Geometry of TEG.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83968-571-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-570-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-599-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"dd81bc60e806fddc63d1ae22da1c779a",bookSignature:"Dr. Sebahattin Demirkan and Dr. Irem Demirkan",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10818.jpg",keywords:"Decision Making, Blockchain, Accounting, Earnings Management, Strategic Alliances, Innovation, Performance, Corporate Governance, Accounting Quality, Digital Assets, Internationalization, MNCs",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 28th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 25th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 26th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 15th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 13th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Academician in the area of accounting who believes in the impact of interdisciplinary research. Dr. Sebahattin Demirkan's research interests are in the areas of financial accounting, capital markets, auditing, corporate governance, strategic alliances, taxation, CSR, and data analytics.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Researcher of strategic management, corporate entrepreneurship, and international business; specific interests include innovation, the ambidexterity framework, inter-organizational relationships, and networks. Experienced in teaching graduate and undergraduate courses in strategy, entrepreneurship, and international business and management areas.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"336397",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebahattin",middleName:null,surname:"Demirkan",slug:"sebahattin-demirkan",fullName:"Sebahattin Demirkan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336397/images/system/336397.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sebahattin Demirkan is a Professor of Accounting. He earned his Ph.D. in Accounting/Management Science at Jindal School of Management of the University of Texas at Dallas where he got his MS in Accounting, MSA Supply Chain, and MBA degrees. He got his BA in Economics and Management at the Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences at Bogazici University, Istanbul. He worked at Koc Holding, a private venture capital firm, and the University of California, Berkeley during and after his education at Bogazici University. His research interests are in the areas of financial accounting, capital markets, auditing, corporate governance, strategic alliances, taxation, CSR, and data analytics. Dr. Sebahattin Demirkan has published articles in Contemporary Accounting Research, JAPP, JAAF, TEM, Journal of Management, and other top academic journals. He teaches several different classes in both undergraduate and graduate levels in Accounting and Analytics programs. He is a treasurer and vice president of the TASSA, board member of the BURCIN and member of the American Accounting Association.",institutionString:"Manhattan College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Manhattan College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"342242",title:"Dr.",name:"Irem",middleName:null,surname:"Demirkan",slug:"irem-demirkan",fullName:"Irem Demirkan",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000033HrA8QAK/Profile_Picture_1606729803873",biography:"Dr. Irem Demirkan earned her Ph.D. in International Management Studies and M.S. in Administrative Studies at Jindal School of Management at the University of Texas at Dallas, USA. She got her BA in Economics at the Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences at Bogazici University, Istanbul, Turkey. She worked in the finance and textile industries before joining to academia. Dr. Demirkan has published research in the areas of strategic management and corporate entrepreneurship in journals such as the Journal of Management, Journal of Business Research, Management Science, European Journal of Innovation and Management, IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, among others. 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Numerous power‐generation systems, such as solar panels, wind turbines, and geothermal power plants, which utilize renewable energies, have been designed to reduce dependency on fossil fuels, thus reducing greenhouse gases emissions. However, such power‐generation systems require high maintenance and are often expensive as compared to thermoelectric generator devices (TEGs). Thermoelectric generator device (TEG) is a device that directly converts heat into electricity. Essentially, TEG is thermoelectric module (TEM), which consists of thermopiles, that is, a set of thermocouples built by legs of p‐ and n‐type semiconductors, which are connected electrically in series and thermally in parallel [1, 2]. Thermocouples built by legs of p‐ and n‐type semiconductors are sandwiched between two ceramic plates, which are to be held at two different temperatures to realize generation regime. Temperature gradient induced between top and bottom ceramic plates originates voltage on TEG poles due to Seebeck effect in thermocouples built by legs of p‐ and n‐type semiconductors.
Employing waste heat as heat source for TEGs is cost‐effective due to waste heat being free of charge and already available. About 70% of the world energy production is known to be wasted into atmosphere through heat dissipation, which is one of significant contributions in global warming [3]. Therefore, the utilization of waste heat by converting into electricity using TEGs can contribute to energy savings and preservation of the environment as well. Thermoelectric device can also operate in reverse mode as thermoelectric cooler (TEC) and produce reverse temperature gradient between top and bottom ceramic plates due to Peltier effect, if electrical bias is applied. Depending on operation mode, applying bias voltage to thermoelectric module (TEM) and hence initiating flow of electrical current result in the production of temperature difference between top and bottom plates and TEM acts as thermoelectric cooler (TEC) and vice versa; the placement of TEM in temperature gradient results in the occurrence of voltage on TEM poles and TEM acts as heat pump with the function of thermoelectric generator (TEG) [4].
