes, canals, across a wheel, through smaller pools—sounds were produced by both water and displaced air. The visitors who came to see and listen to those fountains could witness a real concert [13]. These water instruments were popular in antiquity and afterwards in the early modern times, and they persist; even in modern times they have not been forgotten. In Zadar, Croatia, sea organs designed by architect Nikola Bašić were presented in 2005 as part of the Old Town Coast restaurant project (e.g., Figure 9). Sea organs are an architectural object and at the same time an experimental musical instrument. They are designed as a group of pipes which are placed under large marble steps leading to the sea and are hidden from the view of the observer (as was the case with aforementioned Renaissance organs). The waves hitting the pipes and filling them with water create air pressure that produces random but at the same time harmonious tones in the pipes.
\nFontana dell’Organo (when no water is running, the organs are visible), Villa d’Este, Tivoli, Italy.
Nikola Bašić, Sea organs, Zadar, Croatia.
This luxury of water motifs, which are already successfully integrated into urban tissues offers many opportunities for urban horticulture. Irrigation systems, or even more complex food production systems, such as those found in aquaponics, can include water cannons, cascades, walk-on water surfaces, and even water organs—hydropneumatic instruments.
\nClosely related to water is another garden motif created in the Renaissance—the grotta.2 In built cavities, garden visitors and users were able to escape from the heat or hustle and bustle of events in the garden, to cool themselves down, marvel at the sounds of water and wind, read stories embodied in sculptural decoration, and chase the glare of water on artificial cave walls, often claded with shells. For urban horticulture, these artificial caves could be quite interesting because it is not difficult to integrate them into the built structures of cities. They could find their place in a small square, on the roofs of apartment houses, or in steep slopes of riverbeds. A grotta has its own closed water system and can even allow plants to thrive in its wet and humid environment. In addition, in Baroque gardens the grotta was often a part of an architectural structure that provided space for an artificial cave in the lower part, while in the upper part one could find a pavilion, a festive hall, or a kind of viewpoint. Here, the visitors liked to linger, enjoy the view, and listen to the sounds of water coming from the grotta. Often, the sound of the water was also used as an accompaniment to small concerts on the upper floor. Such two-story garden facilities in historic gardens were also intended for other functions (the range of garden houses and architectural scenery in gardens expanded in the late eighteenth century with the English landscape style); from banquets, events, spectacles, games, music pavilions to guest rooms in the upper floor and to retreat rooms, artisan workshops, or cold stores in the lower part. The lower part of such buildings was often dug into the slopes, thus providing a constant temperature. Already in the Baroque period (or since the time of Catherine de’Medici in the sixteenth century when ice cream was invented), the nobility liked to place cold stores in the vicinity of their mansions. Ice was brought into these cold rooms in the winter, accumulated in large quantities in the middle of a usually centrally designed room, where it was preserved and helped refrigerate food for as long as 6 months [9, 14, 15]. Would such a cold store also benefit a modern city in the time of global warming (instead of electronic devices which, when cooling, also emit large amounts of heat)?
\nAmong the more prominent and enthusiastically accepted projects of urban horticulture are certainly green walls, also called living walls or even vertical gardens. After the botanist Patrick Blanc created his first successful large indoor green wall in 1986 (Cité des Sciences et de l’Industrie in Paris), these structures started springing up indoors and outdoors, in small or large scales, monocultural or mixed, creating patterns, images, or just a pleasant green “screen” of plants (e.g., Figure 10). Origins of green walls can be found already in the hanging gardens of Babylon, however, it seems more plausible that the idea and form of green walls stem from the green walls of Baroque gardens—the bosquett.3 In Baroque, the typical garden design was based on regular, geometric patterns. The so-called formal garden design emphasized the rational supremacy of man over nature—this was reflected not only in the floor plan of the garden but also in the plants. These were sheared and shaped into certain straight lines, images of things, animals, or even human-like shapes. This art of shearing and growing plants was called ars topiarium. It was used by the old Greeks and Romans and revived in the Renaissance. Thus, in Baroque, garden designers continued and upgraded this art of plant designing by creating long green walls, corridors, or even streets with high and sheared trees and shrubs (e.g., Figure 11). Green borders led the view into infinity, giving a sense of the grandeur of nature controlled by man as well as offering a retreat into the green spaces behind the green walls. There were smaller spaces of a more intimate nature inside such bosquetts—such rooms contained benches, wells, or even additional green architectures (e.g., treillage).4 Today’s green walls are no different from those of Baroque gardens: when observing tall buildings clad in green walls, they appear as green corridors in Baroque gardens along which gentlemen walked after they left the parterre.
\nPatrick Blanc (with architect Jean Nouvel), an outdoor green wall, Musée du quai Branly, Paris.
