Abstract
Functional foods are one of the fastest increasing fields in the global food industry since they are positively perceived by the consumers as dietary strategies to reduce the incidence of illness in the humankind. Actually, the use of biotechnological strategies, based on the use of functional and specific strains and sustainable technologies, such as high-pressure homogenization, can be a great chance to create innovation in the dairy field. Critical discussion on the actual scenario is the main topic of this chapter.
Keywords
- high pressure homogenization
- functional strains
- dairy applications
- novel product application
- innovation
1. Introduction
Functional foods are one of the fastest increasing fields in the global food industry since they are positively perceived by the consumers as dietary strategies to reduce the incidence of illness in the humankind as established by the European Commission’s Concerted Action on Functional Food Science in Europe (FuFoSE) (Figure 1) [1, 2].
Currently, the most important and interesting applications have been studied and applied for the dairy ingredients and products due to their great potential as functional and nutraceuticals. Although the health-promoting dairy products can be represented by several food types such as products with intrinsic functionality and products fortified with natural ingredients to obtain a desired functionality, the probiotic products have received the highest attention due to their importance as a suitable vehicle for probiotic microorganisms, defined as “
The innovation of dairy products can be also achieved using specific microorganisms able to generate specific functionalities. In fact, functional foods could differently affect human health in relation to the gender, and this research aspect is particularly interesting for women since, in recent decades, research on the female gender has been neglected, and the results obtained in men have been directly translated to women both in medicine and in nutrition fields. In this sense, a recent contribution of Siroli et al. [4] has highlighted the challenge to study the technological properties of some
Thus, this chapter will outline the most important findings on the attempts made in dairy product innovation, exploiting both an emerging technology such as high-pressure homogenization and the use of functional strains endowed with specific functionalities.
2. Biotechnological strategies for dairy innovation
2.1. Innovation in dairy field throughout technological approach
Innovation is the major driving force of the economic growth worldwide and it is directly connected with the needs of the consumers or final users. In 2008, Grunert et al. [12] created the term “user-oriented innovation” defining it “
2.2. Principles of high-pressure homogenization and its application
Although HHP and HPH share some action mechanisms, the latter induces major changes to macromolecules of the system with respect to HHP, throughout cavitation, turbulence and viscous shears, which seem the most probable mechanisms of action. Moreover, HHP can be applied both on liquid and on solid matrix while HPH can be used only for liquid foods. However, both offer interesting possibilities to restructure food proteins, affecting protein conformation, leading to protein denaturation, gelation or aggregation and, consequently, creating new products with new/improved texture [17, 18]. They are also used on dairy proteins for providing low-temperature enzyme activity modification and stabilization of fermented dairy products and also to improve coagulation of milk and to prepare dairy gels and emulsions characterized by novel textures. Moreover, according to the literature, they are involved in functional dairy formulation, and for HHP the most evidences are on bioactive milk proteins [19]. Although HHP is more consolidated at the industrial level in many fields, the potentialities of HPH in the dairy sector are multiple. In addition, this process can be applied, contrary to HHP, in a continuous manner, offering a great advantage from an industrial point of view and increasing the competition among the enterprises in process innovation and products. The word “homogenization” is referred to the ability to produce a homogeneous size distribution of particles suspended in a liquid, by forcing the liquid under the effect of pressure through a specifically designed homogenization valve (Figure 2) [17, 18].
Nowadays, homogenizers able to treat fluid matrices for pressure ranging between 10 and 40 MPa are well implemented in different sectors, that is, dairy, beverage, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries, with the principal aim to reduce particle size and increase stability. However, the first application of HPH dealt with the cell disruption and recovery of intracellular bioproducts [17] reaching pressures of 100 MPa. The successful results obtained on cell rupture of microbial cultures motivated researches on the application of HPH for food safety and shelf life extension. In the food industry, the interest in mild non-thermal processes, able to achieve efficient microbial reduction with a maximal retention of physicochemical product properties, as well as nutritional and sensory feature retention, is very high. Among the non-thermal treatments, HPH is regarded as one of the most encouraging alternatives to traditional heat treatments for food preservation and product diversification for dairy and beverages. Its efficacy against spoilage microorganisms in model and real systems has been well proven since 1994 [17].
