Physical properties of Titania.
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"},{slug:"intechopen-s-chapter-awarded-the-guenther-von-pannewitz-preis-2020-20200715",title:"IntechOpen's Chapter Awarded the Günther-von-Pannewitz-Preis 2020"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"4486",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Cells and Biomaterials in Regenerative Medicine",title:"Cells and Biomaterials in Regenerative Medicine",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book serves as a good starting point for anyone interested in the application of tissue engineering. 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Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74525",slug:"hierarchical-nanostructures-of-titanium-dioxide-synthesis-and-applications",body:'\n
Depletion of fossil fuels and environmental pollution has reached an alarming situation. New techniques are being searched now to overcome this situation by switching toward sustainable and renewable energy resources [1, 2, 3, 4]. Severe pollution threats like global warming demand such materials and devices that are environment-friendly and green. The main idea is to fabricate materials that are not only cost-effective [5] but are also more capable to deal with energy crisis in the world.
\nRecently, different renewable energy resources like wind, solar, bioenergy and geothermal energy have been deployed for energy production [6]. New materials are being explored and synthesized to harness energy from these alternate energy sources. The goal is to improve the competence of these devices by synthesizing materials that provide maximum energy harvesting and power control. For solar energy harvesting by photovoltaic devices, i.e., direct conversion of sunlight to electricity, different generations have been evolved depending upon materials and technologies used in device fabrication.
\nVarious material types are employed for their use in renewable energy resources like organic, organometallic, metallic, semiconductors, etc. Wide band gap semiconductors have been exploited due to their substantial applications so far in cosmetics [7], drugs, electronics [8], photovoltaic devices [9], energy storage materials [10, 11, 12] and catalysis [13, 14] like photodegradation (Figure 1). The third-generation photovoltaics utilize nanomaterials that have attracted much attention recently due to their novel electric, photochemical, piezoelectric, mechanical and catalytic properties [15].
\nApplication of TiO2 for photodegradation of organic pollutants [16].
In PV devices [17], semiconductor materials are mostly chosen on the basis of many properties like band gap, electronic mobility, mesoporosity [18, 19], toxicity levels, robustness [20, 21] and high surface area. So far, many semiconductor oxides have been prepared and tested. Nanomaterials of transition metal oxides like TiO2, SnO2, and ZnO are being further explored now because of their properties and applications. Titania [22] is the best material among all having distinguished optoelectronic and photochemical properties.
\nTitania is a promising material [12, 23] as it has high refractive index, biocompatibility and high dielectric constant. It exhibits redox reactions and has excellent optical transmittance in the visible and near IR regions. It is preferred because of its high performance as a photocatalyst for water splitting, oxidation capability [7] and degradation of organics [24]. Table 1 highlights some of the properties of Titania.
\nProperties of Titanium dioxide | \n|
---|---|
Natural forms | \nAnatase, rutile and brookite | \n
Crystal structure | \n|
Anatase Rutile Brookite | \nTetragonal Tetragonal Orthorhombic | \n
Melting point | \n1941 K | \n
Boiling point | \n3546 K | \n
Thermal conductivity | \n22Wm−1 K−1 | \n
Band gap | \n3.0 eV (rutile) 3.3 eV (anatase) | \n
Solubility in water | \nInsoluble | \n
Color | \nWhite-yellow | \n
Molar mass | \n79.8 g/mol | \n
Density | \n4.23 g/cm3 (rutile), 3.78 g/cm3 (anatase) | \n
Flash point | \nNon-flammable | \n
Physical properties of Titania.
Titanium dioxide also known as Titania exists in many crystalline forms among which rutile, anatase and brookite are of particular importance in nanomaterials. These forms can exist individually as minerals but only rutile and anatase have been synthesized in their pure form yet [13, 25]. Both anatase and rutile phases have tetragonal, while brookite has orthorhombic crystal system [9] (Figure 2).
\nDifferent crystalline forms of TiO2 [9].
The properties of Titania depend on particle morphology, crystallinity, particle size and surface area. Titania has a band gap from 3.0 to 3.23 eV, which makes it photocatalytic only in ultraviolet radiation region [26]. It is desirable to shift its band gap [27] so that it may absorb radiations of the visible light spectrum to enhance its photocatalytic properties. Titania nanostructures offer a larger surface area for light absorption in solar cells and catalytic properties for dye and pollutant degradation [28].
\nTitania nanostructures can be synthesized using various techniques. Some of them are hydrothermal [26, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34], solvothermal methods [10, 11, 35], sol-gel synthesis [1, 15, 36], microwave irradiation [8, 24, 37, 38], physical and chemical vapor deposition [4, 32, 39], electrochemical methods [40, 41] and anodization [42, 43, 44].
\nGenerally, anatase Titania shows superior properties to rutile Titania because of slow recombination of electron-hole pairs and higher potential energy of photogenerated electrons [45]. Nano-Titania exists in many forms like nanoparticles [15, 40, 41, 42], nanorods [10, 24, 46], nanowires [3, 31, 32, 47], nanotubes [43, 48], nanospheres [49], nanoflowers [8, 32, 46, 50], nanoforests [44, 50], etc. as shown in Figure 3. Nanotubes show enhanced charge percolation and direct electronic transport than nanoparticles because of their 1D structures [51].
\nDifferent forms of TiO2: (a) nanocubes [24], (b) nanospheres [24], (c) nanorods [24], (d) nanoparticles [52], (e) nanoflowers [8], (f) nanoforest [48].
Hierarchical nanostructures are composed of 3D self-assembly of primary structure (nanoparticle, nanorod, nanotube or nanosheets) in nanoscale. Recently, materials with hierarchical morphology have attracted great attention as compared to spherical nanoparticles. Many experiments have been done in order to perk up the efficiency of nanomaterials by synthesizing hierarchical structures and enhancing the specific surface area and porosity of these structures [8, 38, 40, 53]. These types of structures show utmost light harvesting due to maximum and efficient scattering (hence absorption) of incident light within [40]. Hierarchical TiO2 nanostructures provide a significant improvement in properties due to enhanced porosity [54, 55] and many devices can be optimized using HNSs [43]. Hierarchical morphology can enhance the photon absorption capability [8] as compared to spherical nanoparticle as there is increased absorption of light due to scattering. The mesoporosity acts as distribution channels increasing adsorption of visible light sensitizers. It also creates an ideal environment for mass transportation [39] of electrons.
\nThis chapter presents a compilation of different synthesis routes and control measures employed for the synthesis of “hierarchical nanostructures of TiO2.” A brief overview of each synthesis route is provided. Investigation on the synthesis parameters and the correlation with the characteristic properties of the products are also discussed.
\nVarious types of surfactants, organic/inorganic titanium salts, high temperatures and pressures may be used for the preparation of hierarchical nanostructures of Titania. Following are the reported methods for the synthesis of TiO2 HNSs.
Hydrothermal method
Solvothermal method
Microwave treatment
Pulsed laser deposition
Anodization
Photolithography
Vapor deposition method
Chemical vapor deposition
Physical vapor deposition
As the name indicates, the method involves heating in aqueous medium. Generally, in this method, sealed Teflon-lined steel autoclaves are used under controlled temperature and pressure conditions. Sometimes, surfactants are also added to control the growth and morphology of target materials.
\nInternal pressure is set up by the amount of temperature and solution used. This process is mainly used for the preparation of small-sized particles for achieving enhanced surface area. Basically, this synthesis is used for preparation of crystalline TiO2 from amorphous one. The morphology of the particles can be varied by changing crystallization temperature, time and concentration of etching chemicals. Table 2 shows the various routes by which hierarchical TiO2 structures have been prepared by hydrothermal route.
\nReference | \nPhase | \nSurface area (m2 g−1) | \nParticle size (diameter) | \nPrecursor materials | \nMorphology | \nUsed in application | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lin et al. [56] | \nRutile | \n67 | \n1–1.5 μm | \nTetrabutyl titanate (TT) | \nFlower-like structures | \nDSSCs | \n
Wang et al. [50] | \nRutile | \n75.53 | \n(4.4 μm length) 150 nm diameter | \nTitanium tetrabutoxide | \n1D/3D nanorods | \nDSSCs | \n
Qiang et al. [3] | \nAnatase | \n— | \nNW trunk 95 nm, NR 5 nm | \nK2TiO2(C2O4)2 and diethylene glycol (DEG) | \nNanowire trunk on which nanorods are grown | \nDSSCs | \n
Xiang et al. [57] | \nAnatase | \n— | \n300–600 nm | \nDodecylamine and titanium isopropoxide | \nNanoparticle-based HNs | \nDSSCs | \n
Zheng et al. [60] | \nAnatase | \n27.4 | \n4–6μm | \nPrimary Titania microspheres | \nHierarchical microspheres | \nPhotocatalysis | \n
Shao et al. [58] | \nAnatase | \n36.93 | \n15–25μm | \nTi foil | \nFlower-like structure formed from nanobelts | \nDSSCs | \n
Zhu et al. [29] | \nAnatase | \n170 | \n350 nm | \nTitanocene dichloride | \nFlower-like shapes formed from nanosheets | \nPhotocatalysis | \n
Wang et al. [32] | \nAnatase | \n64.8 | \n1–1.5μm | \nTitanium powder | \nRadial nanoflakes | \nGas sensing | \n
Gao et al. [2] | \nAnatase | \n116.6 | \n3–4μm | \nTetrabutyl titanate (TBT) and acetic acid | \nOverlapped subunits of nanoflakes | \nLithium sulfur battery | \n
Yang et al. [59] | \nAnatase | \n— | \n20–50 nm | \nTitanium sulfate (Ti(SO4)2) and urea (CO(NH2)2) | \nNanothorn-like hierarchical structures | \nGas sensing | \n
Min et al. [59] | \nAnatase | \n168.3 | \n2–4μm | \nTitanium powder | \nNanospheres composed of nanosheets | \nPhotocatalysis | \n
Hierarchical TiO2 nanostructures produced by various hydrothermal routes.
