\r\n\tAs a matter of fact, each time we read or meditate these outstanding giants we feel the respect, the admiration, and the esteem to these magnificent men and giants of science who most of them were mathematicians, physicists, astronomers, statisticians, philosophers, etc... at the same time. They were, as we call them today: Universalists. \r\n\tAdditionally, each time we work on this field we find the pleasure to tackle the knowledge, the theorems, the proofs, and the applications of the theory of probability. In fact, each problem on probability is like a riddle to be solved, a conquest to be won, and we become relieved and extremely happy when we reach the end of the solution. This verily proves two important facts: firstly, the power of mathematics and its models to deal with such kind of problems and secondly the power of the human mind that is able to understand such class of problems and to tame such a wild concept that is randomness, probability, stochasticity, uncertainty, chaos, and chance.
\r\n
\r\n\t \r\n\tThe fields to which this book belongs to are that of Probability and Statistics theory with its applications and of Mathematics in general, hence the present work should ? and it certainly does - include applications to both fields that encompass a wide set of problems taken from engineering, fundamental mathematics, computer science, physics, and science in general.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe aim of this book titled "Forecasting in Mathematics - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications" is to apply mathematics to scientific forecasting whether in the fundamental theory of mathematics, or in computer science, or in science and hence to use mathematics to predict the consequences and the outcome of a scientific random or deterministic experiment or phenomenon.
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\n
1. Introduction
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Healthcare systems worldwide are facing number of complex and multifaceted challenges in providing high quality, safe, and cost effective care into the future [1]. The ever-evolving systems, increased patients’ disease acuity, technology innovation, and the increase in the costs of health care are some of the problems that need to be addressed. Therefore, it is a priority to sustain and improve the quality of care provided, which in turn may lead to a shift in healthcare delivery, an alteration in healthcare models, and the role that all healthcare members play [2]. Being a leader in the healthcare professions is crucial in the continuum of care era. Leaders are challenged on a daily base with problems that need to be solved utilizing critical thinking. Leaders make key decisions that may have consequences, which can impact patient lives. Specifically, leadership in health care is a fundamental skill that allows healthcare providers navigate the complex and ever changing healthcare system effectively in solving problems and making decisions related to issues from cost to quality healthcare services and access [3]. Hence, it is essential that leaders are well equipped and trained to make the appropriate decisions at the right time [4].
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The concept of leadership is significant to the nursing profession. There is no dearth of literature that discusses leadership in nursing [5–7]. It is crucial that nurses develop an effective leadership role to deliver high-quality care and, therefore, ensure patient safety [8], while engaging in numerous daily leadership roles. Although, the phenomenon of nursing leadership was studied in the past six decades of the twentieth century, it continues to be current and of crucial importance [9]. Oliver [7] stated that “the word ‘leader’ has developed from the root meaning of a path, road or course of a ship at sea. According to Adair [10] it is a ‘journey word’ (p. 39). In addition, an integrative literature review stated that the current research in the leadership field is taking a more holistic view of leadership, examining the occurrence of the process of leadership and examining leadership in numerous ways [11].
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This chapter presents some of the basic definitions of leadership, nursing leadership, nursing clinical leadership, and leadership at the bedside. It will also discuss the impact of nursing clinical leadership, characteristics of an effective nurse clinical leader, and the factors that contribute to nursing clinical leadership. Furthermore, this chapter provides an overview of nurses that must be equipped with leadership skills in order to be able to lead the delivery of patient care and improve patient safety. In addition, it discusses methods of preparing nursing leaders.
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\n
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2. Definition of leadership
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A leader is a person that others follow voluntary and willingly. In 1959, Bennis [12] defined leadership as the process by which an individual influence a follower to behave in a desired manner. Kouzes and Posner [13] defined leadership as, “the art of mobilizing others to want to struggle for shared aspirations” (p. 30). Additionally, Ledlow and Coppols (p.13) [3] defined leadership as “the ability to assess, develop, maintain, and change the organizational culture and strategic system to optimally meet the needs and expectations of the external environment”. Leadership is mainly about developing a vision and allowing individuals to work toward change. It involves creating a shared mission; tackle political, organizational, and resource barriers; and inspiring and motivating others [14].
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Leadership is defined as influence and it includes the use of interpersonal skills to induce others to achieve a specific goal [15]. Furthermore, leadership is defined as the art of influencing others to strive voluntary and enthusiastically toward the achievement of goals [16]. According to Roussel et al. [17] (p. 165), leadership is “the process of influencing the activities of an organized group in its efforts towards goal setting and goal achievements”. Furthermore, “a leader must be an effective trustworthy advocate that inspires courageous action by using 2-way communication to interpret needs of all included in the environment” (p. 320) [18]. Spector [19] states that leadership is the process of influencing other people attitudes and behaviors. Leadership is mainly about influencing others to accomplish a shared goal.
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Leadership has been have investigated by many scholars, as it is evidenced by the plethora of definitions that exist. It is apparent that there is no single accurate definition of leadership. However, these definitions may help to get to a better understanding of the leadership phenomenon and offer various viewpoints of the concept and the factor that may influence leadership [20, 21].
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3. Leadership in nursing
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Leadership has been illustrated in the nursing literature as a difficult and multifaceted process. It includes providing direction and support, motivating, coordinating, collaboration, effective communication, and advocating for patients to achieve optimal patient outcomes [22–24]. In nursing, leadership is showing the followers how things are done, guiding their way, and the course of actions [25].
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Additionally, nurses as part of the health intradisciplinary team must be capable of leading in this era of high patient acuity, fast paced, and highly complex environment. The Institute of medicine (IOM) [26] states that nurses must be able to lead interprofessional teams and healthcare systems. Furthermore, studies conducted on nursing leadership have shown the effectiveness of leadership in a nursing role on patient outcomes such as patient safety [23, 27]. According to O’Connor [28], “effective communication is central to leadership in clinical settings” (p. 235). Nursing leadership has been defined as influencing others to improve the quality of care along with the direct participation in clinical care [29].
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Leadership in nursing involves an environment that has a clear vision, and where staff are motivated and empowered [30]. Nursing leaders are agents who have followers in the healthcare team [31]. According to Cook and Holt [32], nursing leadership is about having a vision and empowering staff. They also added that nurse leaders must have skills, such as self-confidence, valuing others, and being able to build teams effectively. Similarly, Lett [31] defined nursing leadership as providing followers with a vision and empowering others. Leadership is contained in the professional nursing role and practice, as all nurses’ roles are leadership roles [21]. However, most often nursing leadership is linked to nurse executives and is less often connected to bedside nursing practice.
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In nursing literature, until recently, the leadership phenomenon has reflected the general leadership. That is leadership is defined in terms of an interactive process where followers are motivated and empowered to accomplish specific goals. Nevertheless, leadership is not merely linked to top management levels, but it can be developed and implemented at bedside for nurses. Thus, acquiring clinical leadership skills is crucial for nurses who provide direct patient care. This allows nurses to direct and support patients and healthcare teams when providing care [33].
