Actuators technology comparison
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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In this regard, this book aims to highlight a body of knowledge related to the discussion of the opportunities and challenges associated with the development of new sustainable landscapes, considering current and future challenges related to land-use changes and planning.",isbn:"978-1-78985-704-7",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-703-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-073-7",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75839",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"land-use-assessing-the-past-envisioning-the-future",numberOfPages:316,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5b0c406adac8447ffeb089e29eac8ea9",bookSignature:"Luís Carlos Loures",publishedDate:"March 13th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7476.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:10034,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:8,numberOfDimensionsCitations:30,numberOfTotalCitations:39,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 28th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 21st 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 20th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 8th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 7th 2018",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"108118",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Loures",slug:"luis-loures",fullName:"Luis Loures",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/108118/images/system/108118.png",biography:"Luís Loures is a Landscape Architect and Agronomic Engineer, Vice-President of the Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre, who holds a Ph.D. in Planning and a Post-Doc in Agronomy. Since he graduated he has published several per reviewed papers at the national and international levels and he has been a guest researcher and lecturer both at Michigan State University (USA), and at University of Toronto (Canada) where he has developed part of his Ph.D. research with the Financial support from the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (Ph.D. grant).\r\nDuring his academic career he had teach in several courses in different Universities including the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Letterkenny Institute of Technology – Ireland, and the University of Algarve, mainly regarding the fields of landscape architecture, urban and environmental planning and sustainability. Currently, He is a researcher both at VALORIZA - Research Centre for Endogenous Resource Valorization – Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre, and the CinTurs - Research Centre for Tourism, Sustainability and Well-being, University of Algarve where he is a researcher on several financed research projects focusing several different investigation domains such as urban planning, landscape reclamation and urban redevelopment, and the use of urban planning as a tool for achieving sustainable development.",institutionString:"VALORIZA - Research Center for Endogenous Resource Valorization",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"849",title:"Landscape Ecology",slug:"landscape-ecology"}],chapters:[{id:"65663",title:"Introductory Chapter: Land-Use Planning and Land-Use Change as Catalysts of Sustainable Development",slug:"introductory-chapter-land-use-planning-and-land-use-change-as-catalysts-of-sustainable-development",totalDownloads:585,totalCrossrefCites:2,authors:[{id:"108118",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",surname:"Loures",slug:"luis-loures",fullName:"Luis Loures"}]},{id:"63661",title:"Dynamics of the Land Use Changes and the Associated Barriers and Opportunities for Sustainable Development on Peripheral and Insular Territories: The Madeira Island (Portugal)",slug:"dynamics-of-the-land-use-changes-and-the-associated-barriers-and-opportunities-for-sustainable-devel",totalDownloads:610,totalCrossrefCites:4,authors:[{id:"108118",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",surname:"Loures",slug:"luis-loures",fullName:"Luis Loures"},{id:"215341",title:"Prof.",name:"José",surname:"Cabezas Fernández",slug:"jose-cabezas-fernandez",fullName:"José Cabezas Fernández"},{id:"215342",title:"Prof.",name:"José Manuel",surname:"Naranjo Gómez",slug:"jose-manuel-naranjo-gomez",fullName:"José Manuel Naranjo Gómez"},{id:"222742",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",surname:"Fernández-Pozo",slug:"luis-fernandez-pozo",fullName:"Luis Fernández-Pozo"},{id:"248645",title:"Dr.",name:"Sérgio António",surname:"Neves Lousada",slug:"sergio-antonio-neves-lousada",fullName:"Sérgio António Neves Lousada"},{id:"248646",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrícia Carlota",surname:"Escórcio",slug:"patricia-carlota-escorcio",fullName:"Patrícia Carlota Escórcio"},{id:"290571",title:"Dr.",name:"Rui Alexandre",surname:"Castanho",slug:"rui-alexandre-castanho",fullName:"Rui