Thermoelectric devices possess various advantages compared to other power‐generation systems [5]. TEGs are branded attractive power‐generation systems, because they are silent solid‐state devices with no moving parts, environmental friendly, scalable from small to giant heat sources, and highly reliable. They also have extended lifetime and ability to utilize low‐grade thermal energy to generate electrical energy.
Seebeck effect describes the induction of voltage, when junctions of two different conducting materials are maintained at different temperatures as shown in Figure 1. Seebeck effect increases in magnitude, when Seebeck coefficient of conducting materials and/or temperature difference between their connections increases. Voltage induced through Seebeck effect is defined as below:
where
Seebeck effect.
Peltier effect describes heat dissipation or absorption at the connection of two conducting materials, when current flows through the junction as shown in Figure 2. Depending on the direction of current flow, heat is either absorbed or dissipated at connection.
Peltier effect.
Thomson effect describes the dissipation or absorption of heat, when electric current passes through a circuit composed of a single material, which has temperature variation along its length, as shown in Figure 3.
Thomson effect.
where
Joule‐heating effect defines heat dissipated by material with nonzero electrical resistance in the presence of electrical current, as shown in Figure 4,
Joule heating.
TEGs are composed of numerous legs (slabs) made of p‐ and n‐type semiconductors forming thermocouples, all connected electrically in series and thermally in parallel. Semiconductor legs are connected to each other through conductive copper tabs, and they are sandwiched between two ceramic plates, which conduct heat, but behave as insulators to electrical current. Schematic diagram of three‐dimensional (3‐D) multielement thermoelectric generator is shown in Figure 5.
3‐D schematic of multielement TEG.
Waste heat from various sources, such as automobile engines exhaust, industry and infrastructure‐heating activities, geothermal, and others, can be supplied to top ceramic plate of TEGs. As shown in Figure 5, heat flows through ceramic plate and copper‐conductive tabs before reaching the top surface of p‐ and n‐type legs made of proper semiconductors, which is defined as the hot side of TEG. Heat flows through both semiconductor\'s legs and then again through copper‐conductive tabs and bottom ceramic plate. Through heat sink, the bottom ceramic plate is maintained at significantly lower temperature than top ceramic in order to produce high‐temperature gradient, which will lead to high‐power output. Allowed temperature applied on top and bottom ceramic plates depends on materials of p‐ and n‐type legs. Also, p‐ and n‐type materials are designed to possess low thermal conductivity in order to restrict, as much as possible, heat flow through semiconductors and maintain temperature difference between hot and cold sides of TEG.
Pictorial distribution of temperature along legs of TEG at conditional difference of temperature
Temperature gradient within TEG.
After temperature gradient has been induced between hot and cold sides of TEG, voltage occurred on TEG‐positive and ‐negative poles due to Seebeck effect, as depicted in Figure 7.
Voltage distribution within TEG.
Voltage generated in TEG due to Seebeck effect induces the movement of charge carriers within p‐and n‐type semiconductor legs and, hence, electrical current in electrical circuit including load resistor
Current density within TEG.
Establishing one‐dimensional (1‐D) representation of TEG is helpful in determining analytical expressions of heat absorbed and heat rejected, as the power output of TEG is defined as the difference between heat absorbed and heat rejected. Figure 9 represents 1‐D schematic of TEG with heat source and heat sink, respectively, applied on top and bottom sides of TEG.
1‐D schematic of multielement TEG.
Electrical resistance network of TEG is shown in Figure 10. P‐type and n‐type semiconductor legs are connected to each other electrically in series through copper‐conductive tabs.
Electrical network resistance.
Thermal resistance of TEG is shown in Figure 11 and it assists in determining heat transfer rate through ceramic plates, copper strips, and p‐ and n‐type semiconductor legs. The number of thermocouples is
Thermal resistance network.