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4. Nursing clinical leadership
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Nursing clinical leadership skills focus on clients and healthcare teams such as those advocating for patients, communicating with the healthcare team, patients, and their families; compared to individuals reporting to and working with a nurse in a formal leadership position. In fact, the nursing profession is very autonomous where it requires nurses to make decisions and take responsibility for their actions [34]. Nurses are at the first level of decision-making, and granting them independence in this area will help them to form the foundations of leadership in the nursing role.
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Nursing leadership at the patient bedside is a new area of research [33, 35–37]. The IOM [38] report discussion increased the interest in clinical leadership at clinical settings due to the emphasis on a nurse’s fundamental role in maintaining patients’ safety. Additionally, this report stated that nurses are instrumental in providing effective communication between various healthcare disciplines and assuring patient care continuity. Clinical leadership skills focus on patients and healthcare teams rather than formal leadership positions.
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According to Patrick et al. [33], clinical leadership is defined as “staff nurse behaviors that provide direction and support to clients and the healthcare team in the delivery of patient care. A clinical leader is a registered nurse who influences and coordinates patients, families and health care teams for the purpose of integrating the care they provide to achieve positive patient outcomes” (p. 450). Based on this definition, all registered nurses are clinical leaders, particularly nurses at the bedside [39]. However, in nursing literature, the concept of nursing clinical leadership is usually associated with nurse executives and formal leadership roles. In fact, nursing leadership is rarely linked to bedside nursing practice leaders [36, 37]. Cook [40] defined a clinical leader as “a nurse directly involved in providing clinical care that continuously improves care through influencing others” (p. 39). According to Harper [41], a clinical leader is “one who possesses clinical expertise in a specialty practice area and who uses interpersonal skills to enable nurses and other health care providers to deliver quality patient care” (p. 81). According to Patrick et al. [33], five characteristics define clinical leadership skill as follows: clinical expertise, effective communication, collaboration, coordination, and interpersonal understanding. Clinical leaders are experts in their field, effective communicators, empowered decision makers, clinically knowledgeable and competent, provide a vision, support others, provide guidance to patients and their families, and drive change by providing high-quality care [31].
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Furthermore, Stanley [42] defined a clinical leader as “a clinician who is an expert in [her or his] field, and who, because they are approachable, effective communicators and empowered, are able to act as a role model, motivating others by matching their values and beliefs about nursing and care to their practice” (p. 111). All of these definitions demonstrate that clinical leadership can be at the bedside and clearly does not need to be linked or limited to management or senior levels.
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Thus, the concept of nursing clinical leadership relates to nursing professional activities, which provide direct care at bedside, which differs from the traditional nursing leadership notion. Clinical leadership is illustrated by the nurse leader’s actions at the bedside through professional nursing practice utilizing their clinical skills and also by demonstrating therapeutic relationship between the nurse and patients and the healthcare practitioners. Nurses are accountable for their patients, so it is crucial for nurses to provide constant observation and assessment of patients, to set priorities, work effectively, and efficiently to recognize critical situations, which may necessitate the nurse to monitor the patient closely. Nurses must also make clinical decisions about a required intervention; or, if needed, communicate with other healthcare team members for assistance, support, or guidance; or call the primary healthcare provider. Hence, it is essential that bedside nurses acquire leadership skills to improve patient outcomes and safety through the care provided.
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Nurses are considered leaders in providing patient care, as leadership is a key part of effective nursing care. Nurses are the frontline of healthcare delivery, thus, they are pivotal to providing safe, high-quality care, and assuring positive patient outcomes [43]. Nurses direct, support, and coordinate healthcare teams, families, and patients to maintain patients’ health [24]. In fact, nurses are required to be resilient and acquire effective communication skills, such as the capability of influencing others to achieve a shared objective and working toward change.
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Nursing clinical leadership includes critical thinking, decision making, action, and advocacy. Nurses in their role at the bedside demonstrate clinical leadership skills by providing, facilitating, and promoting the best possible care for their patients. In addition, nurses at the clinical practice when providing direct client care are expected to show leadership skills when collaborating with healthcare teams. Therefore, there is need for functional nursing clinical leadership at all levels and domains of nursing practice to assure effective collaboration of group to ensure highest quality of care provided.
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5. The impact of nursing clinical leadership
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Nursing clinical leadership is crucial for various reasons. First, clinical nurse leaders play a critical role in sustaining the efficiency, production, and cost-effectiveness of nursing services [2]. Effective clinical leadership skills empower nurses while providing care with the abilities to direct and support patients and healthcare teams [37]. It also improves the care delivered to patients, which in turn improves patient outcomes. In addition, clinical nursing leadership impacts the safety and quality of care provided [44]. It is indeed vital to highlight the influence that nursing clinical leadership has on patient outcomes. Nurse leaders consider patients’ safety as a priority while performing nursing care such as medication management, wound care, infection control, and patient education [45] to achieve optimal patient outcomes.
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In their systematic review, Wong et al. [46] found a relationship between nursing leadership practices and patient outcomes. Their findings indicated that effective leadership has been associated to reduced length of stay, lowering rates of medication errors, patient falls, urinary tract infections, and pneumonia. Additionally, the nursing literature proposes that clinical leadership improves the quality of care provided, patient outcomes, and lower patient mortality [47–50]. Nurses who possess clinical leadership skills influence the clinical setting and improve patient safety [37]. Thus, it can be said that clinical leadership serves to achieve safe care and optimal patient outcomes, which emphasizes its importance.
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6. Characteristics of effective nurse clinical leaders
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A successful nurse clinical leader is one who is a critical thinker, lifelong learner, and open to new ideas. The nurse clinical leader must be knowledgeable, maintain professional growth, and stay current in the profession. In fact, they should be clinically competent and clinically knowledgeable [33, 51]. In addition, leaders must have a vision, the art of knowing how to elect the best from others. In short, thriving leaders make others do their best to accomplish the intended outcome. An effective leader demonstrates confidence, as it is a key leadership skill. Knowing what needs to be done, being proactive and approaching every patient with a confident and competent attitude to improve patient outcomes.
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Furthermore, motivating people toward goal-directed behavior, which in turn contributes to the interest of the organization is of crucial importance. The leader should be able to communicate clearly and effectively. Being a good listener is a valuable attribute, as patients and colleagues may talk to the nurse and ask for guidance. Effective leaders use problem-solving processes by being solution-focused to improve a situation. The nurse clinical leaders should be empowered decision makers utilizing evidence-based research to make clinical decisions [33]. Additionally, the effective nurse clinical leader must be authentic by recognizing the strengths and weakness of self and others [52]. This will allow clinical nurse leaders to demonstrate integrity while delivering care through making sound decisions that will create added value to the healthcare team.