Alexandre Castanho"}]},{id:"64827",title:"Effects of Agricultural Land Use on the Ecohydrology of Small- Medium Mediterranean River Basins: Insights from a Case Study in the South of Portugal",slug:"effects-of-agricultural-land-use-on-the-ecohydrology-of-small-medium-mediterranean-river-basins-insi",totalDownloads:564,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"151113",title:"Prof.",name:"Elsa",surname:"Sampaio",slug:"elsa-sampaio",fullName:"Elsa Sampaio"},{id:"252057",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria",surname:"Ilhéu",slug:"maria-ilheu",fullName:"Maria Ilhéu"},{id:"252082",title:"Dr.",name:"Paula",surname:"Matono",slug:"paula-matono",fullName:"Paula Matono"},{id:"252086",title:"Dr.",name:"Teresa",surname:"Batista",slug:"teresa-batista",fullName:"Teresa Batista"}]},{id:"63031",title:"Agricultural Zoning and Policy Conflict: Thailand’s Experience",slug:"agricultural-zoning-and-policy-conflict-thailand-s-experience",totalDownloads:538,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"250154",title:"Dr.",name:"Nararuk",surname:"Boonyanam",slug:"nararuk-boonyanam",fullName:"Nararuk Boonyanam"}]},{id:"63038",title:"Consequences from Land Use and Indirect/Direct Land Use Change for CO2 Emissions Related to Agricultural Commodities",slug:"consequences-from-land-use-and-indirect-direct-land-use-change-for-co2-emissions-related-to-agricult",totalDownloads:531,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"249395",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefan",surname:"Hörtenhuber",slug:"stefan-hortenhuber",fullName:"Stefan Hörtenhuber"},{id:"258027",title:"Dr.",name:"Michaela C.",surname:"Theurl",slug:"michaela-c.-theurl",fullName:"Michaela C. 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Machine",doi:"10.5772/52213",slug:"feedforward-and-modal-control-for-a-multi-degree-of-freedom-high-precision-machine",body:'
High precision industrial machines suffer the presence of vibrations mostly due to two noise sources: ground vibration and direct force disturbances. They can generate several problems at different levels and of different natures, causing performance losses on sensitive systems (Crede, 1951), (Rivin, 1979).
In the last years the growing processing quality level and the need to increase throughput resulted in a continuing demand for higher accuracy. Therefore active isolation and vibration damping systems became mandatory to satisfy these requests (Pneumont, 2002), (Hyde, 1997).
In general, machine supports are designed for high stiffness to obtain a robust machine alignment with respect to its surroundings. However, when significant ground vibration levels occur, the support stiffness is commonly sacrificed to reduce vibration transmission to the payload stage. Efforts to go towards these issues are recorded in several applications and the solutions are different for any particular situation, depending on the nature of vibration sources, the amount of disturbances and the machine environment.
Several actuation technologies are used to face this kind of problem: shape memory alloys, electromagnetic, piezoelectric, magnetostrictive and magneto-rheological fluids actuators (Thayer, 1998). Among them, electromagnetic actuators revealed themselves as effective and performing. Methods for vibration suppression can be classified in a rough approach in three families: passive, active and semi-active actuators. Completely passive solutions have almost reached their maximum potential which is still not sufficient to satisfy stringent requirements. On the opposite, the exponential growth in electronics and actuators fields made the use of active and semi-active isolation more feasible. In particular, active control architectures allow to perform an effective isolation at low frequencies, which is a common requirement for very demanding applications like micrometer motion control, defect inspections, critical dimensions measurement and overlay metrology.
In general, active control arrangements are provided with sensors, actuators and controllers (Watters, 1988). Each of them can be classified depending on their technology and physical working principle. The choice of sensors and actuators is strictly related to the type of application and requirements and has also influence on the selection of the control strategies to be employed. Depending on the type of controller, the system model can be used only to support the control design or can play itself a fundamental role on the control action (model based strategies)(Beadle et al, 2002), (Sullivan, 1997). Typically the main control approaches are feedback, classical or model based, and feed-forward technique, mostly with adaptive reference filtering (Anderson, 1996).
This chapter focuses on the evaluation of an active isolation and vibration damping device mounted in the working cell of a micro-mechanical laser center, which is based on active electromagnetic actuators. Two different models and three control strategies are developed and illustrated.