Thermoelectric materials of TEG legs, p‐ and n‐type semiconductors, are characterized by parameter called the figure of merit
where
In order to obtain maximum figure of merit, when designing TEG, the geometry of semiconductor legs and properties of thermoelectric materials need to satisfy the following equation [1, 11]:
where
To reduce manufacturing costs, p‐ and n‐type semiconductor legs are fabricated with the same geometry, that is,
In order to obtain expressions describing TEG performance, thermocouple built by legs of p‐ and n‐type semiconductors is extracted from Figure 9 and represented in Figure 12. Figure 12 represents heat transfer within single thermocouple. The length and cross‐sectional area of both p‐ and n‐type semiconductor legs are equal and symbolize as
Heat transfer within TEG thermocouple.
Employing the conservation of energy and assuming one‐dimensional steady‐state condition, the energy equation of differential control volume inside of p‐type semiconductor leg can be expressed as follows:
Using Taylor expansion:
Fourier\'s law of conduction for one‐dimensional heat conduction states:
Substituting Eq. (9) into Eq. (8):
Provided that thermoelectric properties are temperature independent,
Integrating Eq. (11):
where
Considering Peltier effect happening at the hot junction of p‐type leg:
where
Employing the same procedure with the same boundary conditions to derive heat flow through n‐type leg leads to the expression of
where
We use the same method to derive expression for heat rejected at the cold junction of p‐type and n‐type legs. Consequently, the following expression is obtained:
TEG is characterized by numerous performance expressions, including heat absorbed on the hot side, heat rejected on the cold side, power output, voltage induced, and current flowing in the electrical circuit with load resistor. Defining symbols below from Eqs. (24) and (25):
Expressions of heat flow through the hot and cold junctions for
As stated previously, the power generated by TEG is defined as the difference between heat absorbed at the hot junction and heat rejected at the cold junction:
Optimal current generated in TEG is obtained by first deriving Eq. (31) with respect to current as follows:
Eq. (32) is equated to zero to determine the following expression of optimal current:
Generally speaking, voltage, current, and output power induced in TEG consisting of set of thermocouples similar to the one represented in Figure 9 are, respectively, defined as:
where
In actual TEG, two thermoelectric materials are used, that is, p‐ and n‐type semiconductors. The maximum efficiency provided by TEG is expressed as follows:
where
Numerical example is adopted in order to optimize and analyze effects of heat transfer governing equations on output power, efficiency, and induced voltage of TEG.
In numerical analysis, the following geometry is adopted (Table 1).
The following thermoelectric properties are adopted (Table 2).
Number of pairs ( | Cross‐sectional area ( | Length ( |
---|---|---|
10 | 2.5×2.5×10-6 m2 | 2×10-3 m |
Geometry of TEG.
Thermoelectric properties.
All obtained performance curves are computed at the hot‐side temperature up to
By fixing the cold side at temperature
One can observe that the power as a function of current behaves as a parabola with optimum power value at specific current. Figure 13 shows the existence of maximal current value, which corresponds to optimum power. Any current higher or lower than the maximum current value generates power output less than optimum power. Also, as temperature at the hot side increases, then power produced increases as well.
TEG output power as a function of electrical current.
Efficiency curves shown in Figure 14 behave as parabola as well, with specific current value maximizing efficiency for each temperature difference. In real devices, TEGs are always operated at an optimal current. One thing to note is that the efficiency of TEG is still low compared to other energy‐conversion techniques. A lot of effort has been made to enhance efficiency [13, 14]. Given that heat sources are plenty and free, TEGs could be promising solutions, when they are employed to harvest waste heat from industry activities and central‐heating systems.
Efficiency as a function of current.
Employing various temperature differences, while maintaining the cold‐side temperature at 373 K, voltage induced as a function of current behaves as shown in Figure 15.
Voltage as a function of current (
One can observe from Figure 15 that voltage induced for each temperature difference is decreasing and the linear function of output electrical current. Slopes of I–V dependences are the same.
While still maintaining the cold side at a temperature of 373 K and replacing current in output power equation (Eq. (31)) by optimal current expression (Eq. (33)), power expression becomes a function of temperature at the hot side, and Figure 16 shows the behavior of output power as a function of the hot‐side temperature.
Power as a function of hot‐side temperature.
Output power as a function of hot‐side temperature behaves as nonlinear curve increasing as the hot‐side temperature increases.
The efficiency of TEG as a function of hot‐side temperature is shown in Figure 17.