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An effective nurse clinical leader possesses self-awareness, which means knowing how to read one’s own feelings and how they can affect others. For example, if a nurse is taking care of a patient in a pediatric unit and the mother expresses her concerns that her child did not receive a standard treatment when the nurse had already provided the treatment. The nurse may have mixed emotions such as irritation or anger. In this situation, it is crucial that the nurse identifies these emotions and considers how expressing them would influence the situation. The nurse can recognize her/his feelings by keeping a journal, meditating, or exercising. Additionally, the nurse clinical leader should be accountable, as it will result in better performances.
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Time management is also an important skill that the nurse clinical leader should posses in order to organize, plan, and prioritize daily tasks and responsibilities that need to be accomplished for patients. They are also dynamic, empathic, caring, and passionate about their patients’ needs and values. In addition, effective nurse clinical leaders have the ability to nurture, inspire others, seek maximum standards, and maintain high-quality benchmarks. An effective nurse clinical leaders’ performance positively influences the outcomes of the healthcare organization. It also improves the quality of care provided to the patient, which in turn affect quality outcomes [43].
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Successful nurse clinical leaders are highly motivated, committed to organizational vision, mission, and goals, and thus deliver patient care with greater effectiveness [53]. A clinical nurse leader must be highly committed and focused on teamwork in order to accomplish a common goal. She/he should start with a clear understanding of the destination that the team wants to achieve. An effective nurse clinical leader must develop skills of collaboration, delegation, and conflict resolution that will facilitate her/his work within teams. Successful nurse clinical leaders are honest, trust worthy, and respectful.
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Furthermore, nurse clinical leaders are an advocate for patients by providing and promoting the best possible available care. The effective nurse clinical leader will act as a liaison between patients and healthcare teams in advocating for the rights and welfare of patients [54, 55] and by emphasizing the importance of a safe health setting for providing care. The nurse clinical leader will also challenge poor practices and assist patients’ access to appropriate healthcare information and allow them to be engaged in decision making of their care [54]. These characteristics are critical for nurse clinical leaders to have, as it will help them to be successful and provide high quality care. Nurses must apply these characteristics to their profession to gain trust and respect of healthcare members and patients, which will in turn direct the development of nursing clinical practice.
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7. Contributing factors to nursing clinical leadership
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Research evidence indicates that there are various factors, which contribute to nursing clinical leadership skills, such as nurse characteristics, education, and experiences. According to Patrick et al. [33], age affects leadership skills; in this study, there was a weak positive but significant correlation between age and clinical leadership skills (r = 0.14, p < 0.01). Although there are contradictory results in the nursing literature regarding the relationship between age and clinical leadership skills [33, 56–58], studies show that improved clinical leadership skills were associated with older nurses [21, 59].
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Furthermore, research shows that education has an effect on clinical leadership skills [21, 59, 60]. A survey was conducted in 2001 to examine chief nursing officers’ preferences of recruiting nurses with a baccalaureate degree as opposed to a diploma degree. Seventy-two percent of these directors stated that there are differences in practice between baccalaureate-prepared nurses compared to nurses with a diploma degree, as the former have higher clinical leadership skills [61].
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Furthermore, it is believed that baccalaureate-prepared nurses can have better clinical leadership skill compared to diploma-prepared nurses, as it is required by the Essentials of Baccalaureate Education for Professional Nursing Practice to incorporate leadership content into curricula [62].
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In a study conducted by Patrick et al. [33], it was found that leadership experience had a relationship to clinical leadership skill, although small it was significant (r = 0.10, p < 0.05) [33]. This is congruent with Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory, in which successful leadership experiences may be translated to different settings [63]. In addition, Wood [64] studied the factors that influence leadership skills and how they interact to facilitate the development of leadership skills and expertise among nurses. Wood reported that personal life factors such as marital status significantly influenced the development of nurses’ leadership skills. A review study found that demographic data (marital status, race, and type of nursing degree) significantly affected nurses’ leadership [65]. However, this integrative literature review found that there is a gap related to the factors that influence nurses’ leadership skills; therefore, there is a need for more research in this area.
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8. Preparing nursing leaders
\n
Ninety percent of leadership can be learned [3]. Thus, nursing education is the first line to prepare leaders. To be a nurse leader, nursing students need to be exposed to an environment that provides opportunities to exercise their leadership skills, that is they should encounter actual problems that need solutions [21]. However, nurses are not sufficiently prepared for the leader role throughout their nursing education. This creates a gap between education and the requirements of the clinical practice, which can result in ineffective nursing leadership.
\n
According to Cowin and Hengstberger-Sims [66], it is unrealistic to expect new nurse graduates to be ready to assume leadership role. They will need some time to find out their strengths and weakness, and opportunities to allow them to discover themselves. This will occur through job training, mentorship, and residency programs. These programs can offer the new graduate nurses’ experiences that will allow them to incorporate essential leadership skills into their clinician role. And this will improve patient safety and outcomes, because there is a direct relationship between leadership and quality of care provided [35, 36, 67]. According to AL-Dossary et al. [37], nurse residency programs equip new gradate nurses to transition from the student roles to become independent practitioners and bedside leaders. In addition, residency programs help to improve the new graduate nurses’ leadership skills [43]. In fact, “residency programs can offer the new graduate nurses experiences that will allow them to incorporate essential leadership skills into their clinician role” (p. 156) [37].
\n
Hence, nursing educators should enhance students’ personal and professional leadership opportunities. In addition, they should encourage the leader role within their field as nurses and the community. It is imperative that nursing education programs and healthcare organizations unite to prepare nurses to be effective leaders by 2020. This can happen through improving the communication between academia and healthcare organizations to address the academic-practice gap. As a matter of fact, there should be partnerships between nursing schools and healthcare agencies to support new graduate nurses’ transition process, which is traditionally extremely stressful [37].
\n
In addition, it is significant that the essential skill sets that a nurse clinical leader will need to be identified [68]. This will require formal education and training to be part of most management development programs [69]. Nurses should acquire the following skills: a multidisciplinary perspective about healthcare and professional nursing issues, technology skills, clinical decision-making skills, creating organizational cultures that promote quality and patient safety, collaborative and team work skills, and the ability to envision and proactively adapt to a ever changing healthcare system [68].
\n
Therefore, it appears reasonable to come up with a conclusion that the development of nursing clinical leadership should start as early as the first year of nursing education. Emphasizing that leadership is a fundamental part of nursing clinical practice and that all nursing roles include leadership roles. In addition, having clinical leadership skills will be a predictor of many new graduates success in the ever-changing healthcare systems [70].