To clarify the goal of this study it is important to point out that: a) the vibration damping is defined as the reduction of the response amplitude of the system within a limited bandwidth near the natural frequencies of the system; b) vibration isolation is defined as the attenuation of the response of the system after its corner frequency to cut-off all the disturbances after that frequency, while allowing all the signals below it to pass with no alterations.
The machine object of study is composed by two main parts: a frame support and a payload stage where the laser cutting operation is performed. The system performance in terms of accuracy and precision is reduced by the presence of two main vibration sources: the ground and the stage itself. The active device should meet two goals: the payload vibrations damping and the reduction of the transmissibility of ground disturbances.
In this work, after a review of the major actuators families usually employed to damp and isolate high precision machines, the phases followed to design, implement and validate the proposed device are illustrated with a particular emphasis on the mechatronics aspects of the project.
A detailed analysis of the plant components is reported along with an exhaustive explanation of the design criteria followed for the choice of supports, actuation and sensing subsystems. The actuation block consists in four electromagnetic Lorentz type actuators (two per axis).
The absolute velocities of the frame support and of the stage are measured by means of eight geophone sensors to determine the amount of disturbances (Huan, 1985), (Riedesel, 1990). The considerations leading to the choice of this sensing system are reported along with the description of the related signal conditioning stage. The design of the supports between the ground and the frame and of the connections between the frame and the stage is also explained.
Furthermore, all the subsystems described in the first part of the chapter are modeled along with their interactions. The Lagrange equations approach is used to represent the system behavior and in particular the links between the mechanical and electrical subsystems are illustrated.
Two models are developed: a) four degrees of freedom model and b) six degrees of freedom model. Both of them include the plant, the sensing, the control and the actuation blocks. Time and frequency domain computations are carried out from the models to evaluate vibration levels and displacements and to identify which control parameters need to be carefully designed to satisfy the requirements.
The last section exposes in detail the proposed control strategies along with the modeling approach validation. Three different control strategies are developed:
Feedback control: the control law consists in a couple of decentralized actions exerted along
Feedforward control: this action is focused on the rejection of the direct disturbance coming from the payload. The command is not generated on-line as in classical feedforward applications, but it is computed in advance from the data obtained from a direct disturbance from the payload to the machine. That is, here the compensation is computed numerically in the case of known disturbances profiles. The design of this strategy is based on the four degrees of freedom model, as in the case of the feedback control technique.
Modal control: the approach allows the controller to focus on the rotational and translationalal modes of the machine. Results show that the performance of this strategy are comparable to those of the standard feedback control (a), though significant advantages exist in the design procedure where the control effects can be evaluated directly on the motion modes. This technique makes use of the six degrees of freedom model.
Undesired noise and vibrations are since ever a major problem in many human activities and domains. Airplanes, space trusses and satellites, cars, machine tools and large bridges, all can be disturbed in their normal functions by vibrations and noise. Actuators play a critical role in the active control of vibration and different technologies must be considered in order to obtain compact and efficient smart structures.
Selection and use of these technologies is greatly influenced by the user\'s technical knowledge, the project\'s budget, available energy sources, and performance tradeoffs. For example, pneumatic actuators don\'t deliver high force output, but are well suited when a cost-effective, easy start-up solution is required. Hydraulic actuators generate a lot of noise and can leak nasty fluid, but are ideal for high force applications that require precise control. Electromechanical actuators have high energy requirements and are more difficult to install and maintain, but are preferred for complex, multi-axis, motion control applications.
Pneumatics: pneumatic actuation is the conversion of compressed air into, typically, linear force. Typical applications involve extreme temperature and magnetic systems because pneumatic actuators don\'t have the magnetic field issues of electric motors. Position feedback with proximity sensors is used in modern control-loop systems, bringing pneumatics beyond simple bang-bang applications.