Lin et al. have reported rutile TiO2 hierarchical flower-like structures via hydrothermal synthesis without using any surfactant. Precursor tetrabutyltitanate (TT) is first mixed with HCl for acidification and is subsequently hydrolyzed using distilled water. To ensure complete hydrolysis, the reaction mixture is stirred for about one and a half hour. Next, the mixture is transferred to a Teflon-based autoclave and is placed in an electric oven for 5 h at 150°C for crystallization. Hierarchical nanoflower-like structures are obtained as an end product. By increasing the HCl concentration, the etching rate of TiO2 structures is enhanced and symmetric flower-like structures are produced [56] (Figure 4). These structures are employed for DSSCs and 8.6% of conversion efficiency is achieved.
\nFESEM images of TiO2 structures. Change in morphology is produced from changing HCl conc. at (a) 1M (b) 2M (c) 3M (d) 4M (e) 5M (f) 6M (f) 7M (g) 8M [56].
Wang et al. have prepared rutile Titania 1D/3D structures via hydrothermal treatment. The precursor Titanium tetrabutoxide (0.9 m) is acidified using HCl (16 ml) and then hydrolyzed using DI water (16 ml). The reaction mixture is subsequently heated to 150°C and kept at this temperature for 10 h for crystallization. The position of FTO substrates is varied to obtain different HNSs. 1D/3D HNSs are produced while the FTO substrate lied flat on the bottom of the reactor with the conductive side facing up. 3D nanorods are produced when the conductive side of substrate is placed downwards.
\nRutile Titania 3D flower-like nanorods are grown on 1D nanorods with length in microns [50] (Figure 5). These structures are employed as a photo anode material in DSSCs and significant improvement in device performance is seen. 1D structure provides directed pathway for electron percolation and 3D morphology provides large surface area for light scattering and dye-loading. Also, the structures exhibit long life time due to less electron-hole recombination.
\n(a,d) SEM images of 1D/3D nanorod structures (b) 1D nanorods (c) 3D nanoflower-like structures [50].
Qiang et al. have obtained hierarchical anatase TiO2 nanowire trunks with short nanorod branch HNSs by facile one-way hydrothermal synthesis on FTO glass without using any surfactant/stabilizing agent. The solution is prepared using precursor K2TiO2(C2O4)2 (0.002 mol) and diethylene glycol (DEG) (30 ml) as Titania precursor. About 10 ml H2O is used for hydrolysis. The solution is then spin coated on FTO substrate for seeding of TiO2 structures. The spin-coated substrate is immersed in Teflon-based autoclave, which is kept at 180°C for 1–12 h for crystallization of Titania structures. Figure 6 shows nanotrunks produced having nanowire-like structures grown on them [3].
\nSEM images of hierarchical anatase nanowire trunk covered by short nanorod branches (a) Nanorods covering the nanotrunks (b) Enlarged image of nanorods (c) Nanotrunks covered by nanorods [3].
These structures are employed as a photo anode material in DSSCs and impressive power conversion efficiency of 7.34% is achieved. Hierarchical morphology aids in efficient electron transfer but these structures provide additional recombination sites so results are inferior to bare TiO2 nanowires.
\nXiang et al. have reported Ta-doped and -undoped hierarchical TiO2 nanostructures. Dodecylamine (8 g) and titanium isopropoxide (TIP, 8 g) are used as precursor materials and are mixed with ethanol (360 ml) and DI water (120 ml) for hydrolysis under vigorous stirring at ambient room temperature. HNO3 formed during reaction is removed from the reaction mixture and white powder of anatase Titania is obtained, which is then washed with water and ethanol to maintain the pH of particles at 7. After that, TaCl5 is added in reaction mixture in different ratios. The solution is transferred to Teflon-lined autoclave, kept at 250°C for 12 h to dope Ta particles with TiO2.
\nHNSs made up of symmetrically arranged interconnected spherical nanoparticles are obtained as a result of these syntheses [57]. These structures are employed as a photoanode material in this article. The large spheres can provide maximum scattering of sunlight for light-driven reactions like photocatalysis (Figure 7).
\nTEM images of hierarchical TiO2 spherical structures composed of nanoparticles (a) Agglomerated TiO2 nanoparticles (b) Dispered TiO2 nanoparticles [57].
Shao et al. have prepared hierarchical TiO2 flower-like structures on Ti foil by placing it in Teflon-lined autoclave at an inclined angle in 5 M NaOH solution for its reduction. Sodium titanate is formed as a result of this reaction. The temperature is maintained at 220°C for 24 h for complete reaction of converting Ti foil to TiO2 nanostructures. The sample is then washed with water and ethanol to remove all the acidic content and to maintain its pH at neutral. The sample is then immersed in HCl solution so that all Na+ ions of sodium titanate would get replaced by H+ ion. After calcination, nanobelts (Figure 8) forming nanoflower-like structures are formed [58].
\nSEM images of nanoflower-like hierarchical TiO2 structures produced after annealing at 500°C [58].
Reaction of TiO2 nanoparticles with NaOH results in the formation of Na2TiO3, which is a nanoporous structure. The reaction that takes place is as follows.
\nThese Na+ ions can be replaced with H+ ions by washing them with deionized water or acid. It can be shown as:
\nBy reduction of nanoparticles and increasing time duration of crystallization, nanoflower-like structures can be grown.
\nZhu et al. have prepared HNSs of TiO2 using titanocene dichloride (Ti(Cp)2Cl2) (20 mg) as precursor. DI water (10 ml) is added for hydrolysis, and ethylene diamine (EDA) (2 drops) acts as chelating agent. This results in the production of TiO2 nanocrystals. The mixture then after sonication is placed in an autoclave at 120°C for 1–12 h. The powder obtained is then washed with water and ethanol and is annealed at 400°C for 2 h. Flower-like HNSs (Figure 9) are formed in this process [29].
\nSEM images of hierarchical TiO2 prepared by hydrothermal heating: (A) after 1 h, (B) after 2 h and (C) after 12 h. (D, E) Annealed powder of sample B [29].
By increasing the duration of hydrothermal synthesis, the nanoparticles have attained more flower-like mesoporous morphology due to increased time provided for etching. These structures have proved to be better photocatalytic agents as compared to nanocrystals of TiO2 as they can provide maximum enhanced surface area, and due to their mesoporosity, maximum dye can be loaded on them. Hence, these structures can be used with perspective of various solar cells and photocatalysis for efficient light-driven reactions.
\nYang et al. prepared hierarchical Titania structures by hydrothermal synthesis. Titanium sulfate (Ti(SO4)2) and urea (CO(NH2)2) were used as precursor materials. Ethylene diaminetetra acetic acid (EDTA) disodium salt was added in them as the chelating agent for TiO2 formation. Ti(SO4)2 (3 mmol), urea (24 mmol) and EDTA (3 mmol) were mixed and NH4F (9 mmol) was added in the mixture for attaching [Ti(H2O)(edta)] with F−1 ions. The reaction mixture was dissolved into 60 ml of deionized water for formation of H2TiO3. After stirring for 3 h, the reaction was complete and white powder was obtained, which was then moved in Teflon-lined autoclave at 180°C for 10 h for its complete crystallization. The powder formed was washed with DI water and ethanol to maintain pH at neutral and annealed to recrystallize. Reactions that took place were:
\nMesoporous nanothorn-like structures are produced as a result of this process [59] shown in Figure 10. These structures are employed for gas sensing application of acetone. This hierarchical morphology provides much higher sensitivity and fast response time with minimum recovery speed.
\nFESEM images of hydrothermal synthesis at (a) 5 min, (b) 1 h, (c) 3 h and (d) 5 h [59].
Min et al. prepared hierarchical Titania structures by hydrothermal synthesis. About 1 g of Titanium powder was being dissolved in (0.5 M) 30 ml HF for its oxidation as it is a powerful oxidizing agent. The solution was then mixed with 3 ml NH3. This solution was moved to Teflon-lined autoclave at 150°C for crystallization for 5 h. The powder obtained was washed via centrifugation and was then dried at 80°C. Nanosheets (Figure 11) are being produced as a result of this process [52].
\nFESEM images of Titania hierarchical nanospheres composed of nanosheet-like structures [52].
These structures are employed as a photocatalyst material for photodegradation of organic dye. Methylene blue is used as a model dye in this article. Complete photodegradation of organic compound is observed in just 60 min.
\nThe hydrothermal method has got the following advantages:
This method is comparatively easy.
Titania formed via this process can range from nanoparticle- to nanoflower-like structures depending on temperature.
By increasing the duration and time in hydrothermal reactor, the crystallization of particles can be improved.
The structures produced are diverse so they can be used in various applications.
If NaOH or other reducing or oxidizing agents are used, they can be removed easily by washing with deionized water.
By controlling temperature, one can grow anatase or rutile Titania phase depending on application.
Hierarchical morphology can be attained.
A variety of precursors is used for the production of TiO2 HNSs.
The demerits of this method are listed below:
Water is used as solvent in this synthesis, so the temperature for crystallization cannot be increased from 100 to 150° C. Otherwise, water will dry out and crystallization may hinder.
Proper time should be given to materials during synthesis as complete etching should be done for desired morphology.
Sometimes crystallization times are very prolonged as compared to microwave technique. So it can be termed as a slow process than microwave.
To summarize, hydrothermal treatment of various precursors under control parameters of temperature, pressure and duration gives a variety of morphologies in HNSs of Titania. The morphology ranges from hierarchical arrangement of nanoparticles to nanorods producing flower-like structures. Increasing temperature increases crystallization of TiO2 particles, and by increasing duration of hydrothermal synthesis, better etched morphology was obtained. Table 2 summarizes reported examples of hydrothermal synthesis of HNSs with respect to precursor used for the synthesis and various properties of obtained HNSs together with the application studied. The HNSs obtained from this method varies in size from 20 nm to 4.5 μm. The surface area of the resultant HNSs ranges from 27 to 170 m2g−1. These structures are exploited in various applications including solar cells, photocatalysis and sensors, etc. and have improved respective performance owing to their unique structural properties.