\n
\n
\n
9. Summary
\n
This chapter focused on the definition of leadership, nursing leadership, and nursing clinical leadership. It also discussed the impact of nursing clinical leadership, characteristics of an effective nurse clinical leader, and the factors that contribute to nursing clinical leadership. There was specific emphasis on clinical leadership as it applies to the bedside and does not need to be linked or limited to management or senior levels. This chapter also provided the reader with an overview of the leadership skills that nurses must be equipped with in order to be able to lead the delivery of patient care and improve patient safety. It also presented the impact of nursing clinical leadership on patients’ outcomes. In addition, it discussed preparing nursing leaders for the new era of health care and how nursing education and healthcare systems should work together to prepare nurses who are able to face the new healthcare challenges.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"nursing, clinical, leadership, clinical leadership",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/52409.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/52409.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52409",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52409",totalDownloads:10928,totalViews:10753,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"July 4th 2016",dateReviewed:"August 22nd 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"February 1st 2017",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"The nursing literature, until recently presents the phenomenon of leadership as associated with nurse executives and formal leadership roles. That is leadership is defined in terms of an interactive process where followers are motivated and empowered to accomplish specific goals. The purpose of this chapter is to present the phenomena of nursing clinical leadership and leadership at the bedside, which is a new area of research in nursing. This chapter proposes that leadership is not merely linked to top management levels, but it can be developed and implemented at bedside for nurses. Clinical leadership skills focus on patients and healthcare teams rather than formal leadership position. In addition, clinical leadership relates to nursing professional activities, which provide direct care at bedside, which differs from the traditional nursing leadership notion. Thus, acquiring clinical leadership skills is crucial for nurses who provide direct patient care. This allows nurses to direct and support patients and healthcare teams when providing care. Furthermore, it is crucial that nurses develop an effective leadership role to deliver high-quality care and ensure patient safety while engaging in numerous daily leadership roles. Moreover, it emphasized the importance of the cooperation between nursing education programs and healthcare organizations in preparing nurses to be effective leaders by 2020 for the new era of health care.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/52409",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/52409",book:{slug:"contemporary-leadership-challenges"},signatures:"Reem Nassar AL-Dossary",authors:[{id:"194238",title:"Dr.",name:"Reem",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Dossary",fullName:"Reem Al-Dossary",slug:"reem-al-dossary",email:"rmaldossary@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Definition of leadership",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Leadership in nursing",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Nursing clinical leadership",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. The impact of nursing clinical leadership",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Characteristics of effective nurse clinical leaders",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Contributing factors to nursing clinical leadership",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Preparing nursing leaders",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"9. Summary",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nPorter-O’Grady T, Malloch K.Quantum Leadership: Advancing Innovation, Transforming Healthcare. 3rd ed. Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett; 2011.\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nAustralian College of Nursing (ACN). Nurse Leadership, ACN, Canberra. [White paper]. [Internet] 2015. Available from: https://www.google.com.sa/search?q=nurse+leadership+a+white+paper+by+acn+2015&oq=nurse+leadership+a+white+&gs_l=serp.3.0.0.242840 [Accessed: 2016, April 1]\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nLedlow G, Coppols N. Leadership for Health Professionals: Theory, Skills, and Application. 2nd ed. Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning; 2014. 13p.\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nRowold J, Rohmann A. Relationship between leadership styles and followers’ emotional experience and effectiveness in the voluntary sector. 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Available from: http://www.aacn.nche.edu/education-resources/BaccEssentials08.pdf [Accessed: 2015-04-11].\n'},{id:"B63",body:'\nBandura A. Social Learning Theory. New Jersey: Prentice Hall;1977.\n'},{id:"B64",body:'\nWood D. How nurses become leaders: Perceptions and beliefs about leadership development. Journal of Nursing Administration. 1998; 28: 15-20.\n'},{id:"B65",body:'\nKleinman, C. The relationship between managerial leadership behaviors and staff nurse retention. Hospital Topics. 2004; 82: 2-9.\n'},{id:"B66",body:'\nCowin L, Hengstberger-Sims C. New graduate nurse self-concept and retention: A longitudinal survey. International Journal of Nursing Studies. 2005; 43: 59-70.\n'},{id:"B67",body:'\nHiscock M, Shuldham C. Patient Centered Leadership in Practice. Journal of Nursing Management, Commentary. 2008; 16(8): 900-904.\n'},{id:"B68",body:'\nHuston C. Preparing nurse leaders for 2020. Journal of Nursing Management. 2008;16, 905–911.\n'},{id:"B69",body:'\nMarquis B, Huston C. Leadership Roles and Management Functions in Nursing: Theory and Application. 6th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams, & Wilkins; 2009.\n'},{id:"B70",body:'\nSorensen T, Traynor A, Janke K. A pharmacy course on leadership and leading change. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education. 2009; 73: 1-10.\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Reem Nassar AL-Dossary",address:"rnaldosari@uod.edu.sa",affiliation:'
College of Nursing, University of Dammam, Dammam, Saudi Arabia
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1. Introduction
Generally, solid is composed of stereoscopic structure. The stereoscopic structure is a model based on two-dimension, three-dimension, and four-dimension in a space. The two-dimension is two axis like horizontal direction and vertical direction in a plane. The three-dimensional structure has three axes such as x, y, and z coordination, for instance, a vector. The four-dimensional structure has four axes such as optical illusion, for example, a cubic box. If the box is torn at every corner, then it can make a two-dimensional plane. If it is folded up, it can make a cubic box. This is called as tesseract, hypercube, or 8-cell regular octachoron. These are based on a geometrical concept in mathematics. It is the four-dimensional object called as hypercube or tesseract shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Schematic of a hypercube.
Applications of the hypercube were shape or size optimization for non-probabilistic description of uncertainty as computer aided optimum design of structure [1], optimal communication algorithms for hypercubes [2], parallel computing on a hypercube [3], structure connectivity [4], and so on.
It is interested in to create a unit cell model like honeycomb or open-cell in a sandwich core structure.
Hypercube originates from a point, which is a hypercube of dimension zero [5, 6]. If the point moves to another point, it makes a line, which is a unit hypercube of dimension one. If the line moves out in a perpendicular direction, it makes a square, which is a unit hypercube of dimension two. If the square moves to a perpendicular direction, it makes a cube, which is a unit hypercube of dimension three. And if the cube moves to the fourth dimension, it is called a four-dimensional hypercube as a unit tesseract.
In the engineering material field, one of the simplest lightweight truss model is truss cubic, which is defined by Gibson and Ashby [7]; it is a model of hexagonal truss to define an ideal solution for honeycomb, open cell, or closed cell model. This is based on the three-dimensional stereoscopic structure. It can create a model which is hypercube truss model composed of a hexagonal truss inside and a hexagonal truss inside. Thus, this paper is focused on studying the hypercube concept to make a unit model to apply for a sandwich core structure.
If tesseract is composed of two regular hexahedrons, i.e., one is for outer structure and the other is for inner structure, with or without diagonal truss, then two types of model can be defined such as the core-filled or the core-spaced shape. That is, it depends with or without a truss in a diagonal direction. Therefore, this paper is focused on studying two models defined as Type 1 and Type 2.
According to the reported papers on the mechanical properties of structures that are 3D printed with powders recently, there are advantages and disadvantages.