Efficiency of TEG as a function of hot‐side temperature.
Figure 18 depicts variations of output power as a function of external load resistance. Eq. (35) is used to obtain dependences shown in Figure 18.
Output power as a function of external load resistance.
Optimal output power occurs when load resistance equates to internal electrical resistance of the total number of p‐ and n‐type semiconductor legs.
Efficiency as a function of
In this chapter, the basics of thermoelectric generator devices are covered including phenomena that guide their operation. State‐of‐the‐art modeling efforts are summarized. The presented modeling is crucial for comprehensive understanding of heat to electric energy conversion in TEGs. Simulation results are very useful in predicting the maximum ratings of TEGs during operation under different ambient conditions.
This work was funded by the startup fund from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.
The genus Citrus has tremendous industrial value all over the globe not only for its nutritive juicy high valued fruits but also for the essential oils present in its different vegetative parts. Thus, both the Citrus fruits and citrus essential oils bear potential to generate livelihood & to boost the country’s economy. Citrus essential oils (CEOs) with diverse biologically active compounds of terpene groups with pleasant aroma have already achieved significant positions in flavor, food, cosmetic industries. At the same time, because of their antimicrobial activities as well as anticancer, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, metabolic disorder alleviating activities etc. these oils and their compounds have been getting importance in pharmaceutical and medical sectors for the last few decades [1]. A good number of studies also reported insecticidal potential of citrus EOs extracted from different citrus sp. and their constituents at different times, a few of which are commercialized to be used by the consumers against insect pests. There are 33 recorded species of citrus worldwide (ThePlantList.org) with many recorded and unexplored varieties present in different parts of the world. The essential oil profile of different citrus species varies although some of the constituent compounds are common but present in different amounts in the total bulk oil. Even the oil profile of different vegetative parts of a single citrus species are not identical. Understanding of essential oil profile of diverse citrus species grown in wild, semi wild and cultivated state across the globe at different seasons is the much-needed task as the quality of the oil, oil yield percentage, consistency of the constituents even varies with seasonal changes, geographical location, harvesting time of the plant parts, soil type etc. however from the existing GC–MS profile of different
Pest control sector is dominated by synthetic pesticidal products for many decades. At recent times with increasing concern to ecofriendly product, plant essential oils are getting renewed interest as they are not only effective but also comparatively safe and environment friendly in comparison to synthetic counterparts. Essential oils are part of natural plant defense system and many of them are proved effective and some are exploited for integrated management practices of pest and pathogens. As some citrus species are naturally resistant to certain group of pests and or pathogens, it is assumed that certain bioactive compounds may present in the essential oil part of those citrus species. It is already established that citrus essential oils of different citrus species are effective against wide range of pest and pathogens. It is also important to have an insight about the interaction of citrus constituents against its own insect pest and pathogen complex to be used as insecticidal, repellent and bactericidal etc. A few papers highlighted beneficial effects of using citrus essential oil against its own pest and pathogen complex. The added advantage of considering CEO as insecticidal and insect repellent is that the plant is edible therefore safe for residual contamination or toxicity to consumer. At the same time the pleasant aroma offers consumer acceptance.
CEO and extracts have been tried against a wide range of insect pests for assessing their insecticidal as well as repellent properties. In some parts of the world citrus plants have been traditionally used to ward off a insect pests. Some recent reports especially of the last two decades of the insecticidal and repellent effects of different citrus sp. are presented below. Most of the works were carried out on dipteran, lepidopteran, hemipteran and coleopteran insect pests.
Topical toxicity of the essential oil of
The peel essential oil of the plant is reported to possess repellent effect against
The seed EOs of
Comparative evaluation of toxicity of EOs of
The peel essential oils of
Promising fumigant toxicity of the peel EO of
Moravvej et al. [33] tested fumigant toxicity of EOs from four citrus species namely
Ezeonu et al. [36] reported the insecticidal properties of the volatile peel extracts of
Zewde and Jembere [37] evaluated the solvent extract and essential oil of
Orange oil extract was also recorded effective against the subterranean termite
Majeed et al. [40] reported the insecticidal activity of the acetone, ethanol and aqueous extracts of seeds, leaves and fruit peels and leaves of
Abdel-Kawy et al. [42] showed
While working as biocidal and repellents, plant products including EOs and constituent terpene compounds are reported to act on cholinergic system [43], voltage – gated sodium channel of the nerve membrane, glutamate-gated chloride channel [44], GABA-system [45], Octopaminergic system [46], mitochondrial system [47], endocrine system disrupting the endocrinological balance and respiratory system of insect body. However, not much studies yet conducted on detailed study on the mode of action of EOs and their constituent compounds.