Pressure losses and the compressibility of air make pneumatics less efficient than other actuator technologies. In addition compressor and delivery system limitations dictate that pneumatic systems operate at lower pressures, providing lower forces and lower bandwidths than other systems. Pneumatic cylinders typically operate with compressed air at 100 psi or less, in contrast with hydraulic cylinders, which operate on pressurized hydraulic fluids at over 500 psi. Speed, force and bandwidth are directly connected with these characteristics.
Hydraulics: hydraulic actuators are suitable for rugged applications that require high force output. However, hydraulic systems generate noise and, without proper maintenance, they can leak. More equipment is needed as well: hydraulic systems require a fluid reservoir, motors and pumps, release valves, and equipment to reduce noise and heat levels. Moreover external sensors are needed to determine piston velocity, acceleration and position in a closed-loop system. Hydraulic systems can deliver much tighter control than pneumatic systems and higher force density than any other actuator technologies. Bandwidth is better than pneumatic actuators but still under hundreds of Hertz.
Electromechanical: electromechanical actuators can be based on rotatory motors (using ball screw, roller screw or belt drive), linear motors or moving coils. This type of actuator have high dynamic performance, with accelerationsgreater than 20 g and velocities of 10 m/sec and eventually higher. Sub-micron resolution and repeatability are commonplace. Because the actuator is directly coupled to the load, there are fewer components with the chance of failure, which adds long term value.
Piezoelectric: piezomotors and piezoactuators rely on the electromechanical response of crystals. Electrical excitation causes the crystals to slightly change shape and distort, therefore generating large forces and small displacements. Exciting the crystals at a high frequency generates smooth, precise motion, making piezoelectric actuators suitable for applications with very fine positioning and high bandwidth requirements.
Actuator Technology | Advantages | Drawbacks |
Pneumatic | Strong, light, simple, fast. | Precise position control impossible except at full stops. |
Hydraulic | Very high forces possible. | Can leak. Requires position feedback for repeatability. External hydraulic pump required. Some designs good in compression only. |
Electro-mechanical rotary motor | Cheap. Repeatable. Operation can be automated. Self-contained. Identical behaviour extending or retracting. DC or . Position feedback possible. | Many moving parts prone to wear. |
Electro-mechanical Linear motor | Simple design. Minimum of moving parts. High speeds possible. Self-contained. Identical behaviour in extending or retracting. | Low force. |
Moving coil | , position and are controllable and repeatable. Capable of high speeds and precise positioning. Linear, rotary, and linear + rotary actions possible. | Requires position to be repeatable. |
Piezoelectric | Very small motions possible. | Requires position feedback to be repeatable. Short travel. Low speed. High voltages required. Expensive. Good in compression only, not in tension. |
Actuators technology comparison
In this section of the chapter a full description of machine subsystems is provided. The mechanical, electrical, electronic, and control parts are identified and fully described separately in the first part. Furthermore, since the project can be assumed as a classical mechatronics application, the different blocks are analyzed with their interactions in order to provide an overall view of the system.
a) Picture of the machine. b) Sketch of the system. 1: Frame; 2: Stage; 3: Actuators; 4: Frame–Stage Springs; 5: Air springs; 6: Frame sensors; 7: Stage sensors.
Figure 1.a shows a picture of the laser cutting machine while in the sketch of Figure 1.b all the components of the system are highlighted. The stage (2) consists in a granitic base that can move freely within the work volume and is surrounded by four electromechanical actuators (3) acting between the frame (1) and the stage. The machine is partially isolated from the ground by means of four air springs (5). Four mechanical springs (rods) (4) are placed between the frame and the stage. The vibrations due to the machine process and coming from the ground are measured on the stage and on the frame by means of eight velocity inertial sensors (6, 7). A schematic representation of the actuators, sensors, and springs position is reported in Figure 2, where cGF and kGF represent the damping and the stiffness, respectively introduced by the supports, whereas cFS and kFS are the damping and the stiffness, respectively of the springs acting as connections between frame and stage.Actuators and sensors positions can be considered collocated, in order to minimize the couplings between the axes actions by keeping the proper alternation between resonances and anti-resonances in the system dynamics. The main machine parameters and specifications are listed in Table 2.