The merits are to make a shape easily, to save time, to create a complex shape without any limited shape, and to make a high-quality part for the application in the aerospace or biomedical industry. Demerits are a high cost to create a product, a limited space to make a product, a limited materials such as metal powders, a required high quality equipment to produce high quality product, a need to hire a professional engineers to take control the equipment, etc.
Three-dimensional printing skill is not a magic to create anything; it requires techniques to be used with materials. The most important is what the application is. Thus, depending on the skills of the materials, the quality of a product is decided. Recently, 3D printing skill is announced as a revolution in manufacturing technique and it has been developed more and more. From the beginning of the skill, it is defined various techniques like fused deposition modeling (FDM) [8, 10], selective laser sintering (SLS) [9], direct light processing (DLP) [7, 8, 12], stereolithography (SLA) [11, 13], laminated object manufacturing (LOM) [11, 14], stereolithography (SL) [14], mask projection stereolithography (MPSL) [14], three-dimensional printing (3DP) [14], droplet deposition manufacturing (DDM) [14], and fused filament fabrication (FFF) [15, 16]. Based on these techniques, new skills are currently being developed and announced.
Nowadays, a common skill of the 3D printing is direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) [17, 18]. It uses laser with metal powders, which is Laser beam melt metal powders to be droplet as liquid status. The drip metal is added layer by layer to make a shape.
To validate mechanical properties, tension and compression with a specimen made by ASTM standard are required. Many researchers found a specimen made by 3D printing have anisotropy and they shows mechanical properties are not shown in constant. They carried out experiments with different materials and with 3D printing. However, they show different properties depending on the 3D skill, equipment, applying material, additive manufacturing speeding, and so on. There are many kinds of effective variables [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24].
This chapter concentrated on the investigation of stiffness or strength for unit cell models made by DMLS 3D printing. And it is hope to find mechanical properties of various unit models to make a sandwich core structure.
2. Hypercube models
For designed models, it is defined as an ideal mathematical solution. Based on the previous researchers, lattice or truss model defined as open cell model may have a correlation between relative elastic modulus as a function of relative density or between relative compressive yield strength as a function of relative density. Thus, Figure 2 shows Type 1 and Type 2 shape. The next section shows details on stiffness or strength for both the models. Type 1 is core-filled model and Type 2 is a core-spaced model. Each model is created by the DMLS technique. And then both models are tested by compression. Before experimental testing for Type 1 and Type 2, they are checked for material properties of a specimen based on ASTM E8/E8M [25]. The specimen is made by DMLS and then tested by tension and compression to check the material properties.
Figure 2.
Samples made by the 3D printing DMLS skill: (1) is Type 1 and (2) is Type 2.
3. 3D printing equipment (DMLS)
It used 3D printing machine which is defined as EOS M290. This is the DMLS (Direct Metal Laser Sintering) skill to make a specimen. It has a property summarized in Table 1. It shows more detailed information for the equipment. Among these, one of the most important factors is building volume and power supply for the laser. Maximum size of volume to make a model is 250 mm × 250 mm × 325 mm. To make a good quality model, volume size must be 200 mm × 200 mm × 300 mm at least. And laser type is Yb fiber laser with 40 Watt, scanning speed is up to 7.0 m/s, and power supply is 32 ampere with 400 Volt. In addition, more information for the equipment such as dimensions, weight, software, applying materials, etc., is described in the table, especially, materials that have been developing continuously. Now they can obtain materials like aluminum alloy, cobalt chrome, nickel alloy, stainless steel, and titanium alloy. These are based on powder type.
Technical data EOS M290
Building volume (mm)
250 × 250 × 325
Laser type (W)
Yb fiber laser; 40
Precision optics
F-theta lens; high-speed scanner
Scanning speed (m/s)
Up to 7.0
Focus diameter (μm)
100
Power supply (A/V)
32/400
Power consumption (kW)
Max. 8.5/average 2.4/with platform heating up to 3.2
Inert gas supply (hPa)
7000
Dimensions
W × D × H
System (mm)
2500 × 1300 × 2190
Recommended installation space (mm)
Min 4800 × 3600 × 2900
Weight(kg)
In approx. 1250
Software
EOSTATE Everywhere, EOSPRINT incl. EOS PArameterEditor
Materials
EOS Aluminum AlSi10Mg, EOS CobaltChrome MP1, EOS Maraging Steel MS1, EOS NickelAlloy HX, EOS NickelAlloy IN625, EOS NickelAlloy IN718, EOS StainlessSteel CX, EOS StainlessSteel PH1, EOS StainlessSteel 17-4PH, EOS StainlessSteel 316 L, EOS Titanium Ti64, EOS Titanium Ti64ELI, EOS Titanium TiCP Grade2
Technical data for aluminum alloy is shown in Table 1 and 3D printing machine, EOS M290, based on DMLS skill.
4. Material properties (powder)
Applied material properties in this paper is aluminum alloy, which is AlSi10Mg. Based on ASTM E8M, specimens for compression and tension are made by the DMLS (direct metal laser sintering) 3D printing technique. Figure 3 shows specimens after tensile test.
Figure 3.
Specimens made by aluminum alloy (AlSi10Mg) after tension test.
AlSi10Mg is a casting alloy and powder type. It can be used in the field for the combination of good thermal properties and low weight. Table 2 contains technical data for AlSi10Mg powder. It shows general process, geometrical data, physical and chemical properties of the parts, mechanical properties of the parts, and thermal properties of parts.
Typical achievable part accuracy (μm)
±100
Smallest wall thickness (mm)
Approx. 0.3–0.4
Surface roughness, as built, cleaned (μm)
Ra 6–10, Rz 30–40
-after micro shot-peening (μm)
Ra 7–10, Rz 50–60
Volume rate (mm3/s)
7.4
Physical and chemical properties of the parts
Material composition (wt%)
Al (balance), Si (9.0–11.0), Fe(≤0.55), Cu(≤0.05), Mn(≤0.45), Mg(0.2–0.45), Ni(≤0.05), Zn(≤0.10), Pb(≤0.05), Sn(≤0.05), Ti(≤0.15)
Relative density (%)
Approx. 99.85
Density (g/cm3)
2.67
Mechanical properties of the parts
As built
Heat treated
Tensile strength (MPa)
In horizontal direction (XY)
460 ± 20
345 ± 10
In vertical direction (Z)
460 ± 20
350 ± 10
Yield strength, Rp0.2%(MPa)
In horizontal direction (XY)
270 ± 20
230 ± 20
In vertical direction (Z)
240 ± 20
230 ± 20
Modulus of elasticity (GPa)
In horizontal direction (XY)
75 ± 10
70 ± 10
In vertical direction (Z)
70 ± 10
60 ± 10
Elongation at break (%)
In horizontal direction (XY)
9 ± 2
12 ± 2
In vertical direction (Z)
6 ± 2
11 ± 2
Hardness (HBW)
Approx. 119 ± 5
—
Fatigue strength (MPa)
In vertical direction (Z)
Approx. 97 ± 7
—
Table 2.