With the development of GC–MS technique, profiling of essential oil became easier. The composition of different citrus species from different parts of the world have been reported utilizing this technique. Most of the profiling results although detected average 20–50 numbers of compounds, a few compounds mostly occupy the major share of the bulk oil. The dominating compounds in most citrus species is limonene. In some species like
From the leaf essential oil of
In the leaf EO of
Phytochemical profiling of essential oil of
In our recent studies 31 compounds from the leaf oil and 26 compounds from the peel essential oil was recorded from GC–MS analysis of EO of
Phytochemical analysis of peel essential oil from three varieties of
Phytochemical study on constituents from the peel of
Phytochemical analysis of citrus leaf EO from Iran showed presence of 27 compounds of which the major compound was linalool (30.62%). The other compounds present in significant amount were geraniol (15.91%), α-terpineol (14.52%), linalyl acetate (13.76%), geranyl acetate (6.75%), Β-pinene (4.51%), neryl acetate (4.24%), p-Cymene (1.86%), and limonene (1.13%) [55]. Chemical composition of EO of
Phytochemical analysis result of
From Nigeria, fifteen phytochemical constituents of the plant oil were reported. Among the compound limonene (94.2%) occupied the major share [59].
A total of 19 constituent compounds were identified from leaf essential oil of
Essential oil composition of different citrus sp. across the globe although may vary but some of the compounds are observed as common in most of the oil profile. The most dominating and commonly present compound is limonene. Other common compounds are citronellal, citronellol, linalool, pinene, myrcene, ocimene, terpinene, caryophyllene etc. The bioactivity of EOs is often related to the activity of major compounds present in the crude oil and some of the studies have already established this fact. Individual assessment for insecticidal property of these common constituent compounds have been performed by different researchers and some of them were found active against insect pest. Limonene and other
In another study against cat flea species
Fouad and da Camara [66] extracted the essential oil from
After identifying limonene as major compound in the EOs of
In a recent study, Sowler et aln [67] comparatively evaluated the effect of laboratory grade limonene and a commercial limonene-based insecticide against
Giatropoulos et al. [68] tested essential oil of
Nootketone and carvacrol, a phytochemical constituent present in essential oil of Citrus [70] acts as insecticidal compound against
Linalool, α-terpinene was reported to show 100% fumigant toxicity against adult rice weevil
Muller et al. [76] recorded 85.4%, 71.1%, and 29% repellency of the candles prepared with 5% geraniol, 5% linalool and 5% citronella against mosquitoes on human landing bioassay. They observed similar repellency against sand flies too. 78% repellency of
North East India is enriched with Citrus species having documented 23 species and 68 varieties out of the 27 species of Citrus found in India [81, 82]. It is established that some of the citrus species are endemic and some are in endangered status [83]. According to Hore and Barua [84], there are eight citrus species indigenous to this region scattered in the form of semi-wild, wild state and some in cultivated state. Some of the species are naturally tolerant to viral and bacterial diseases and also for drought, cold and rainfall. For instance,
Here we have attempted to evaluate insecticidal properties of essential oil extracted from the fruit peel of four citrus species namely
Relation between concentration of EOs and respective percent mortality.
Essential oils | Time | LC50 value μl/500 ml air | 95% confidence level | Regression equation | Chi-square value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower limit | Upper limit | |||||
24 h | 7.32 | 1.143 | 1.902 | Y = 3.67118 + 1.53688X | 31.750 | |
24 h | 2.66 | 1.739 | 2.486 | Y = 4.03677 + 2.26321X | 49.452 | |
24 h | 2.09 | 1.609 | 2.266 | Y = 4.37759 + 1.94055X | 52.747 |
LC50 values of the individual citrus oils against
With the increasing awareness of consumers for ecofriendly products and at the same time increasing resistance of insect pests against insecticides, the demand for novel, safe and effective products is increasing. As discussed above, the existing literature revealed presence of a good number of terpene compounds in different
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