Formula: Eqn003.wmf>plane view of the system. Stage-Frame spring (XY,kSF), electromagnetic actuator (ACT), velocity sensor (Sens.), Ground-Frame spring (cSF,kGF).
Stage mass | 1450 kg |
Frame mass | 300 kg |
Maximum displacement of the stage | 2.5 mm |
Inertia of the stage along | 200 kg m2 |
Inertia of the frame along | 100 kg m2 |
Main parameters and specifications of the machine.
The design phases have been performed considering the mechatronics nature of the system and the interactions between the machine subsystems, illustrated in Figure 3. Regarding overall controller architecture, a classical feedback behavior is performed: eight velocities are acquired by the sensors measurements and elaborate with conditioning and filtering stages in order to feed the actuators with the proper commands by means of power electronics action. The filtering stage consists in the implementation of a Lead-Lag control strategy designed to fulfill the machine requirements in terms of: a) active isolation from the disturbances coming from the ground and b) damping of the vibrations generated by the machine processes.Feedforward action is also included which allows to reject the direct disturbances coming from the payload. These feedback and feedforward control actions are completely independent one from the other.
Block diagram of the system.
The actuation on the system is realized by means of four electromagnetic Lorentz type actuators placed as illustrated in Figure 1and Figure 2.
The picture and the section view of the actuator architecture are reported in Figure 4, being A and B permanent magnets, while C indicates the coil.
a) Picture of the Lorentz actuator. b) Section view (A and B: permanent magnets, C: coil).
The force
where
Coil thickness | 6 | mm |
Coil length | 3.3 | mm |
Coil active section | 198 | mm2 |
Copper current density | 12 | A/mm2 |
Coil length (l) | 200 | mm |
Coil max actuation force (FACT) | 200 | N |
Number of turns (N) | 263 | - |
Number of coils per axis | 2 | - |
Actuators main parameters.
The design of the actuators has been performed starting from the requirements of force and maximum displacement of the stage, then a current density and the wire section have been selected in order to perform a FEM analysis and to compute the magnetic field. Finally, once known all the electrical parameters, the coil length
Actuator force generation.
The actuators parameters have been identified experimentally. The resulting values are: resistance
The stationary gain
The electrical pole
The resulting actuator trans-conductance (Current/Voltage) transfer function is reported in Figure 6.
Actuator trans-conductance (Current/Voltage) transfer function (magnitude and phase).
The frame and the stage are connected in the vertical direction by means of four linear springs indicated by 4 in Figure 1 as well as cSF and kSFin Figure 2. The design has been performed computing displacements and stresses with a FEM software, starting from the following requirements:
infinite fatigue life;
stiffness
damping
maximum displacement
The designed spring is made of harmonic steel and is characterized by:
length
diameter
maximum value of stress
Four air-springs (indicated by5 in Figure 1 as well as kGF and cGF in Figure 2) consisting in a resilient element air and neoprene diaphragm, have been chosen as supports to provide the system of a partial level of isolation from the ground. The springs are characterized by the following properties:
Nominal natural frequency:
stiffness
damping
Transmissibility at resonance: 8:1;
The maximum load is equal to 545 kg;
The maximum air pressure is equal to 80 psi (5.5 bar).
The disturbances on the plant are evaluated by measuring the velocities of the stage and ofthe frame along X -axis and Y –axis, by means of eight geophones placed as indicated in Figure 2. They are the most common inertial velocity sensors used to monitor seismic vibrations and can be classified as electromagnetic sensors that measure the velocity and produce a voltage signal thanks to the motion of a coil in a magnetic field (Hauge et al, 2002). One configuration of the conventional geophones consists of a cylindrical magnet coaxial with a cylindrical coil as shown in Figure 7. The coil is made up of a good conductor like copper and is wound around a nonconductive cylinder to avoid eddy currents effects, caused by the currents induced in the coil. The wire diameter and the dimensions of the holding cylinder are designed according to the application requirements.