Technical data for aluminum alloy AlSi10Mg powder (wt = weight, approx. = approximately).
5. Experimental setup
A mechanical type-universal test machine (UTM) is obtained for the tension or compression test. UTM is DTU-900MHA and a mechanical type with a digital signal processor (DSP) system as shown in Figure 4. For the tension test, Figure 5 shows experimental setup in the UTM. It shows uniaxial tensile test with specimen made by aluminum ally, AlSi10Mg. Figure 5(1) is a specimen before tensile test and Figure 5(2) shows a specimen after the tensile test. Figure 5(2) shows a circle which means zoom-out as the right figure. The right figure shows a good tested result in the specimen, because it is broken in middle area in the specimen as setup with mechanical extensometer. Test speeding in the UTM is setup as 1 mm per a minute.
Figure 4.
Universal test machine (UTM) with data collector system.
Figure 5.
Uniaxial tensile test with specimen made by aluminum alloy AlSi10Mg. Test speeding is set up as 1 mm/min: (1) shows a specimen before testing; (2) shows a specimen after testing.
6. Tension
Making a tensile specimen is based on ASTM E8M standard. The specimens were obtained by AlSi10Mg power with the DMSL technique. Each section defined as a letter which shows dimensions on Table 3. Table 3 shows rectangular shape of tension test specimens with detail dimensions like the gauge length, width, thickness, radius of fillet, overall length, length of reduced section, a length of grip section, and an approximate width of grip section. Thus, DMLS made specimens for the tension test.
Dimensions of standard specimens, sheet-type [mm]
Gauge length
50.0 ± 0.10
Thickness
3.0
Radius of fillet, min
12.5
Overall length, min
200
Length of reduced section, min
57
Length of grip section, min
50
Width of grip section, approximate
20
Table 3.
Rectangular tension test specimens based on ASTM E8M.
Totally, three samples made by aluminum alloy (AlSi10Mg) marked as 2–1, 2–2, 2–3 were ready for the tension test, and they were tested by uniaxial tensile testing.
Figure 6 shows specimens after tensile test and results with (a) engineering stress-engineering strain for all specimens and (b) stress-strain for 2-2 specimen. As you can see, 2–2 specimen shows clearly that the middle point was broken. Others were broken in an area of top point or bottom point. Thus, tested data were selected for 2–2 specimen because it shows a good fracture.
Figure 6.
Stress as a function of Stain for Aluminum alloy specimen after tensile test; (a) Engineering stress - Engineering strain for all specimens, and (b) Stress-strain for 2-2 specimen.
From the tension test, engineering stress-strain and true stress-strain can be defined as shown in Figure 6. Figure 6 shows a comparison between engineering stress-strain and true stress-strain for aluminum alloy AlSi10Mg.
In order to do the tension test for AlSi10Mg, it is defined material properties are as follows: Young’s modulus is 71.81GPa, yield strength is 155.52 MPa, and ultimate tensile strength is 348.32 MPa approximately. These are summarized in Table 4. When the Young’s modulus value is compared in Table 2, they almost matched in vertical direction. That is, it is proved that tensile specimen is created in vertical direction by DMLS.
Material
Properties
Value
AlSi10Mg
Young’s modulus (GPa)
71.8
Yield strength (MPa)
155.5
Ultimate tensile strength (MPa)
348.3
Elongation (%)
8.0
Table 4.
Mechanical properties of AlSi10Mg by tension.
7. Compression
Specimens for uniaxial compression test are made by the 3D printing DMLS technique as shown in Figure 7. It was made by the same equipment as EOS M290 and the same material as aluminum alloy, AlSi10Mg. The sample size is designed as diameter is 10 mm and height is 15 mm as shown in Figure 7. The figure also shows real specimens made by aluminum alloy. For the compression test, three specimens are ready.
Figure 7.
Designation and AlSi10Mg specimens for compression test.
Two specimens are used for the compression test because both samples are almost matched in the stress-strain plot shown in Figure 8. Thus, material properties for the compression test with Al alloy, AlSi10Mg, are defined as follows: Young’s modulus is 0.316GPa, yield compressive yield strength is 6.35 MPa, and ultimate compressive strength is 179.72 MPa. Figure 8 shows the crushing 6 steps within a range of 0–0.6, strains and each step is defined as: ① is elastic range, ② linear, ③ the 1st plateau, ④ valley, ⑤ the 2nd plateau, and ⑥ densification. Thus, Young’s modulus is checked in elastic range ①. Linear ② shows increasing loads. Then, 1st plateau shows in ③. In here, loading slowly increase. Valley ④ shows as being abruptly dropped, because belly phenomenon happened in the middle of 15 mm height specimen. It means endurance of applied loading in specimen is over. Then, it shows the 2nd plateau as ⑤ where applied loads slowly decreased. This means applied stress is distributed in specimen. At the end, densification ⑥ is shown.
Figure 8.
Crushing steps such as ① elastic range, ② linear, ③ 1st plateau, ④ valley, ⑤ 2nd plateau, and ⑥ densification.
8. 4D cube mechanical test
There are two types of model for mechanical testing. The two models are core-spaced model defined as Type 1 and core-filled model defined as Type 2. Figure 2 shows two samples that are made by the 3D printing DMLS skill. Each sample is designed as width 20 mm, length 20 mm, height 20 mm, inner truss diameter 3 mm, and outer truss radius 1.5 mm. Type 1 is core-spaced model shown in Figure 2(1) and Type 2 is core-filled model shown in Figure 2(2).
Before the uniaxial compression test, measured weight for Type 1 is 5.91 grams and Type 2 is 5.29 grams. Difference between Type 1 and Type 2 is about 11.72% in weights. Details are summarized in Table 5.
Applied material
Sample type
Sample number
Width (mm)
Length (mm)
Height (mm)
Truss diameter (mm)
Weight (grams)
Outer
Inner
AlSi10Mg
Type 1
1
20
20
20
1.5
3
5.91
2
20
20
20
1.5
3
5.91
Average
20
20
20
1.5
3
5.91
Type 2
1
20
20
20
1.5
3
5.29
2
20
20
20
1.5
3
5.29
Average
20
20
20
1.5
3
5.29
Difference
11.72%
Table 5.
Measured weights for Type 1 and Type 2 model made by AlSi10Mg alloy.
Applied material is Al alloy and powder type shown in Table 2. Applied speeding in the UTM machine is defined as 2 mm per minute. Type 1 is core-filled model of test 3 and test 4. Type 2 is core-spaced model of test 1 and test 2. Thus, tested result shows engineering stress as a function of engineering strain in Figure 9. Based on the compression test, Figure 9 shows material properties for elastic modulus, compressive yield strength, ultimate compressive strength, compressibility, and so on. Figure 10 shows setup for uni-axial compression test in UTM for (1) Type 1 and (2) Type 2 model.
Figure 9.
Engineering stress as a function of engineering strain from uniaxial compression.