\nIn this synthesis, the conditions are the same as for a hydrothermal method but non-aqueous solvent is used instead of water. The process takes place in an autoclave and temperature can be increased because of high boiling of certain organic solvents as compared to water. This method results in uniform particle size distribution and high purity products. Also by changing the temperature, morphology of the grown crystals can be varied. In addition to that, different morphologies result due to differences in steric hindrance offered by different functional groups in various organic solvents. Table 3 shows various routes adopted to synthesize TiO2 HNSs via solvothermal route.
\nReference | \nPhase | \nSurface area (m2 g−1) | \nParticle size (diameter) | \nPrecursor materials | \nMorphology | \nApplication | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ochanda et al. [10] | \nAnatase | \n94.01 | \n50–70 nm | \nTiO2 fibers | \n3D nanoflowers grown on nanofibers | \nPhotocatalysis | \n
Xiang et al. [35] | \nAnatase | \n37 | \n2.5–3.0μm (microspheres), 20–40 nm (nanorods) | \nTiCl4 | \n3D urchin-like structure composed of nanoneedles | \nPhotocatalysis | \n
Hierarchical TiO2 nanostructures produced via solvothermal method.
Ochanda et al. have presented TiO2 HNSs by solvothermal synthesis technique. Their method involves mixing of 15 ml of 4 M NaOH solution with 0.5 g TiO2 fibers. Then, 15 ml ethanol solvent is added to this solution followed by heating in a 50 ml Teflon-lined autoclave at 150°C for 0.5, 1, 6 and 12 h. The resultant white precipitates are then dried in air. Nanoflower-like structures are grown over the nanorod structures with average crystallite size of 4 nm (Figure 12) [10].
\n(a) 1 h solvothermal treatment, showing TiO2 particle nucleation on nanofiber surface. (b) Hierarchical TiO2 formed after 6 h showing the inception of flower-like structures. (c) After 12 h showing nanoscale flower-like nanostructures, completely covering the nanofiber surface [10].
These structures are then employed for photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue dye. Complete degradation of organic dye has been achieved in 120 min by these structures. Hence, these HNSs can be used for determining photocatalytic behavior and applications like solar cells.
\nXiang et al. have prepared HNSs of Titania by solvothermal synthesis method using toluene. First, TiCl4 is mixed with distilled water in ice water bath. In another assembly, toluene (30 ml) is mixed with tetrabutyltitanate (TBT). Both solutions are then stirred together for 1 h. The solution is placed in Teflon-lined autoclave for 24 h at 150°C. Micron ranged hierarchical Titania needles are obtained [35] as shown in Figure 13. Temperature plays an important role in defining the morphology of the products as HNSs are produced only above 120°C. Sea urchin-like HNSs are formed via ‘nucleation–self-assembly–dissolution–recrystallization’ growth mechanism without adding any surfactant or template. These structures are then tested for photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue and complete degradation study is completed in 240 min.
\nSEM images (1) nonhierarchical TiO2 structures grown at 90°C. (a–c) TEM images of 3D hierarchical urchin-like structures having 1D nanoneedles [35].
Following are some of the advantages of this technique:
Better controlled morphologies due to control on temperature and treatment duration.
Reliable method because of better reproducibility.
High boiling organic solvents can be used.
The method has the following demerits:
Sometimes solvents are difficult to separate from the materials produced due to high boiling points of the solvents.
Different solvents will have different effect on growth of target materials.
The solvothermal method in addition to the advantages offered by hydrothermal method allows the use of higher temperatures. This is sometimes advantageous in producing better crystallinity in the products. Table 3 gives a summary of the reported work on solvothermal synthesis. The prepared HNSs obtained using this method range in size, from a few micrometers to several nanometers. They possess large surface area up to 94 m2g−1. The products have good crystallinity due to high crystallization temperatures offered by possible use of high boiling solvents. Different solvents can provide different chelating effects and hindrance to control morphology of structures. In addition to the type of solvent used, temperature and time control the growth and crystallization of particles during synthesis. These types of HNSs can be used for various photocatalytic applications like solar cells and organic pollutant degradation.
\nThis is relatively a new technique with many advantages. The key feature of this method is to heat the reaction mixture in less time via electromagnetic radiations. The frequency is kept from 800 to 2450 MHz range. Although it is not much explored for the HNS synthesis, much literature is available on microwave synthesis of nanoparticles [61], nanospheres [62], nanorods [63], nanowires [64] and nanotubes [65] of TiO2. Dipole molecules rotate in the presence of these radiations and localized “superheating” occurs at ambient pressure. This heat energy provided is used for crystallization of amorphous materials. By this method, reactions can be completed in just a couple of minutes as compared to conventional heating.
\nAlthough dedicated microwave lab reactor is the best equipment, modified/non-modified domestic microwave ovens can also be used for the preparation of HNSs. From a few reports found on HNS synthesis, it appears to be an efficient, quick and cost-effective method of HNS synthesis. The key characteristics of prepared samples are given in Table 4.
\nReference | \nPhase | \nSurface area (m2 g−1) | \nParticle size (diameter) | \nCrystallite size (nm) | \nMorphology | \nApplication | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Javed et al. [8] | \nAnatase | \n18 | \n500 nm | \n5.6 | \nNanoflower-like structures | \nDSSCs | \n
Calatayud et al. [38] | \nAnatase | \n113 | \n1–2μm | \n— | \nNanoparticle agglomerates | \nPhotocatalysis | \n
Wang el al. [37] | \nAnatase | \n86.90 | \n500 nm | \n10 | \nTiO2 nanoagglomerates | \nDSSCs | \n
Rahal et al. [66] | \nAnatase | \n47 | \n200–300 nm | \n— | \nFlower-shaped nanoparticle agglomerates | \nPhotocatalysis | \n
Martínez et al. [67] | \nAnatase | \n73 | \n500 nm | \n56 | \nCauliflower-like hierarchical structures | \n— | \n
Hierarchical TiO2 nanostructures produced via microwave treatment.
Javed et al. have prepared 3D-HNSs by microwave irradiation of anatase nanopowder in 10 M NaOH solution at 1 atm without any surfactant. Submicron-sized flower-like HNSs are produced as shown in Figure 14 [8]. The crystalline phase is anatase with a decrease in surface area as microwave treatment duration increases from 5 to 20 min. The product is applied as photoanode in DSSCs, whereby the use of HNSs has two-fold improved the device efficiency. One reason being the larger light scattering due to morphology of the HNSs.
\nTEM images of hierarchical structures produced via microwave irradiation (a) after 5 min and (b) after 20 min [8].
Calatayud et al. prepared hierarchical crystalline TiO2 via microwaves from amorphous powder using titanium (IV) tetrabutoxide (Ti(OBut)4) and anhydrous ethanol as precursor materials. The solution is stirred for 6.5 h for complete hydrolysis and replacement of -butoxide group from -hydroxyl groups. Then, the powder is dried under atmospheric conditions. The powder obtained is washed with water and ethanol and irradiated in microwaves for different time durations. This microwave treatment provides the crystallization temperature and time for conversion of amorphous Titania to crystalline one. Anatase TiO2 spherical HNSs (Figure 15) are produced having size from 1 to 2 μm [38].
\nSEM images of TiO2 spherical structures after microwave treatment: (a and b) after 7 min, (c and d) after 15 min [38].
These HNSs are employed for photodegradation of methyl orange (MO), which is completed in 6 h. By increasing microwave irradiation up to 10 min, clear agglomerated structures are produced, but as crystallization time is increased under microwaves, surface area decreases as particle size increases.
\nWang et al. have synthesized HNSs by microwave irradiation using TiCl4 (0.5 ml) in ethanol (14 ml) shown in Figure 16. After stirring for an hour, the reaction mixture is subjected to microwave irradiation for 10 min at 150°C under pressure of 300 Pa. TiCl4 is hydrolyzed and crystallized in microwaves and TiO2 nanoagglomerates with particle size up to 10 nm are prepared in spherical geometry [37]. The crystallite size is measured to be as small as 10 nm. In the presence of microwave, TiO2 nanoparticles begin to nucleate and then their growth and aggregation occur during crystallization.
\nSEM images of 3D TiO2 agglomerates [37].
So, microwave heating provides quick crystallization of particles as particles begin to cluster within 3–5 min. Mesoporous structures are produced as a result of this synthesis and they are employed as a photoanode material in DSSCs. A maximum conversion efficiency of 7.64% is reported.
\nRahal et al. have prepared TiO2 hierarchical structures by mixing cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB, 11 mmol) and urea (2.4 g, 40 mmol) in 200 ml H2O for hydrolysis (Figure 18). CTAB is used as a surfactant to control morphology and (NH2)2C=O provides steric hindrance. To this reaction mixture, cyclohexane and 1-pentanol are added after stirring of 30 min. Then, TiF4 (5.94 g, 48 mmol) is added to the solution and whole liquid media is transferred to Teflon-lined microwave reactor at 800 W. The mixture is irradiated under microwaves for 5 min at 120°C. The product is then washed thoroughly to remove impurities and other compounds and centrifugation is done to take out less dense particles.
\nFlower-shaped HNSs made of nanoparticle agglomerates (Figure 17) are produced with anatase phase [66]. Microwave treatment even for 5 min provides enough time for crystallization of TiO2 nanoparticles. The prepared structures are utilized in photodegradation of Rhodamine B dye and complete degradation is observed within 1 h.
\nSEM images (a–d) of TiO2 hierarchical structures having flower-like shapes after microwave irradiations for 5 min [66].