A homogenizer is composed above all of a pump and a homogenizing valve. The pump is used to force the fluid into the valve where the homogenization takes place. In the homogenizing valve, the fluid is forced under pressure through a small orifice between the valve and the valve seat. The operating pressure is controlled by adjusting the distance between the valve and seat. Pressure, temperature and flow rate are the main parameters influencing the success of homogenization for microbial inactivation. As in HHP, the level of microbial inactivation by the application of HPH increases with the pressure level. Temperature effects have to be necessarily taken into account in HPH, since during homogenization, there is an increase of temperature (about 2.5°C per 10 MPa) related to the fluid food treated. This increase is due to the viscous stress caused by the high speed of the fluid flow and due to the loss of a significant fraction of the mechanical energy which is lost as heat in the fluid [17]. According to the literature, the HPH has been used instead of the conventional homogenization for the modification of the microstructure and rheology of food emulsions [20, 21], the improvement of the body and texture of yogurts and cheeses [22, 23], the increase of cheese yield [5] and the reduction of cheese ripening time due to the enhanced susceptibility of proteins and triglycerides to proteolysis and lipolysis, respectively [24]. Some papers report also the exploitation of HPH for the activation or inactivation of enzymes [25, 26] and to reduce the biogenic amine content of ripened cheeses.
2.3. Potential of high-pressure homogenization in dairy sector for the development of functional dairy products
HPH has demonstrated great potential in the dairy sector also for the development of new products, differentiated from traditional ones by sensory and structural characteristics or functional properties [27]. Moreover, Iordache and Jelen [28] showed HPH as a suitable approach for producing soluble whey protein concentrates/isolates for the production of several dairy products, as well as meat or egg substitutes. Bury et al. [29], comparing sonification, bead milling and HPH, showed that HPH was suitable for the large-scale disruption of
In the functional dairy sector, HPH has been proposed to produce probiotic fermented milk, bio-yogurt and probiotic cheeses with improved sensorial or functional properties [3, 5, 6, 22]. In general, fermented dairy products are considered by consumers as healthy foods since they are good sources of vitamins and minerals and have low lipid content. The use of probiotic (health-promoting) microorganisms in different fermented milk or yogurt-like products can also amplify their acclaimed healthful properties. In fact,
Several options have been proposed in order to increase the textural properties of fermented milk. Among these, the exploitation of exopolysaccharide-producing strains has been suggested as an option to additives such as xanthan gum, gelatin, pectin, and carrageenan [24], which can adversely influence the product flavor, aroma and mouth feel [6]. Also, co-inocula of probiotic strains with
Among the technological variables that are potentially useful, the HPH of milk has been regarded: (1) to increase or modulate the sensorial features of probiotic fermented milk and cheese without detrimental effects on shelf life and safety [5, 6]; (2) to improve the technological performances of probiotic strains used alone or in combination with yogurt starter cultures [24]; and (3) to modify the functional features of lactic acid bacteria used as starters [32] and of probiotic bacteria [7, 8]. Regarding the use of homogenizing pressure to milk, the use of HPH tested between 20 and 100 MPa showed ability to improve the sensorial features of fermented milk using a probiotic strain,
According to the literature available, HPH technology has shown good potential for the manufacturing of probiotic cheeses. In fact, soft cheeses have a number of advantages over yogurt and fermented milk as a delivery system for viable probiotic microorganisms because they generally have higher pH and buffering capacity, more solid consistency and relatively higher fat content [27]. On the other hand, in order to give protection to probiotic bacteria during storage and passage through the gastrointestinal tract, some cheese varieties such as Gouda [34], Argentinean Fresco cheese [35], white cheese [36], Arzua-Ulloa [37], Minas fresh cheese [38], Cheddar [39] and cottage cheese [40] have also been studied as vehicles of probiotic microorganisms. In addition, Burns et al. [5] studied the potential of HPH treatment of milk for the production of Crescenza cheese carrying probiotic bacteria. More specifically, these authors studied the viability of commercial probiotic cultures of