Figure 10.
Uniaxial compression test in UTM for (1) Type 1 and (2) Type 2.
For Type 1, the average values of material properties are elastic modulus is 0.82GPa, compressive yield strength is 2.57 MPa, ultimate compressive strength is 12.44 MPa, and percent compressibility is 69%, approximately. For Type 2, the average values of material properties are elastic modulus is 0.69GPa, compressive yield strength is 2.29 MPa, ultimate compressive strength is 3.15 MPa, and compressibility is 46%, approximately. Table 5 summarizes the material properties of core-filled or core-spaced model. It shows differences between Type 1 for core-filled model and Type 2 for core-spaced model about material properties. For Young’s modulus, core-filled model is higher 19.7%, compressive yield strength 12.2%, ultimate compressive strength 294.8%, and compressibility 51.6% than core-spaced model as summarized in Table 6.
Type
Sample number
Material properties
Young’s modulus (GPa)
Compressive yield strength (MPa)
Ultimate compressive strength (MPa)
Compressibility (%)
1
Test 3
0.92
2.60
13.40
70
Test 4
0.72
2.54
11.47
68
Average
0.82
2.57
12.44
69
2
Test 1
0.71
2.29
3.22
42
Test 2
0.66
2.29
3.08
49
Average
0.69
2.29
3.15
46
Difference
19.7%
12.2%
294.8%
51.6%
Table 6.
Material properties of Type 1, core-filled model, and Type 2, core-spaced model.
9. Results
Material properties between core-filled model and core-spaced model are investigated. All models are based on aluminum alloy AlSi10Mg and they are made by the 3D printing DMLS technique. Finally, 4D cube models defined as core-filled as Type 1 and core-spaced as Type 2 are tested by compression. Thus, Type 1 shows a higher Young’s modulus, compressive yield strength, compressive ultimate compressive strength, and compressibility. The reason is that Type 1 can endure outer loads with a diagonal truss connected with inside hexagonal truss structure. However, Type 2 can be broken easily because they do not have a diagonal truss supporting. It is simply connected with outer or inner hexagonal structure without a cross truss. Thus, Type 1 shows a general shape of compressive tested line on Figure 9.
However, Type 2 shows an elastic line, yield, plateau, and up down line in Figure 9 as in test 3 and test 4. Here, the interest is in the up down line. When it is tracked by broken specimens, it is identified as a reason; that is, when specimens are made by the 3D printing DMLS skill, laser melt metal powder at first and then the melted metal is added on each side of the truss clot by clot. Thus, each clot does not create perfect solid shape and it is not precisely connected with each truss. These are shown in Figure 9. Therefore, due to these reasons, material properties for 4D cube models made by the 3D printing DMLS skill show lower than solid material properties. Based on broken section in the sample (1) or (2) shown in Figure 11, there shows two issues. One is that melted metals are not connected with each other like a solid precisely. Due to this reason, connected sections in each model as Type 1 or Type 2 are easily broken after outer loading. These are shown as arrows in Figure 11(1) and (2). The other one is there shows a space in additive layer when additive manufacturing makes a shape of specimen. Because of the space in the additive layer, each truss created by melted metals does not have enough to support outer loadings.
This chapter focused on finding material properties for two models defined as core-filled model, Type 1, and core-spaced model, Type 2, created by the 3D printing direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) technique. The models use aluminum alloy AlSi10Mg powder with a skill of direct laser sintering. After the uniaxial compressive test, it is proved that core-filled model has an elastic modulus of 19.7%, compressive yield strength of 12.2%, ultimate strength of 294.8%, and percentage of elongation of 11% higher than core-spaced model. It also shows core-filled model have a higher strength but core-spaced model shows a lower strength after compression. There shows two issues that melted metals by DMLS skill are not connected with each other like a solid precisely and there shows a space in additive layer when additive manufacturing makes a shape of specimen. These issues are the main reasons for weaker strength or lower elastic modulus in the models. It is hoped that the two models be made sandwich core structure and then the structure be investigated more deeply. In nearby future, it is hope that 3D printing techniques such as FDM [8, 10], SLS [9], DLP [7, 8], SLA [11, 13], LOM [11, 14], SL [14], MPSL [14], 3DP [14], FFF [15, 16], or DMLS [17, 18] are applied into making hypercube models and then it is to do the testing to check what is the differences of mechanical properties are. In addition, it is expected that hypercube models are applied into make a sandwich panel and then they are to be obtained to find mechanical properties. Finally, it is hope that the sandwich panels will be approved to be selected as one of aerospace materials.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by Basic Science Research Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Education (grant number NRF-2018R1D1A1B07041383).
Conflict of interest
I confirm there are no conflicts of interest.
Notes/thanks/other declarations
Many thanks go to Dr. Sang-ik Lee for doing this project.
\n',keywords:"cellular solids, open cell unit model, closed cell unit model, honeycomb, stiffness, strength",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/69296.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/69296.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69296",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69296",totalDownloads:199,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"February 14th 2019",dateReviewed:"May 14th 2019",datePrePublished:"October 10th 2019",datePublished:null,dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"The objective of this chapter is to focus on finding mechanical properties for two models defined as core-filled model (Type 1) and core-spaced model (Type 2) created by direct metal laser sintering (DMLS). Applied material is aluminum alloy AlSi10Mg powder and each model is created as a vertical additive manufacturing with DMLS. After quasi-static compression, Type 1 showed 19% higher elastic modulus, 12% higher compressive yield strength, and 51.6% higher elongation than Type 2. By uniaxial compressive test, there found two issues that can be the reasons to make weaker models by 3D printing were found: melted metals by DMLS are not connected with each other preciously and a space in additive layer when additive manufacturing makes a shape of specimen. In addition, anisotropy is the significant factor to decide stiffness or strength. In nearby future, various kinds of unit models such as core-filled or core-spaced model hope to be made a sandwich core structure and to be investigating more deeply about bending or shear properties continuously. In the near future, it is hoped that we see more upgraded 3D printing techniques for making aerospace materials.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/69296",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/69296",signatures:"Jeongho Choi",book:{id:"8756",title:"Truss and Frames",subtitle:"Recent Advances and New Perspectives",fullTitle:"Truss and Frames - Recent Advances and New Perspectives",slug:"truss-and-frames-recent-advances-and-new-perspectives",publishedDate:"March 4th 2020",bookSignature:"Aykut Kentli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8756.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109235",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Aykut",middleName:null,surname:"Kentli",slug:"aykut-kentli",fullName:"Aykut Kentli"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Hypercube models",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. 