Hierarchical structures of TiO2 (a) H2SO4 free-TiO2, (b) 0.5M-TiO2, (c) 1M-TiO2, (d) 1.5M-TiO2, (e) 2M-TiO2, (f) 3M-TiO2 [67].
Martínez et al. [67] have recently reported TiO2 HNSs prepared by stirring 3 ml of titanium tetra isopropoxide in 50 ml of H2SO4 and subsequent microwave treatment in a Teflon vessel at 120°C for 2 h. Anatase Titania is formed as a result of this scheme. Concentration of H2SO4 is changed to study the effect on particle size. Cauliflower-shaped HNSs are obtained. The increase in H2SO4 concentration increases the particle size.
\n\n
Shorter crystallization time is required.
Electromagnetic radiations provide much temperature for nucleation and growth during crystallization within less time.
It is a time-saving process.
Large material can be synthesized in less time, so a better yield is expected.
\n
The duration of microwaves should be carefully controlled so that optimum crystallization of Titania is done.
Microwave treatment for longer times and high temperature transform anatase TiO2 to rutile.
In short, microwave treatment is a quick technique to attain hierarchical morphology in TiO2 nanostructures. By controlling temperature and exposure duration, HNSs ranging in sizes from micron to nanometers are produced. Localized heating caused by microwaves make this method an energy-efficient one with the possibility of acquiring environment-friendly conditions. The use of NaOH has resulted in submicron-sized HNSs made of radially arranged nanosheets, whereas by using other precursor materials, simple microwave treatment produces HNSs made of nanoparticle agglomerates. Hence, flower-like hierarchical morphologies are obtained as a result.
\nThis technique is well known for its flexibility to grow variety of materials. Nanotree-like structures can be grown via this synthesis route without using any surfactant and prior treatment. Pressure treatment and laser ablation are used for preparation of hierarchical structures by this technique.
\nIt is a top-down approach in which pulsed laser is used to decompose the precursor material and then these materials are deposited on substrates. By controlling the parameters like laser power, temperature, chamber geometry and pressure, one can grow structures of different morphologies from columnar structures to dense forest-like [39] structures. The porosity of structures is increased when grown at high pressure because of fast process. Also the surface area can be controlled by controlling inter columnar spacing and thickness. Table 5 shows features of structures prepared via dot pattering technique.
\nReference | \nPhase | \nSurface area (m2 g−1) | \nParticle size (diameter) (nm) | \nCrystallite size (nm) | \nMorphology | \nApplication | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fonzo et al. [39] | \nRutile | \n300 | \n260 | \n— | \nNanoforest composed of nanotrees | \nPhotocatalysis | \n
Sauvage et al. [44] | \nAnatase | \n86 | \n20 | \n25 | \nNanoforest composed of nanotree-like structures | \nDSSCs | \n
Hierarchical TiO2 nanostructures produced via PLD.
Fonzo et al. have prepared hierarchically organized nanostructured TiO2 by ablating Titanium foil with KrF excimer laser pulses (h 248 nm, duration 10–15 ns, energy density 4 J/cm2) in dry air (O2) background with pressure. Thin films of Titania are grown both on silicon and pure titanium substrates. Annealing is done at 400°C for 1 h for crystallization of samples prepared. By changing the pressure of chamber, thickness of the sample is varied from dense columnar structures to tree-like structure [39] (Figure 19). This technique can be employed for preparation of HNSs as it provides a stimulating outlook both for photocatalytic and for advanced photovoltaic application, and it also substitutes the time-consuming deposition of different layers and longlasting annealing steps.
\nSEM images of different morphologies of TiO2 at (a) 10 Pa, (b) 20 Pa, (c) 40 Pa [39].
Sauvage et al. have prepared hierarchical TiO2 structures by PLD. Nanoparticles of TiO2 are grown directly on FTO substrate by ablating Titanium target in the presence of O2 background. TiO2 nanostructure attained the symmetry of tree-like structures. Height and thickness of trees increase with respect to deposition time [44]. By increasing pressure from 10 to 40 Pa, the particles formed nanoforest-like structures. The structures formed are shown in Figure 20.
\nSEM images of nanoforest-like structures prepared at (a) 20 Pa and (b) 40 Pa [44].
This type of assembly hampers electron-hole pair recombination and it facilitates the efficiency if employed in solar cells. This assembly also promotes mass transport of electrons in mesoporous structures. This morphology provided efficient light trapping and high surface area for dye adsorption and efficiency of 5% is obtained. The porosity and surface area can also be optimized for making these structures highly competent for photovoltaic devices.
\n\n
This technique produces better results than anodization.
The surface area of materials synthesized can be controlled.
Nanotree-like structures can be formed.
Large surface area structures can be achieved.
It is a flexible technique and parameters can be controlled.
Porosity can be controlled by using high pressure.
Synthesis can be done without surfactants and chelating agents.
The photocatalysis is better than anatase powder and TiO2 produced via anodization [68].
\n
This technique is difficult.
High pressure is required.
It is an expensive process to synthesize materials.
Temperature and pressure relation on particle growth should be clearly known to attain desired morphology.
So, by controlling parameters like pressure, temperature and time, nanoforest-type structures were grown via pulsed laser technique. By using intermediate pressure, columnar structures were grown and density of structures decreases by increasing pressure [69]. The particle size was in nanometer ranges. Pulsed laser was used to ablate Titania target on which structures were grown. This technique can be used to synthesize different materials by using different target materials. Hence, the prepared structures can be employed in different applications like dye sensitized solar cells, perovskite solar cells and photodegradation of pollutants.
\nIt is an electrochemical process in which metal sheets are decorated and electrolytic passivation1 takes place. The thickness of oxide layer is increased in this process. The surface is decorated and finished with more durable and corrosion-resistant surface. The reactions that occur during anodization for oxidation of metals are [70]:
\nAnd for titanium,
\nTiO2 is formed on titanium surface. The fluoride ion (F−) present in solution causes dissolution of oxide layers and etching in nanopits starts to prepare nanotubes. Water is the main source of oxidation in anodization. Hydroxyl ions from electrolyte are injected into the body of anodic oxide layer [71]. These anions impede ion transport, which is necessary for movement of metal-ion interface into metal. The anodization also depends on solution diffusion rate and local electric field supplied to a specific area [72]. Table 6 shows features of structures prepared via dot pattering technique.
\nReference | \nPhase | \nSurface area (m2 g−1) | \nParticle size (diameter) (nm) | \nCrystallite size (nm) | \nMorphology | \nApplication | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ali et al. [43] | \nAnatase | \n— | \n100 | \n40 | \nNanotubes | \n— | \n
Ali et al. [73] | \nAnatase | \n— | \n75–90 | \n— | \nNanotube arrays | \nWater splitting | \n
Zhang et al. [42] | \nAnatase | \n— | \n200 | \n— | \nNanotubes | \nPhotoelectrocatalytic decomposition | \n
Tang et al. [40] | \nAnatase | \n33.4 | \n65 | \n33.3 | \nMicrospheres | \nPhotocatalysis | \n
Smith et al. [72] | \nAnatase | \n— | \n120–170 | \n— | \nNanotubes | \nPhotoelectrocatalytic decomposition | \n
Hierarchical TiO2 nanostructures produced via anodization.
Ali et al. have prepared hierarchical Titania structures (Figure 21) by using Ti foil, ammonium fluoride and ethylene glycol as precursor. DI water has been used in electrolyte preparation. Ti foils are being anodized in ethylene glycol electrolyte containing 0.5 wt% NH4F and 0.2 wt% DI H2O for oxidation of titanium. In this process, Ti foil is taken as a working electrode and platinum foil is used as counter electrode. Both electrodes are placed 10 mm apart. Voltage is maintained at 60 V for 24 h using DC power source and Titania nanotubes are prepared. The sample is being annealed at 450°C for 2 h [43]. These structures can provide highly mesoporous structures for various photocatalytic applications.
\n(a) SEM images of hierarchical TiO2 prepared via anodization of TNT in F- residue and (b) cross-sectional view [43].
Ali et al. have prepared hierarchical structures of Titania by anodization technique. Ti foil is used as precursor and glycerol with ammonium fluoride is used as electrolyte. Anodization of Ti foils has been done in glycerol containing 10 wt% H2O and 0.25 M NH4F electrolyte solution. The voltage has been set at 30 V against the Pt counter electrode for 4 h. The nanotubes are then dried under a stream of N2 gas. The sample is annealed at 400°C for 2 h for crystallization of Titania nanotube arrays (TNTAs). The sample obtained is then immersed in 80 mM TiCl4 for different time intervals and then sintered at 400°C to produce photoelectrodes. Nanorods (Figure 22) having flower-like structures are produced after treatment at 120°C with TiCl4 [73]. These structures are then utilized for water-splitting application. H2 can also be produced from these structures and can be stored for energy applications.
\nFESEM images of (a) TNTA, (b) TNTA/TiCl4 20 min, (c) TNTA/TiCL4 80 min, (d) TNTA/TiCl4 120 min [73].
Zhang et al. prepared hierarchical nanotube-like structures via anodization [42]. The titanium foil is sonicated in ethanol and cold distilled water to remove impurities. After that, N2 stream is used to dry the foil. Anodization is done using Ti as anode and Pt as cathode material. NH4F is added in ethylene glycol (EG), which is present in 2 vol% distilled water as electrolyte solution. This electrolyte is used for oxidation of Titanium sheet. Anodization is performed at room temperature in two steps. In step 1, Ti sheet is anodized for 10 min at 50 V and grown nanotubes are removed ultrasonically in DI water. In step 2, the same sheet is anodized under the same condition for 30 min. The powder obtained is cleaned with distilled water under N2 atmosphere.