Bosquett in Versailles, France.
The parterre5 is another interesting element of historic gardens. In Baroque gardens, parterres were usually arranged next to the mansion. Thus, the first (or second) floor of the mansion offered the most beautiful view of the parterre. Parterres featured different colors, materials, and patterns. Their appearance varied throughout the year—to keep up with vegetative seasons, gardeners needed to quickly change the plants. Of course, there were also parterres (mainly Renaissance ones) composed of only box trees, sand (of different colors), and grass. However, in the seventeenth century, parterres that included diverse selection of flowers became more numerous. To allow the flowering pattern to be changed quickly and efficiently (to replace color, height, texture of the plant, etc.), the plants were often planted in pots (pot gardening). Thus, the plants no longer in bloom were easily replaced with the then flowering plants. This kind of gardening practice is still used today except that we do not put the containers into holes in the ground (now we have other materials and techniques), but distribute them in groups on paved surfaces and places where the plant is not in direct contact with the soil (greening of terraces). Thus, we can see that Baroque parterres were already quite dynamic structures which could be adopted to a greater extent in today’s cities. The idea that plant species were strictly separated in parterres is not quite correct, as it was a common practice to mix different plants and, in some ways, already follow the perma culture as we know it today. Notably, the eighteenth century, which brought an interest in the natural sciences and the development of botany, brought a different perception of plants and their coexistence. Thus, botanical enthusiasts, such as Baron Erberg in Carniola (a part of the present-day Slovenia), began assembling their flower patterns. The Baron notes in his description of the garden from 1822 that red pelargonium and pink evergreen are a good combination6 even though the difference in height was considerable between the plants at the time (it should be borne in mind that this was a time when pelargonium had only just begun to be cultivated and the plant could then reach 1.5 m in height). Parterres were therefore quite colorful—in terms of color and species. This can also be clearly seen in today’s successfully restored gardens, such as the Baroque garden of the Hof manor in Austria. The garden began to emerge after 1725 and was owned by Prince Eugene of Savoy [10]. The idea of renovation was born in 1986, but major works were not completed until 2007 and 2019. Today we can stroll through the representative terraces with the ground floor and water motifs and admire the aforementioned “mixed” ground floor at the greenhouse (e.g., Figure 12).
\nThe Baroque gardens of Schloss Hof, Austria.
When examining historic gardens, one can also come across mentions of roof gardens. Again, we can think back to the Babylonian structures, where they already had troughs filled with soil and an irrigation system and drainage so successfully constructed that the gardens thrived even in high positions on the skeletons of buildings. The old civilizations favored roof gardens (even the ancient Romans). In the Middle Ages, the interest in them somewhat diminished, but one could still find examples of small gardens consisting of flowerpots or similar containers placed on raised fortifications, monasteries, etc. The interest in roof gardens grew again in the eighteenth century, as enthusiasm for the plant world took over all layers of people, and many had only a window shelf on which they could observe the growth of primula, pelargonium, or perhaps hydrangea. Even the kings suffered from such “botanical” fever, among them the Austrian King Franz I. (1768–1835), who was named Blumenkaiser or “the flower emperor” because of his passion for plants [17]. The flower emperor arranged a terrace on the roof of his city castle, which housed plant pots, hotbeds, and even a greenhouse. It was a place where the emperor spent a lot of his time [18]. Today’s roof gardens are of course technically advanced and much more common in urban structures. One of the reasons for that lies in various studies proving the positive cooling effect of the environment (especially in cities, where solar radiation is absorbed by roads and buildings and this heat accumulates in the building material).