The modification of the rheological and sensorial properties of fermented milk and cheeses induced by HPH can be explained mainly with the modification induced by HPH treatment on casein-casein or casein-fat interactions. The ability of HPH treatment to increase the exposure of the hydrophobic regions of proteins and extent and strength of hydrophobic associations between proteins is well documented. Moreover, HPH of milk is reported to improve the coagulation characteristics of milk due to the modification of the balance between insoluble and soluble forms of calcium, phosphorus and nitrogen [27]. Also, the modification of sensorial profile in terms of volatile molecules and the different retention of flavor compounds can be dependent on the different gel networks of proteins. The release of flavor compounds and their perception during consumption, which are key quality parameters for foodstuff, are undoubtedly affected also by the food matrix and microstructure [27]. Moreover the different volatile profiles of fermented milk and cheeses obtained from HPH-treated milk could be due to the combination of events associated with homogenization. In fact, HPH is reported to increase the nitrogen fraction soluble at pH 4.6, the susceptibility to proteolysis of whey proteins and caseins, and, consequently, the availability of free amino acids regarded as several aroma precursors including acetaldehyde. The increase of viability for yogurt starters and probiotic cultures observed by Patrignani et al. [6] and Burns et al. [5], respectively, can be attributed to the increased precocious availability in the products obtained from HPH-treated milk of low molecular weight peptides and/or free fatty acids such as oleic acid, essential for the growth of many LAB. Moreover, Patrignani et al. [33] reported levels ranging between 60 and 80 MPa as optimal both for the viability of probiotic and for the sensorial features of fermented milk obtained with the sole use of probiotic strains. Moreover, because some literature papers proposed HPH to control and enhance the proteolytic and fermentative activities of some
2.4. Use of high-pressure homogenization to develop new carriers for probiotic strains
From the technological point of view, probiotic strains have to maintain not only a good viability but also a good functionality during manufacture, storage and even during consumption. Since probiotic cultures run across acidic conditions already in food products and during gastric transit, their tolerance to low pH is a critical factor that has an influence on probiotic functionality. The use of an appropriate technology for the preservation of probiotic viability is a key step for the industrial production of functional foods, since probiotic microorganisms are subjected to lose their viability during the fermentation process or during the product storage. In general, this is affected by several factors such as from ‘strain sensitivity to process factors (low pH, oxygen and fermentation temperature), food matrix composition (water activity, pH, presence of natural antimicrobials and nutrient availability) and packaging and storage conditions (i.e. refrigeration temperature). Also, the gastrointestinal tract conditions can influence the viability of the probiotic bacteria during the passage. Many attempts have been performed by many researchers to maintain high viability of probiotic strains in food products. Recently, the literature data pointed out the use of polymers such as pectin, alginate, carrageenan, chitosan, whey, gelatin and lipids for microencapsulation of bacteria with positive effects in protection of probiotic cells during storage condition and gastric intestinal environment. Patrignani et al. [10] investigated the microencapsulation of two probiotic bacteria,
The main effect of the encapsulation resulted in the decrease of the hyperacidity phenomena generally connected to the addition of probiotic bacteria in fermented milk. This result was fundamental for the improvement of the viability of the starter culture and the sensorial features of the products. Moreover, the microencapsulation conditions preserved the viability of the two used probiotic bacteria, even if the strain
2.5. Future trends: gender foods based on biotechnological approach
Another great challenge to create new functional foods and develop product innovation is the exploitation of microbial strains, with great technological potential, able to provide specific functionalities in relation to the gender. In fact, today, foods are not intended to only satisfy hunger and to provide necessary nutrients for humans but also to prevent nutrition-related diseases and improve physical and mental well-being of the consumers [2]. The literature has suggested that functional foods could differently influence the male and female health. Until the last decade, research on women has been neglected and the results obtained in men were directly translated to women in medicine and nutrition fields [42]. Reproductive-aged women are often subjected to gynecological disturbances due to abnormalities in vaginal or gut microbiota and the occurrence of vaginal infections, including vulvovaginal candidiasis, bacterial vaginosis and aerobic vaginitis. Vulvovaginal candidiasis (30–35% due to Candida albicans) is a yeast infection compromising the life quality of many women. Bacterial vaginosis is an imbalance in the ecology of the normal vaginal microbiota, characterized by a decrease in
2.6. Conclusions
The results presented in this chapter have highlighted that the innovation in dairy field is achievable using different strategies. The field of high-pressure homogenization certainly represents one of the most important technological tools to reach this aim due to the tangible effects of this non-thermal approach. Also the use of safe and well-characterized probiotic/health-promoting strains can contribute to the development of products able to increase the general human well-being. Also the interaction between these two strategies could represent a challenge in the future for the sector’s innovation.
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