3D printing equipment (DMLS)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Material properties (powder)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Experimental setup",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Tension",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Compression",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. 4D cube mechanical test",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"9. Results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"10. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Notes/thanks/other declarations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Eugenio B, Carlo C, Marco L. Shape/size of truss structures using optimization for non-probabilistic description of uncertainty. Transactions on the Built Environment—Computer Aided Optimum Design of Structures V. 1997;28:163-172. DOI: 10.2495/OP970161'},{id:"B2",body:'Bertsekas DP, Ozveren C, Stamoulis GD, Tseng P, Tsitsiklis JN. Optimal communication algorithms for Hypercubes. Journal of Parallel and Distributed Computing. 1991;11:263-275. DOI: 10.1016/0743-7315(91)90033-6'},{id:"B3",body:'Ostrouchov G. Parallel computing on a hypercube-An overview of the architecture and some applications. Oak Ridge National Lab. CONF-8703131-1. DOE: AC05-84OR21400'},{id:"B4",body:'Mane SA. Structure connectivity of hypercubes. AKCE International Journal of Graphs and Combinatorics. 2018;15:1. DOI: 10.1016/j.akce.2018.01.009'},{id:"B5",body:'Harary F. A survey of the theory of hypercube graphs. Computers & Mathematics with Applications. 1988;15:277-289. DOI: 10.1016/0898-1221(88)90213-1'},{id:"B6",body:'Mane SA. Structure connectivity of hypercubes. AKCE Int. J. Graphs Comb. 2018;15:49-52. DOI: 10.1016/j.akcej.2018.01.009'},{id:"B7",body:'Gibson LJ, Ashby MF. Cellular Solids—Structure and Properties. 2nd ed. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press; 1997. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139878326'},{id:"B8",body:'Song Y, Li Y, Song W, Yee K, Lee K-Y, Tagarielli VL. Measurements of the mechanical response of unidirectional 3D-printed PLA. Materials & Design. 2017;123:154-164. DOI: 10.1016/j.matdes.2017.03.051'},{id:"B9",body:'Gibson I, Shi D. Material properties and fabrication parameters in selective laser sintering process. Rapid Prototyping Journal. 1997;3:129-136. DOI: 10.1108/13552549710191836'},{id:"B10",body:'Kulkarni P, Dutta D. Deposition strategies and resulting part stiffnesses in fused deposition modeling. Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. 1999;121:93-103. DOI: 10.1115/1.2830582'},{id:"B11",body:'Feng P, Meng X, Chen JF, Ye L. Mechanical properties of structures 3D printed with cementitious powders. Construction and Building Materials. 2015;93:486-497. DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.05.132'},{id:"B12",body:'Hornbeck LJ. Digital light processing update: Status and future applications. In: Proceeding SPIE3634, International Society for Optics and Photonics Projection Displays V (Electronic Imaging’99); 20 May 1999; San Jose, CA, United States. 1999. pp. 158-170'},{id:"B13",body:'Ikuta K, Hirowatari K, Ogata T. Three dimensional micro integrated fluid systems (MIFS) fabricated by stereolithography. Micro electro mechanical systems. In: Proceedings IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems an Investigation of Mirco Structures, Sensors, Actuators, Machines and Robotic Systems (MEMS’94); 25-28 January 1994. Siso, Japan: IEEE Workshop on; IEEE; 1994. pp. 1-6'},{id:"B14",body:'Engkvist G. Investigation of microstructure and mechanical properties of 3D printed Nylon [thesis]. Materials Engineering: Lulea University of Technology; 2017'},{id:"B15",body:'Basgul C, Yu T, MacDonald DW, Siskey R, Marcolongo M, Kurtz SM. Structure-property relationships for 3D-printed PEEK intervertebral lumbar cages produced using fused filament fabrication. Journal of Materials Research. 2018;33:2040-2051. DOI: 10.1557/jmr.2018.178'},{id:"B16",body:'Mohseni M, Hutmacher DW, Castro NJ. Independent evaluation of medical-grade bioresorbable filaments for fused deposition modelling/ fused filament fabrication of tissue engineered constructs. Polymers. 2018;10:1-17. DOI: 10.3390/polym10010040'},{id:"B17",body:'Kundu S, Hussain M, Kumar V, Mumar S, Das AK. Direct metal laser sintering of TiN reinforced Ti6Al4V alloy based metal matrix composite- fabrication and characterization. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology. 2018;97:2635-2646. DOI: 10.1007/s00170-018-2159-7'},{id:"B18",body:'Alsalla HH, Smith C, Hao L. The effect of different build orientations on the consolidation, tensile and fracture toughness properties of direct metal laser sintering Ti-6Al-4V. Rapid Prototyping Journal. 2018;24:276-284. DOI: 10.1108/RPJ-04-2016-0067'},{id:"B19",body:'Cantrell J, Rohde S, D0amiani D, Gurnani R, diSandro L, Anton J, et al. Experimental characterization of the mechanical properties of 3D printed ABS and polycarbonate parts. In: Yoshida S, Lamberti L, Sciammarella C, editors. Advancement of Optical Methods in Experimental Mechanics. In: Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Mechanics Series Book Series (CPSEMS’17). Cham: Springer; 2017. pp. 89-105'},{id:"B20",body:'Leite M, Fernandes J, Deus AM, Reis L. Study of the influence of 3D printing parameters on the mechanical properties of PLA. In: 3rd International Conference on Progress in Additive Manufacturing (pro-AM 2018); 14-17 May 2018; Singapore. 2018'},{id:"B21",body:'Salet TAM, Ahmed ZY, Bos FP, Laagland HLM. Design of a 3D printed concrete bridge by testing. Virtual and Physical Prototyping. 2018;13:222-236. DOI: 10.1080/17452759.2018.1476064'},{id:"B22",body:'Mehta LS, Pillai P. Compression testing of PLA in 3D printing. International Journal of Electronics, Electrical and Computational System (IJEECS). 2017;6:466-470. ISSN: 2348-117X, DOI: No Data'},{id:"B23",body:'Divyathej MV, Varun M, Rajeev P. Analysis of mechanical behavior of 3D printed ABS parts by experiments. International Journal of Scientific and Engineering Research. 2016;7:116-124. ISSN: 2229-5518, DOI: No Data'},{id:"B24",body:'Hernandez R, Slaughter D, Whaley D, Tate J, Asiabanpour D. Analyzing the tensile, compressive, and flexural properties of 3D printed ABS P430 plastic based on printing orientation using fused deposition modeling. In: Proceedings of the 27th Annual International Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium—An Additive Manufacturing Conference Reviewed Paper (Solid Freeform Fabrication 2016). 2016. pp. 939-950'},{id:"B25",body:'ASTM E8/E8M-13. Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing of Metallic Materials. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International; 2013. Available from: www.astm.org. DOI: 10.1520/E0008_E0008M-13'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Jeongho Choi",address:"choicaf@gmail.com",affiliation:'
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IntechOpen’s Academic Editors and Authors have received funding for their work through many well-known funders, including: the European Commission, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Wellcome Trust, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), CGIAR Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centers, National Institute of Health (NIH), National Science Foundation (NSF), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), German Research Foundation (DFG), Research Councils United Kingdom (RCUK), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Austrian Science Fund (FWF), Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT), Australian Research Council (ARC).
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In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
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