\nWe have successfully adopted a lot of knowledge from history—bosquetts have been transformed into green walls, fountains into water jets freely arranged on the surfaces of city squares, and various parterre bordures into mixed (permaculture) gardens. Furthermore, facilities for overwintering delicate plants have also been upgraded. Greenhouses flourished in the time of introduction of non-native species into Europe [19]. In the second half of the eighteenth century, the introduction of alien, exotic fruits onto the tables of the nobility brought even greater diversity of such plants. The always fresh and varied fruits and vegetables on the gentleman’s table were among the significant qualities of a higher class. They were a kind of status symbol, and many noblemen arranged greenhouses and other winter facilities for their cultivation. In addition to the well-growing figs, lemons, oranges, or pomegranates, melon7 and pineapple played an important role in the eighteenth century. In Versailles, melons were a popular fruit of the French court (they had to provide 100 melons a day in 1688), but they were also grown in large numbers at many other courts (e.g., at the Prussian court, where even Melonerie was held in Sanssouci near Potsdam). Melons retained their popularity, although cultivation of this fruit required a great deal of work [20]. Pineapple was also very popular, as evident from the following description: “The excellency, frangrancy, and flavor of the fruit which this plant produces needs no commendations, as it is well known to excel all the fruits hitherto cultivated; so that it is no wonder every gentleman of taste and fortune is the foundation of this polite article of gardening” [21]. Taste and money were necessary to grow this plant, as it originated from South America and Africa, thus it required a special heated greenhouse. Protective facilities for non-native plants varied and ranged from glass bells that covered individual plants, to low warm beds or large greenhouses where the south glass wall was inclined to maximize the warmth of the sunlight. There were greenhouses that fascinated with new technology in the nineteenth century and, as mentioned greenhouses that were only heated by the sun, a furnace, or a kind of hot water system. The variety of the greenhouses depended also on the plants and of course the (financial) ability of the owner. Today’s greenhouses are just as diverse. Sometimes gardeners used (plastic) bottles to protect iindividual plants from frost (which is similar to the practice of protecting the plants from frost with glass bells), while large gardens usually have more sophisticated glasshouses. Maybe modern urban horticulturists could follow the example used in the Rococo garden of the summer palace of Frederick the Great, Sanssouci in Potsdam (built between 1745 and 1747), where a combination of solar heat and partial glazing is used (e.g., Figure 13). Namely, the palace stands on the top of a hill that was transformed into terraces. Trellised wines from Portugal, Italy, France, and from nearby Neuruppin were planted along the brick walls of the terraces. Between them 168 glazed niches were created in which figs trees grew [9, 22]. An ideal place for a king to relax and forget his worries.
\nThe south-facing garden façade of Sanssouci in Potsdam, Germany.
A quick look at the historic gardens and their motives and elements should give a slightly clearer picture of what man has already adapted to his needs in his gardens, and what we can draw from past knowledge. It becomes clear that man has increasingly consciously included nature in his world. Perhaps this was most evident in the 19th century, when Ebenezer Howard (1850–1928) intensely researched the idea of the ideal city and, based on the study of past thinkers (such as the Renaissance architect Filarete), he first created a plan for his ideal city. However, while the past thinkers looked at a city only as a built structure, Sir Howard incorporated the natural and cultural landscape into his city. He introduced his garden city in his publication To-Morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform (1898), where one can find a Utopian city in which people live harmoniously together with nature. Thus, at the end of the nineteenth century, Sir Howard understood the city in a wider sense—he saw green-designed areas as essential components of the city. Whether we talk about gardens, parks, river landscapes, or cultural landscapes, it is not as important as the fact that built structures cannot exist without the nature. That was clear to people even before Howard’s realization. For example, in the second half of the century, a city park was created in Bremen, Germany. However, the investor was not the ruler or the land, state, or any other corporation. The townspeople themselves set up the park and a society to maintain it [23]. A similar example can be found even earlier in the nineteenth century in the city of Ljubljana (now the capital of Slovenia). At the edge of Ljubljana, the idea of a great tree avenue that would provide a pleasant walking area and a space for amusement and relaxation for the citizens arose under the French government in 1813. In 1814, when the new Austrian government came to power, the project was begun but not completed. Thus, in the same year the initiative to complete the avenue was taken by the citizens, and the so-called Lattermann avenue was completed no later than 1816 [24].
\nLittman, For forest (2019), Klagenfurt, Austria.
More than a hundred years have passed since Howard’s idea (and the realization of his garden city), and more than 200 since the citizens of Ljubljana created their own designed green space on the outskirts of the city. Today, we can praise the utopian idea of the “garden city” and admire the determination of the mentioned townspeople who connected the natural wooded hill and the old city with a designed green structure. In comparison with our surroundings, they had more natural areas at their hand, and they did not need to incorporate as many green areas into the tightly built cities as possible, the need that we have today.
\nUrban horticulture helps us create and materialize possibilities of incorporating nature into our cities, and we need to seize them fully so that the prediction made by the Swiss curator Klaus Littmann—that in the future we will be observing nature only in isolated spaces, similarly as we today observe animals in a zoo (especially rare or even extinct ones)—does not come true. Between September 8 and October 27, 2019, Littmann carried out a major project of planting an indigenous Carinthian mixed forest (which has almost disappeared from Carithia as it is continuously replaced by much more profitable conifer monocultures) in the Klagenfurt football stadium (e.g., Figure 14). This intervention that attracted masses of people is not just an art project but also a warning appeal and a warning echo started by artists such as Robert Smithson (his well-known Spiral Jetty created in 1970 is located outside the urban environment, on the North Salt Lake near Rozel Point in Utah), or Christo and Jean-Claude (they wrapped around 178 trees in Basel in 1998) or even Joseph Beuys (he introduced and subsequently implemented the project 7000 Eichen—Stadtverwaldung statt Stadtverwaltung, at Documenta 7 in 1982; [25, 26]).