\nAnodized TiO2 nanotubes are annealed in air at 450°C for 1 h with a heating rate of 5°C/min for crystallization of pure anatase phase as shown in Figure 23. These structures are used for photodegradation of organic pollutants. These types of structures show improved photocatalytic activity in degradation of organic dye. The enhanced surface area facilitated the reaction rate.
\n(a) SEM image of top view of porous TiO2 nanotubes; Top enlarged image shows the diameter and bottom enlarged image shows the side walls [42].
Tang et al. [40] have prepared nanoflakes/nanoparticles hierarchical structures via anodization technique. In this synthesis, electrochemical spark discharge spallation (ESDS) method is applied in an electrolyte of 10 M NaOH in aqueous solution while using as platinum counter electrode. Titanate hierarchical microspherulite structures are produced as a result of this synthesis. The Na+ ions are replaced by H+ ions by soaking the prepared sample in HCl. The sample is then washed to remove the acidic content and to make pH neutral. The samples obtained are annealed at different temperatures to crystallize them [40].
\nDislocations in the sample decrease as the sample is heated above its crystallization temperature. Table 6 shows some properties of anatase TiO2 obtained via this synthesis route. The difference in morphology can be seen in SEM image in Figure 24. By increasing the time for heat treatment, nanosheets were converted into nanoflakes and nanoparticles due to crystal re-growth with larger energy and with minimal stresses. These structures are employed for photodegradation of organic pollutants.
\n(a) H-TMS calcinated at different temperatures: (b) 300°C, (c) 400°C, (d) 500°C, (e) 600°C, and (f) 700°C [40].
Smith et al. have prepared hierarchical nanotubular structures via anodization technique [72]. The synthesis follows basic principle of anodization. Titanium foil is etched in the presence of HF, HNO3 and DI water in volumes of 1:3:50 ml for different time intervals. The etched powder is washed with DI water immediately and is anodized at 60 V for 1 h in presence of NH4F and ethylene glycol electrolyte. The powder obtained is annealed at 500°C for 2 h. The etching treatment before anodization removed small layers of titanium and provided ripple-like surface. Due to surface roughness, the electric field becomes localized at grains. An initial oxide layer formed during etching is then oxidized during anodization.
\nThe smooth etched layers on foil cause a uniform electric current and porous nanotubes grow in those areas. The prepared hierarchical structures as shown in Figure 25 showed better results for photoelectrochemical applications. Hierarchical structures provided large surface area for photocatalytic reactions.
\nSEM image of foil’s surface: (a) After 30 s etching (inset shows anodization after 1 h at 60 V) and (b) after 90 s etching [72].
\n
The thickness and lengths of the nanotubes produced can be varied by changing voltage time and voltage itself [74].
High aspect ratio tubes are formed.
Ease of fabrication.
The change in anodization conditions does not affect the chemical composition of TiO2 nanotubes.
Increasing the electrolyte concentration can cause etching to increase and nanotubes can be formed of long lengths and diameters.
Structures are highly recommended for DSSCs as high aspect ratio tubes are formed.
\n
Extended warranties of products are not offered in this process.
Average growth rate can be decreased with increase in anodization time [74].
So, hierarchical Titania nanostructures were prepared from anodization technique and nanotube-like structures were prepared. The particle diameter was in nanometer ranges. The diameter and length of nanotubes increase by increasing voltage and voltage time up to optimum level [75]. The prepared powder was used in water-splitting application, which can be used for nuclear thermal and solar thermal plants.
\nThis is a technique that is used in microfabrication to pattern thin films and bulk materials. Light is being used to transfer pattern onto the light-sensitive photoresist. Photoresist basically is a light-sensitive material, which is used to form pattern coating on the surface. Photoresist is of two types, which are as follows:
Positive photoresist: The resist is applied over the area on which the underlying material is to be removed.
Negative photoresist: The resist is applied over the area on which the area other than resist is to be removed.
Then, etching is done to form patterned hierarchical 3D structures. When photopositive resist coating is done over the substrate, then the growth of structure takes place on the same area where we seed/coat the material. The mask contains the exact copy of resist, which we deposit on the substrate and vice versa. Table 7 shows features of structures prepared via photolithography technique.
\nReference | \nPhase | \nSurface area (m2 g−1) | \nParticle size (diameter) | \nPrecursor materials | \nMorphology | \nApplication | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Kim et al. [48] | \nAnatase | \n— | \n1.5–2μm | \nTi foil | \nFlower-like structures on nanotubes | \nDSSCs | \n
Hierarchical TiO2 nanostructures produced via dot patterning/photolithography.
Kim et al. have reported HNSs of Titania by photolithography. A negative PR is prepared on 5 mm Ti foil by baking at 120°C. Upon exposure to UV light, PR gets developed. The foil is etched via reactive ion etching. Titanium foil’s area that is not covered with the PR is etched out in this process. TiO2 nanoflowers composed of nanotubes (Figure 26) are prepared in this procedure [48].
\nHierarchical flower-like structures produced by dot patterning [48].
So, flower-like HNSs are produced via dot patterning technique. The particles are in the micron ranges (diameter). The prepared product is employed in dye-sensitized solar cells and exhibits maximum surface area for dye adsorption. Hence, these show better result for photocatalytic processes.
\n\n
If viscosity of photoresist is controlled, we can achieve well-formed structures.
Cost-effective process.
No need of specialized equipment.
\n
The nature of solvents, sensitizers and additives should be well studied.
Sometimes, the step coverage can be poor, i.e., the ability of photoresist to cover the side-edge of the surface steps.
HNSs of Titania are formed via various techniques and different types of structures are formed by these processes. Table 7 shows the different characteristics of materials obtained by dot patterning. By changing the reaction conditions like time, temperature and pressure and precursor material, different morphological structures are formed, which have different surface area and porosity for applications like dye-sensitized solar cells, photocatalysis, gas sensing and lithium ion batteries.
\nAs the name suggests, this method involves deposition of vapors of the required material. The material is vaporized from the source and condenses on the substrate. It may or may not involve chemical reactions. Vapors can be deposited on the substrates by two main processes:
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)
Physical vapor deposition (PVD)
Very little work has been done by these techniques to grow TiO2 HNSs. By these techniques, we can grow hierarchical structures. The film cost, thickness, source material and compositions can be controlled by these processes.
\nIn CVD process, precursors are introduced in the reaction chamber and flow of molecules is regulated by control values. The precursor molecules get deposited over the surface of substrates after chemical reactions take place. Heat energy is provided for chemical reactions to take place. While in PVD, deposition occurs by various routes like evaporation, sputtering and molecular beam epitaxy (MBE). Table 8 shows different characteristics of HNSs prepared via these processes.
\nReference | \nPhase | \nSurface area (m2 g−1) | \nParticle size (diameter) (nm) | \nCrystallite size (nm) | \nMorphology | \nApplication | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Flipin et al. [76] | \nAnatase | \n— | \n50–120 | \nBelow 100 (for all structures) | \nNanoforest composed of nanowires | \nDSSCs | \n
Yoshitake et al. [77] | \nAnatase | \n518 | \n3.03 | \n3.30 | \nWorm-like spherical agglomerated structures | \n— | \n
Hierarchical TiO2 nanostructures produced via vapor deposition processes.
Flipin et al. [76] grew hierarchical TiO2 nanotubes by plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition technique. Porphyrins and phthalocyanines were used as cost-effective precursor molecules. First of all, seed layer was grown by polycrystalline anatase films for highly dense and homogenous organic nanowires. Physical vacuum deposition was done to grow organic nanowires (ONWs) of phthalocyanine molecules with sublimation temperature of 250°C. As a result, tunable ONWs in the range between 1 and 30 μm and diameters between 50 and 120 nm were produced. Then, PECVD was done to cap ONWs with TiO2 shells.
\nMultistacked nanotrees composed of TiO2 nanowires were grown as a result of this synthesis as shown in Figure 27. These nanotubes were grown as 1D structures provide maximum electron percolation as compared to 0D nanoparticles due to less grain boundaries. These structures were then employed for DSSCs to evaluate their efficiency for current production.
\n(a and b) SEM images of multistacked nanoforest [76].
Yoshitake et al. [77] prepared hierarchical TiO2 structures by CVD method. Titanium tetraisopropoxide (TTIP) was used as a precursor material. About 40 g of water was added to 8 g of TTIP with 2.6 g of dodecyl amine at 273 K. The mixture was stirred with 0.1 M HCl and was kept overnight for aging. The reaction mixture was transferred to autoclave at 373 K for 4 days. The powder obtained was washed with methanol and dry ethyl ether.
\nCVD of TTIP was done in Pyrex reactor. Pure argon was passed through liquid TTIP at 293 K into the tube where the powder formed by former process was already deposited. After deposition for 24 h, the gas was switched to N2, which passed through water at 293 K. TTIP was decomposed completely for 12 h and finally the powder was treated in dry air at 393 K for 2 h. Spherical agglomerated structures were produced as a result of this synthesis (Figure 28).
\n(a) TEM images of structures formed by CVD and (b) worm-like agglomerated 3D TiO2 structures grown by CVD [77].
\n
There is less wastage of chemicals and substrate.
If laser is used to heat the precursor material, the deposition becomes selective to the path of laser.
High temperature is required in case of CVD to initiate chemical reactions. CVD runs at much higher temperature.
Substances that cannot tolerate high temperatures, which decompose or sublime, cannot be deposited by CVD.
\n
Processes like sputtering can initiate and undergo PVD, so less use of energy in terms of less usage of heat is required for deposition.
By process like MBE, we can achieve atomic level growth control.
Sputtering does not require the use of specific precursor materials as in CVD.
Cost of the process is very high.
Vacuum conditions may be required in some depositions.
These processes can form well-defined structures. Nanocoatings can also be formed as a result of these processes. Temperature, time and target materials need to be well optimized for distinct structure growth. Pressure in the chamber should be controlled in case of physical vapor deposition processes for growth of hierarchical structures.