\nVertical green building in Viertel Zwei (built 2017), Austria.
We have investigated historical gardens and their water motives in all their variety. We have taken a peek at small garden objects—those in the form of nature-like cavities—and others following contemporary architectural styles. We have found the similarities between bosquetts and green walls, and seen that the art of cutting trees and shrubs was an art of itself—which is well known by those who preserve historic (mostly Baroque) gardens [27]. We have outlined the diversity of parterres whose its ornamental lines are filled with plants that were changed according to their blooming periods—gardening that resembles today’s pot cultivation (or container gardening). At the same time, we saw that the plants in the bordures of parterres were not monoculture, but contained many different species—parterres were closer to today’s understanding of permaculture. We also briefly discussed roof gardens and green houses for more delicate plants. In these examples the enthusiasm for botany was presented—the enthusiasm that was not foreign to many rulers of the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Kings and queens included new plants, their exploration, and the designing of gardens (where they liked to include different rare plants) in their schedules, devoting much of their time and finances to this love of botany. Not only did they build large botanical gardens, greenhouses, and collections (the most famous example is certainly the Kew gardens, royal botanical garden in England), but they also had small gardens just for themselves (sometimes on the roofs of their castles). They studied plants in their botanical cabinets, collected botanical books, and made notes, herbarium, and botanical journeys. This enthusiasm was the result of the development of interest in natural science, which has evolved into disciplines that today provide us with the knowledge of plants to the extent that we can integrate nature into our urban centers.
\nFurthermore, we have seen that, especially in the nineteenth century, urban residents understood the importance of green spaces in the city, to the extent that they themselves (at their own initiative and at their own expense) set up city parks. Even though the green surroundings of the city were still unspoiled at the time, and the cities were not as big and densely built as they are today, they knew how important it was for a person to have access to the natural environment every day. The emphasis on this importance is attributed to the industrial revolution, which, in addition to technological advancement, brought with it a well-defined working schedule. Leisure days were rare (initially only one day a week was free), and in those days people loved to spend their time in the soothing embrace of nature (far from noisy and dirty machines and enclosed industrial halls).
\nSo, let us look ahead and make sure that nature is preserved for the next generations, and that it retains in its original form and activity. By integrating different ecosystems in our cities, we can enable this. In this way, plants will contribute to the improvement of living conditions (reducing pollution, reducing the impact of global warming, offering space for relief and contemplation, etc.) as well as provide fundamental links for the nature, enabling it to be coherent, improving conditions for its reproduction and transmission of the information it needs for its existence. Furthermore, with a good insight into the past, we can make the greening of our cities easier. Street façades could all be dressed in green—not only as green walls but also as a structure for trees and shrubs and climbers to grow on. When visiting Viertel Zwei in Vienna, we can see a ten storey “vertical green” residential building, where an additional structure for plants was made in front of the actual façade, creating a tangible green space for the residents (e.g., Figure 15). Thus, when creating a new neighborhood in the city, we should devote special attention to its “green” part. Trees should be planted along the streets—all the art of shearing trees and shrubs in Renaissance and Baroque could be used on the narrow streets. Cascades and fountains should be part of city squares; they could cross the edges of pools or stairways and provide play space (or even generate electricity). Lakes and ponds could offer more peaceful areas in neighorhoods. In the spaces between larger apartment buildings, gardens could be arranged that would follow the schemes of Baroque gardens and offer beautiful views of the colourful design of parterres when looked at from higher floors of buildings. In the centre of such garden, a garden architectural structure could be built, in which a grotta would be arranged in the lower part, and on top of it a room for socializing, listening to music, playing cards, or even a greenhouse. Aquaponics could be included in the grotta and greenhouse system. Green roofs and terraces could be used to grow exotic, heat-loving plants. With all this in mind, let us not forget about water instruments (organs) that could be part of such grottas or they could be used to liven up roadside green patches where rain water in roadside channels could be used.
\nNature can be introduced into almost every element of a tightly built city. Following the example set by many art projects—be it wrapping trees in decomposable materials, placing tiny sculptures in a narrow street waiting for rain, planting oaks in the city, etc.—through joint collaboration we should make sure that authentic forests will not be only recreated in stadiums.
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\n\nRead more about Open Access in Horizon 2020 here.
\n\nWhich scientific publication to choose?
\n\nWhen choosing a publication, Horizon 2020 grant recipients are encouraged to provide open access to various types of scientific publications including monographs, edited books and conference proceedings.
\n\nIntechOpen publishes all of the aforementioned formats in compliance with the requirements and criteria established by the European Commission for the Horizon 2020 Program.
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