\nIn conclusion, this chapter gives an overview of synthesis of HNSs of Titania via different routes. The chemistry and different parameters affecting the properties of HNSs are also briefly discussed. It can be seen that the employed techniques are very powerful in synthesizing TiO2 HNSs in the form of agglomerated nanoparticles, nanospheres, nanoflakes or 1D/3D heterostructures. In hydrothermal synthesis, by changing parameters of temperature, concentration of precursors, etching reagents and time, the morphology of TiO2 particles can be changed to 3D HNSs. By providing prolonged time for crystallization, the morphology of particles changes. However, in case of solvothermal synthesis, different solvents provide different structures. By using solvents that provide maximum steric hindrance, the morphology of structures can be controlled. Also, solvents with high boiling points can be used. In microwave synthesis, irradiation time, temperature and solvents are key factors in controlling morphology. This method provides short time for crystallization in the presence of radiations and more nucleation sites are formed. In pulsed laser deposition process, nanotree- and nanoforest-like structures are grown from agglomeration of nanoparticles. Pressure plays an important role in controlling the morphology. By increasing voltage in anodization technique, when the energy provided to target material is increased, the diameter and length of structures formed are increased leading to formation of 3D hierarchical-like structures as end products. In photolithography, the structures engraving are much easier and microfabrication can be done by these structures. Vapor deposition processes are new and very little work has been done for TiO2 HNSs preparation. These processes can be used to grow very thin films of materials and morphologies can be opted by varying parameters like pressure, temperature, precursors (in case of CVD) and mean free path.
\nHence, TiO2 HNSs with different morphologies can be obtained via different synthetic pathways. These structures can help to achieve maximum scattering with high specific surface area for sunlight entrapment. Hierarchical morphology further helps in better absorption of light and efficient electron-hole pair generation can be achieved. Also, reduced recombination rates are being observed by these structures. These mesoporous structures can help in maximum adsorption of dye molecules. So, these properties shown by TiO2 hierarchical structures increase the efficiency of phenomena taking place at the interfaces and hence efficient results are seen. These facts make HNSs promising candidates for photovoltaic and photocatalytic applications as can be seen in much of the reported work. These structures can be also employed and exploited in future, for increasing efficiency of various devices like:
Photoelectrochemical cells (PECs)
Photovoltaic devices (PVs)
Organic pollutants degradation
Water splitting
Supercapacitors
Li/Na ion batteries
Hierarchical nanostructures can be mixed with nanoparticles to enhance surface area for photocatalytic reactions. These structures can also be doped, codoped or their hybrid structures can be made to increase efficiency of prepared products.
\nAccording to Tannahill [1], health promotion is an umbrella term covering overlapping fields of health education, prevention and attempts to protect public health through social engineering, legislations, fiscal measures and institutional policies which entail the combination of the best in terms of both theory and practice from a wide range of expert groups (educationists, behavioral scientists, medical practitioners) and non-professionals including the communities involved. For him, health promotion stems largely from a new focus for health services that recognize some basic facts: many contemporary health problems are preventable or avoidable through lifestyle change; modern technology is a bundle of mixed blessings bringing both benefits and risks to health; medical technology is at the phase of diminishing returns (losing efficacy and connection to ordinary people); such non-medical factors as better nutrition, improved living conditions and public health measures have contributed to both health and longevity even more than medical measures; that doctors can cause as well as cure disease; and increasing public desire to attain better or improved quality of life and at the same time demystifying and demedicalising the attainment (achievement) of good health [1].
For the World Health Organization (WHO), health promotion is essentially about engendering a context in which the health and well-being of whole populations or groups are owned mainly by the people concerned, i.e., enabling citizens of local communities to achieve political control and determination of their health [2, 3]. Therefore, health promotion goes beyond mere healthcare but puts health on the policymaking agenda in all sectors and at all levels, directing policymakers to be cognisant or conscious of the health consequences of their decisions and accept responsibilities for health.
Health promotion can be seen as the whole process of enabling or empowering people to increase control over and improve their overall health. It focuses on creating awareness of health issues, engendering behaviour modification consistent with prevention and attitudes to ill health and motivating increased usage of available health facilities. In the pursuit of good health (physical, mental and social well-being), individuals and groups through health promotion are enabled to identify and realize aspirations, satisfy needs and change or cope with the environment in manners consistent with complete good health.
Health promotion is expected to contribute to programme impact by enabling prevention of disease, reduction of the risk factors or behaviors associated with given diseases, promoting and fostering lifestyles and conditions that are conducive to good health and enabling increasing use of available health facilities. Therefore, health promotion creates both the awareness and conscientisation that leads to disease prevention, control of health situations and usage of health services and facilities. It implies individual and collective control and participation in health focusing on behavioral change, socio-economic lifestyles and the physical environment.
Without doubt the WHO’s Ottawa Charter definition of health promotion is very comprehensive and encompasses the core values and guiding objectives of health promotions [3]. It summarily sees health promotion as the process of enabling people to increase control over and improve their health. In line with the above definition, Macdonald and Davies [4] contend that it calls attention to the critical role of the concepts of process and control as the real essence of health promotion. For them, “the key concepts in this definition are ‘process’ and ‘control’, and therefore effectiveness and quality assurance in health promotion must focus on enablement and empowerment. If the activity under consideration is not enabling and empowering it is not health promotion” [4], p. 6.
As the burgeoning literature on health promotion over the years indicate it is a community-driven (inspired), multifaceted and multidisciplinary area of concern that also involves critical sociopolitical, economic and environmental elements and dynamics (see [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]).
It is important to also understand that even though one can make a distinction between public health and health promotion, in reality both are interconnected and hardly practically separable. In other words, public health is built on health promotion and health promotion is imperative for public health delivery. As has been argued, public health “is synonymous with health promotion in that it aims to implement co-ordinated community action to produce a healthier society” [11], p. 315.
There is no gainsaying the fact that health promotion nowadays has an overwhelming sociopolitical component that is really definitive. In fact, as has been posited, “health promotion activities are by their nature inherently politically based and driven, thus making it impossible to divorce them from the political arena” [11], p. 314. Health promotion becomes a dynamic area of interface between public policy institutions (the state and its agencies), the public (community/people) and the professionals (ranging from the media professionals, public health advocates, social workers to medical practitioners).
The chapter depended on the desk review of extant literature and documents for its information. The main exclusionary criteria in this regard were materials not related to health promotion and materials published before 1984, which were considered extreme-dated. The inclusive criteria were determined by such concepts as public health, public health in Africa, health promotion, health education and awareness and theories and models in health promotion. Such prominent Internet information sites like the WHO, American Public Health Association (APHA), Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA) and the Universitats Bibliothek Leipzig (UBL) Online Resources were utilized in gathering materials for the chapter.
There is no gainsaying the fact that effective and result-oriented health promotion practice depends on sound theory [12]. In other words, theory becomes very informative of health promotion practice and activities. In recognition of the above, one would examine briefly the main theories that have implicated health promotion globally. It is important, however, to state here that the choice of a theory or model to guide health promotion should be determined largely by the specific nature of the health issue being addressed, the community or population in view and the sociopolitical context in question. This is because theories and models are simply used in practice in order to plan health programmes, explain and understand health behaviour as well as underpin the identification of appropriate intervention and implement such intervention in ways that are both effective and sustainable.
Despite a plethora of theories and models utilized in health promotion, I will only focus on five of the most popular and commonly used. These are ecological models of health promotion, the Health Belief Model (HBM), Stages of Change Model or the Trans-theoretical Model, Theory of Reasoned Action or Planned Behaviour and the Social Cognitive Theory.
As the name implies, these models focus on the interaction of people with their physical and sociocultural environments. The approach thus recognizes that there are multiple levels of influence on health and health behaviour especially the health seeking behaviour and choices that people make. The ecological models are anchored on five overriding influences which determine and guide health behaviour and response to health issues [13, 14, 15, 16]. These influences are intrapersonal or individual factors (these impact on individual behaviour, e.g., beliefs, knowledge, attitude, etc.); interpersonal factors (these are produced through living with and interacting with other people, e.g., family, friends and social groups/networks; these other people can function as both the source of solidarity and support as well as sources of barriers and constraints to health-promoting behaviour of the individual, e.g., dwelling among chronic smokers or having intense interaction with them may expose one to the dangers of either smoking or the influence of second-hand smoke); community factors (these make reference to social norms that are shared by groups or communities, and such norms whether formal or informal can influence health behaviour and health seeking behaviour of the individual and group members, e.g., relationship between institutions, groups and organizations); institutional factors (policies, rules, regulations and institutional structures that may constrain or even promote healthy behaviour in a given society, e.g., the workplace and voluntary organizations to which the individual belongs are prime examples); public policy factors (policies at different level of governance that regulate, structure or support actions and practices targeted at health outcomes like disease prevention policies and structures enabling early detection, control or response and management of health crisis in the society; these stem from the position of the government and are critical in achieving the goals of public health delivery) (Figure 1).
Ecological models of health promotion (simplified).
As the above pyramid, suggests the individual, interpersonal and community factors are at the base. These factors therefore exert more influence and pressure over the individual’s health behaviour than the institutional and public policy factors as these are more important. In other words, the institutional and public policy factors are literally far from the individual and do not exert as much pressure on his behaviour as those factors that are very close to him both spatially and otherwise. In an age of increasing pessimism in government, people are much driven by interpersonal and community factors than what comes from a typical further off entity.
Given the above, it is obvious that the ecological approach is very pertinent in the understanding of the range of factors that influence people’s health. Its main strength is that it can provide what is called a complete perspective on factors that affect health behaviour and response to health issues especially the role of social and cultural factors or normative patterns on health in the society. It is perhaps very well suited to health intervention and practice in developing societies with an overbearing influence of sociocultural factors on behaviour, attitudes and practice of the people.
This is a theoretical model that has been found useful in guiding both health promotion and strategies for disease prevention. As the name suggests, it focuses on individual beliefs about specific health conditions which predict or direct individual health behaviour [17, 18]. The specific components of this belief that influence health behaviour include perceived susceptibility to the disease; perceived severity of the disease in question; perceived benefits of action (positive benefits of such action) as well as cues to action (awareness of factors that engender action); self-efficacy (belief that action would lead to success); and perceived barriers or obstacles to action (especially if such obstacles are seen as daunting or insurmountable or otherwise).
In the utilization of the HBM in health promotion, there are five main action-related segments that would help in identifying key decision-making points and thus facilitate the utilization of knowledge in guiding health intervention. These are: collection of information (through needs assessments; rapid rural appraisal, etc. in order to determine those at risk of the disease or affliction and specify which population or component of the population to be targeted in the intervention); conveying in unambiguous and clear terms the likely consequences of the health issue in question and its associated risk behaviors in order to facilitate a clear apprehension of its severity; communication (getting information to the target population on the recommended steps to take and the perceived or likely benefits of the recommended action); provision of needed assistance (help the people in both the identification of and reduction of barriers or constraints to action); and demonstration (actions and activities that enable skill development and support aimed at enhancing self-efficacy and increased chances of successful behaviour modification targeted at the health issue in question) (Figure 2).
Health belief model (HBM).
In Africa, the HBM has been very useful in understanding people’s response and behaviour to HIV/AIDS and other chronic diseases. Being a society very flushed with beliefs, the degree of responsiveness to a health situation is often the direct product of a set of beliefs held by the individual and/or by his immediate community.
This model is focused on examining and explaining the individual’s readiness to change his behaviour and sees such change as occurring or happening in successive stages. It therefore adopts a quasi-evolutionary framing of behaviour change in which behaviour change, sustenance and termination are encompassed in six stages. These stages are pre-contemplation (existence of no intention to take any action by the individual); contemplation (thinking about taking action and ruminating on plans to do this soon); preparation (signifies intention to take action and includes the possibility that some steps or preliminary steps to action have been taken already); action (discernible change in behaviour for a brief period of time); maintenance (sustenance of the action taken; behaviour change that is maintained in the long run or long-term behaviour change); and termination (the expressed and discernible desire never to return to prior negative behaviour by the individual concerned).
The above stages are very important in planning behaviour change or modification and recognize that behaviour change is both gradual and takes time. What is needed from the health promoter is that at each of these stages specific interventions or programmes are devised to help the individual progress to the next stage. Also, the recognition that the model may in reality be cyclical rather than lineal, i.e., individuals may progress to the next stage or even regress to previous or lower stages, is important in planning health promotion interventions utilizing this model. It also calls attention to understanding that there are individual differences in the adoption of change, i.e., some people may be swift in behaviour modification, while others may take longer time; but each needs support in order to pull through.
The main contention of this theory is that an individual’s health behaviour is usually determined by his intention to exhibit or display a given behaviour. Therefore, the intention to exhibit a given behaviour (or behaviour intention) is predicated upon or predicted by two main factors, viz. personal attitude to the behaviour in question and subjective or personal norms (an individual’s social and environmental context and the perception the individual has over that behaviour) related to that behaviour.
The basic assumption here is that both positive attitudes and positive subjective norms will generate greater perceived control of behaviour and increase the chances of intentions towards changes in behaviour. The theory generally provides information that can be used in predicting people’s health behaviour and thus in planning and driving through health interventions. It anchors in recognizing the predictors of behaviour-oriented action and the need for supportive social and environmental contexts that facilitate and sustain desirable health behaviour.
This theory combines both the cognition of the individual and the social context of the individual in offering explanation and understanding of health behaviour and response. It seeks to describe the influence of the experience of the individual, his perception of the actions of other people near him and the factors in the person’s immediate environment on health behaviour of the individual. It moves from this general perspective to provide opportunities for social support (defined as conducive to healthy behaviour) and reinforcements that generate behaviour change or modification. In this sense, the SCT depends on the idea of reciprocal determinism which denotes the continuing or uninterrupted interaction among the person’s characteristics, his behaviour and the social context or environment in which the behaviour takes place.
However, the best way to appreciate the SCT is to examine the main components the theory isolates as related to behaviour change at the individual level. These are self-efficacy (belief in one’s ability to control and execute behaviour within a given context); behaviour capability (thorough comprehension of behaviour and the ability to exhibit or perform it); expectations (outcomes or outputs of the behaviour change in question); expectancies (the assignation of value to the above outcome of behaviour and which is important in sustaining the behaviour); self- control (the regulation and monitoring of behaviour of the individual); observational learning (the act of watching others performing the desired behaviour and the outcomes therein as well as modeling that behaviour in question); and reinforcements (incentives and rewards seen as eliciting, encouraging and sustaining behaviour change in the individual) [19].
The three components as the above diagram shows reinforce each other and in the process condition and determine behaviour of the individual even in the context of health as well as choices made therein (Figure 3). The SCT is very pertinent in contexts where desirable health outcomes can be achieved by behaviour modification or change. For instance, certain chronic diseases or health conditions can be tackled through healthy lifestyles and dieting that reduce risk factors and chances of individuals succumbing to such conditions. Therefore, the theory can help frame intervention programmes in this area that focus on changing people’s behaviour and in the process achieve desirable health outcomes.
Illustration of the social cognitive theory (SCT).
Theories and perspectives or models as already indicated are critical in providing explanations of a problem or issue (broadening our understanding and perspective as it were) and also very important in the effort to tackle a given problem or issue in the society especially by way of developing and implementing programmes and interventions. Perhaps, the above underscores why some scholars [20, 21, 22] would highlight the difference between the so-called theories of the problem and theories of action, meaning that while the former aids our apprehension of a given issue or social reality, the latter is important in terms of taking actions or evolving activities to tackle the issue in question.
Health promotion generally implicates a huge element of politics and power dynamics in the sense that only political will and cognition can build discernible changes in health. Lobbying and advocacy are critical tools of health promotion and function within the political arena. The sociopolitical contexts and influences are especially recognizable in the public health sector in the developing world where political will and doggedness are often necessary to drive through even the most salutary change or innovation in the health sector. Also, political forces are equally dominant in the provision of crucial health infrastructure and facilities as well as the reasonable funding demanded by any effective public health system. As Harrison opines health promotion “requires concerted, sophisticated and integrated political action to bring about change and requires professionals concerned with public health to engage with the politics of systems and organizations” [5], 165.
Therefore, health promotion seeks to empower and transform communities by getting them involved in activities that influence public health especially through agenda setting, lobbying and advocacy, consciousness raising and social education [11, 22]. All these are accomplished on terms that are either defined or strictly affected by the socio-economic realities of the people themselves. By its emphasis on the community, health promotion has a heavy sociological frame that prioritizes the values of society as well as mobilization and solidarity in the quest for good and sustainable health. It thus makes assumption that individual members of the society would give equal weight to their own health and the health of their neighbors. In other words, it is often anchored on the uncanny assumption that the health of the individual member of a given society is intertwined with the health of the community as a collective. This means the reference point of health promotion is that one’s health is as good as the health of the members of the community or society as a whole, i.e., common health destiny. Therefore, such things as community empowerment, community competence and overwhelming sense of community are all apprehended as contributing to the health of the communities [23].
Traditionally there are five approaches utilized in health promotion. These are medical (the focus here is to make people free from medically defined diseases and afflictions; it is mainly anchored on prevention strategies and the role of the medical practitioner or expert in ensuring that the patients comply with recommendations); behavioural change (behaviour modification approach that recognizes that people’s behaviour and lifestyles can be changed in order to enable them attain good health, i.e., facilitate adoption of healthy lifestyle); educational (provision of information and knowledge that enable understanding of health issues and build awareness for informed decision-making and choice among people); client-centred (in this situation health practitioners work with clients in order to identify what they know about a given disease and take appropriate action; emphasis on perceiving the client as equal and building the clients self-empowerment that enable them make good choices and control their health outcomes); and societal change (the focus here is on the society or community rather than the individual and seeks to change or modify both the physical and social environments in order to make them consistent with or conducive to good health).
The conventional health promotion methods (modes of operationalizing health promotion and achieving its goals) include health education (the conscious and systematic effort at providing education or knowledge to people on particular and general aspects of health; it is about enabling people through proper and right knowledge on what to do and how to do it; it is empowering and improving people’s capacity to act with regard to their health issues and conditions), information, communication (the above three are often captured in the popular acronym IEC), social mobilization, mediation, community theater and advocacy and lobbying. However, while these methods are okay in differing contexts, a decision on the specific medium to use should be guided by both environment (community conditions) and the nature of the health issue involved. The use of more than one method in any given case is highly recommended especially in Africa where there are broad inequalities in access to social goods and the media. The increasing use of social media especially among young Africans calls attention to their deployment equally in core health promotion. Social media platforms like WhatsApp and blogs can be very potent in this regard.
There is an undeniable need to give high priority to health promotion research in Africa. Such research should aim at enabling a realistic and focused achievement of the goals of health promotion. Broadly, health promotion aims inter alia at:
The prevention of communicable and non-communicable diseases
The reduction of risk factors associated with diseases
The fostering of lifestyles and conditions in the general population that are consistent with overall well-being or good health
The effective/maximal utilization of existing health services and stimulating demand for others where/when necessary
According to the WHO [24] Health Promotion Strategy for the African Region, the contributions of health promotion to the achievement of health objectives include increasing individual knowledge and skills especially through IEC; strengthening community action through the use of social mobilization; enabling the emergence of environments supportive and protective of health by making optimal use of mediation and negotiation; enabling the development of public policies, legislation and fiscal controls which enhance and support health and overall development using advocacy and lobbying; and making prevention and consumer needs the core focus of health services delivery. All these can be positively influenced by research and studies which evaluate the effectiveness of what has been done as well as explore new strategies suitable to the socio-environmental context in question.
However, while research is very critical to achieving the goals of health promotion, it should be concise and focus essentially on the priority health programmes which have been identified by the WHO for the continent. Some of such programmes include the Global Fund for Malaria, HIV/AIDS and Tuberculosis, Immunization, Mental Health, the Tobacco Free Initiative and Reproductive Health as well as the fight against recurrent scourge of Ebola, etc. Such research should focus on identifying effective health promotion approaches and communication media to embody and convey the outcomes to communities through community participation; the extent or effectiveness of these means and seeking to still improve overall programme effectiveness and sustainability. Therefore, health promotion research should focus on ascertaining goals/outcomes of health promotion (to guide policy), provide reliable conditions associated with these outcomes or goals, precisely define the changes intended and delineate reliable mechanisms and indicators of M and E of health promotion strategies in specific country/community contexts.
The importance of research is essentially derived from the fact that it calls attention to the need for verification and evidence-based activities in health promotion. These are without doubt the ways of knowing if real empowerment and enabling has been achieved in the process. Thus,
Health promotion is about enabling people to improve their health; and secondly, evidence relevant to health promotion should bear directly on factors that support or prevent enablement and empowerment (determinants of health) activities that support enablement and empowerment (health promotion) and assessing whether these activities have been successful (evaluation of health promotion). [25], p. 357
The above clearly suggest that health promotion should be anchored on evidence or should rest on experience and reality regarding what works or what is possible and effective in any context. In this manner, “evidence-based health promotion involves explicit application of quality research evidence when making decisions” [26], p. 126. Research is even more foundational in health promotion since health promotion efforts need to be anchored on agreed definitions and values of health promotion. As Seedhouse contends the failure to be explicit about definitions and values generates conceptual confusion in research as well as sloppy practice [27].
The evaluation of health promotion which should be a core research activity may be based on the three main forms of evidence/knowledge associated with health promotion [28]: instrumental (controlling social and physical environments), interactive (understanding of diseases/health issues; lived experiences; solidarity) and critical (reflection and action; raising consciousness regarding causes and means of overcoming them). These three evidences are anchored on the given scientific/philosophical traditions, viz. instrumental (positivism, quantitative, experimental, scientific knowledge), interactive (constructivist, naturalistic, ethnographic/qualitative knowledge) and critical (materialist, structural and feminist theory).
There is also an overwhelming need for health promotion research to be aware of the difference between health promotion outcomes and health outcomes. Health outcomes crudely imply the consequences or benefits of healthcare delivery (e.g., reduction of mortality rate) related to a disease (which may be the case in spite of an increment in number of those affected by the disease). But health promotion outcomes signify the form of control and attitudinal re-orientation groups and individuals adopt in facing a given disease which may impact on the number of people affected by the disease and improve attitudes and behaviour towards those affected by the disease. Health promotion outcomes can be seen directly through community members’ perception and interpretations of a given health issue which makes the achievement of control possible.
Health promotion research should utilize both quantitative and qualitative methods. In addition to complementing quantitative methods in health promotion research, qualitative research enables the researcher reach the heart of issues in engagement with community members. In Africa, where a good percentage of the population are still domiciled in the rural areas, qualitative approach offers the possibility of profound insights into the why and how of health behaviors which may not be possible or easily achieved with the quantitative or traditional biomedical approaches. As a result, “the increasing popularity of qualitative methods is as a result of perceived failure of traditional methods to provide insights into the determinants – both structural and personal – of whether people pursue or do not pursue health-promoting actions” [25], p. 359.
It is important to recognize that in spite of apparent good intentions, health promotion can actually generate negative or counterproductive effects when not well managed. Thus, “negative outcomes occur where professionally paternalistic and disempowering health policy decisions force health-related outcomes that are irrelevant to sustained community development and are not based on or resourced according to the social reality of the community” [11], p. 315. The above sentiments caution one against embarking on health promotion activities and initiatives that are not anchored on the health realities of the community concerned. Often, overzealous health professionals unintentionally betray the health priorities of communities by assuming knowledge of all there is to know about the health situations and needs of the people.
Perhaps a critical shortfall of some health promotion activities and processes is the adoption of what can be termed the pathogenic paradigm which over-relies on risk instead of emphasizing protective mechanisms. This essentially entails a focus on the failure of communities and individuals to avoid disease or their apparent susceptibility to diseases instead of seeking to unleash their potential and capacity to engender and sustain good health and development. It is an approach that relies too much on health practitioners and experts and hardly gives voice to the people and their own knowledge cum realities.
Generally health promotion in Africa suffers from some of the debilitating challenges which confront the practice of health promotion broadly in many countries in the continent. These challenges, among others, include:
Poor definition and rudimentary elaboration of expected health outcomes
Ambiguous elaboration of factors and conditions to be targeted in health promotions
Ambiguity of health promotion policies and guidelines
Lack of capacity (or inadequate capacity) to develop, implement and evaluate health promotion programmes
A general context of inadequate investment in health promotion
Underdeveloped sectoral collaboration
Low political will and commitment to health promotion programmes as well as institutional corruption and resource mismanagement
The above challenges have implications for research in health promotions in the continent. There is no gainsaying the need for health promotion to be evidence based because essentially it is the only way to make it responsive to the health needs and interests of the people.
Health promotion combines varied but complementary indicators like legislation, health finance including fiscal measures and taxation, gender inclusiveness, mapping of priorities and organizational change. In spite of their differences, these issues are in reality intertwined or systematically connected in the sense that, for the public health system to function well and optimally, there should be a synergy between these indicators. Briefly:
This revolves around having the political will to make and drive through policies and laws that improve and sustain healthcare delivery. It also involves public health sector governance and leadership which aim at ensuring that only competent and qualified people lead the sector and that activities are governed by a democratic and free process which place emphasis on human rights, dignity and self-worth of all stakeholders.
Without doubt efficient health promotion and by implication the entire health delivery system cannot function without finance. In fact, the extent and impact of health promotion depend to a significant extent on the availability of funds. The problem of finance is especially critical in developing nations in Africa where political corruption and competing needs whittle down whatever gets to health from the yearly appropriation of government. However, there is a need to understand that a lot needs to be done in terms of the fiscal policies in these nations in order to achieve the desire for good health and improved life expectancy. In other words, the process of fiscal policymaking and budgetary allocation should prioritize health promotion and health delivery in these countries.
There is no gainsaying the fact that the health system as a whole is dynamic especially so in Africa where apart from battling known ailments new ones (or novel presentation of the old ailments) spring up now and then. The above entails that the health system calls for dynamic organizational setting that is robust enough to deal with changes while making improvements in the system. There is apparently no denying the fact that health promotion as a critical component of health delivery would benefit from organizational change. This is particularly so in the face of the reality that health promotion in most of the continent is still below the expectation. This is not to deny that health promotion has worked well in specific instances like the HIV/AID scourge and maternal health. However, such grab and slash system which focuses on only one of such delimited issues in the system cannot be seen as either robust or effective in the long run.
There is an obvious need to ‘en-gender’ health promotion as a very critical issue in Africa. This would entail ensuring that those involved in health promotion ensure that in all key phases of health promotion (planning, implementation and evaluation) women and men should be equal partners and collaborators. Gender, in this case, while calling attention to the needs of women, should also ensure that the men are not left behind even in approaching health issues traditionally seen as the concerns of women. Typical example here is in the area of family planning or reproductive health which demands the active collaboration or participation of both men and women to achieve desired results.
For the WHO [24], the priority interventions in Africa in respect of health promotions include capacity building, development of plans, incorporation of health promotion components in non-health sectors and strengthening of priority programmes using health promotion interventions. These essentially mean pursuing health promotion through capacity building, action planning, advocacy and multisectoral orientation. They are also in tune with relating to the determinants of health promotion in the continent. These include socio-economic conditions and physical (environment), biological, and behavioral lifestyles which impact on health in Africa. Countries can be encouraged to map out their priorities taking into consideration such factors as disease and financial burdens, threats, intervention tools and agencies, acuity, management capabilities, persistent challenges, etc.
Generally, there is a need for stepping up health promotion research in Africa in the areas of family and reproductive health targeting such issues as VVF, antenatal care, diabetes, cardiovascular issues, new disease forms/resurgence of old diseases (including Ebola), etc. especially in terms of communicating with those who are marginal to the formal sector of the society or who are less privileged by virtue of education, economic opportunities or physical/mental challenges, etc. in both urban and rural contexts. Health promotion can profit from an acute awareness of the fact that what works in one socio-geographical setting may not work in another since no two societies are exactly the same. This would entail designing programmes that even where the general principles or goals remain the same embody recognition of the socio-geographical peculiarities of the society/community concerned.
Given the usual paucity of funds in the continent, it makes sense that to minimize cost and save time, there should be incorporation of both needs assessment and evaluation into ongoing health promotion activities. This approach offers a smart way of pursuing health promotion goals without elaborate budget.
In spite of country differences and specific structural challenges, there is a need to build a culture of sharing and documenting outcomes and evidences of health promotion between different countries and organizations. This is a step towards achieving the desirable goal of multinational coordination especially for infectious diseases and epidemics. Equally, African nations need to invest more in capacity building for media and theater practitioners in both private and public sectors on health promotion. There is no gainsaying the media’s crucial role in health information dissemination. Actually, health promotion is largely media driven and should be programmed as such.
In addition to media practitioners, there should be health programme or intervention specific to health promotion capacity building for different cadres of public sector workers. Such capacity building or training should be anchored on acute awareness of current research trends and best practices globally. There should also be increased attention to the need for specific health promotion for under-represented health issues and priority to non-communicable diseases should be targeted. It should also improve capacity on how to incorporate methods of targeting members of the society marginal or vulnerable within each country context.
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