The internal core is a permanent magnet selected to maximize the magnetic field density and consequently the induced voltage in the coil. The coil is fixed to the geophone housing by means of leaf springs (membranes). These springs are designed to ensure the alignment during the relative motion between coil and magnet, by keeping as low as possible the stiffness in order to minimize the geophone resonant frequency.
The reverse configuration shown in Figure 8 is realized using a coil fixed to the housing while the moving mass is the permanent magnet. Since the mass of the magnet is heavier than that of the coil, this configuration leads to a lower natural frequency, but the moving part is larger and heavier.
Geophone active configuration scheme. a) Coil and springs installation. b) Cross section.
Geophone reverse configuration scheme.
Two different geophones of the Input-Output Inc. sensors have been tested: an active sensor model LF24 (configuration in Figure 7) and a passive sensor model SM6 (configuration in Figure 8). The LF-24 Low Frequency Geophone is characterized by the following parameters: natural frequency at 1Hz, distortion measurement frequency at 12Hz and sensitivity equal to 15V/(m/s).
The sensor chosen is the passive model SM6 because it allows to have an extreme low noise, though the output needs to be amplified by an active conditioning stage.
The sensor response transfer between the velocity of the housing and the induced voltage in the coil, can be written in the well known second order form:
where
Considering that the first natural frequency of the system is at about 1.8 Hz, close to the geophone natural frequency, the sensor sensitivity cannot be simply modeled as a constant value. Thus the transfer function of the geophone response must be identified to make the result more reliable.
SM6 geophone is a passive velocity sensor with the following parameters: natural frequency 4.5Hz and sensitivity 28V/(m/s). The damping ratio coefficient has been experimentally identified for both sensors and is equal to 1 (model SM6 is represented in Figure 9.a and model LF24 in Figure 9.b).
Since the generated voltage is proportional to the crossing rate of the magnetic field, the output of the sensorwill be proportional to the velocity of the vibrating body. A typical instrument of this kind may have a natural frequency between 1 Hz to 5 Hz. The sensitivity of this kind of sensor is in the range 2-3.5 V/ms−1 with the maximum peak to peak displacement limited to about 5 mm (Thomson, 1981). When a geophone is used to measure vibrations with a frequency below its natural frequency, the proof-mass tends to follow the motion of the vibrating body rather than staying stationary. This motion of the proof-mass reduces the relative motion between the same proof-mass and the housing decreasing the induced voltage. In these conditions the sensitivity of the sensor (ratio between the voltage and the casing velocity) becomes very small limiting its range of usage to frequencies above its corner frequency. It is important to underline that both displacement and acceleration can be obtained from the velocity by means integration and differentiation operations.
Geophone damping ratio identification. a) model SM6 (passive). b) model LF24 (active).
In this section the subsystems related to sensor acquisition and conditioning, power electronics and control implementation (Sensor Conditioning, Power Electronics, Feedforward Control, and Feedback Control in Figure 3) are illustrated.
The electronics system architecture is shown in Figure 10. The main characteristic of this architecture is the serial communication input/output line that provides high noise immunity, which can be useful when signals must travel through a noisy environment, such as with remote sensors.
Electronics subsystem.
The digital carrier is used like a buffer to provide the proper current level for the serial communication. Here, multiples system buses manage data exchange between the main serial communication core (FPGA) and the communication boards placed on the plant.
The communication boards are provided with one digital-to-analog converter (DAC) and two analog-to-digital converters (ADC). The DAC is a 16-bit, high-speed, low-noise voltage-output DAC with 30-MHz serial interface that is capable of generating output signal frequencies up to 1 MHz. The ADC is a single channel 12-bit analog-to-digital converter with a high-speed serial interface and sample rate range of 50 ksps to 200 ksps.
Control Unit
The control modules are supported by a DSP/FPGA–based digital control unit. Hence the overall control implementation can be divided between the two digital devices in order to fulfill different requirements: control strategy realization on DSP and serial communication implementation on FPGA.
The overall control strategy is characterized with a nested and decentralized control structure, where only the outer loop is implemented on DSP while the inner current loop is realized on the power module directly. In particular, the outer loop computes the right reference for the inner one starting from required error compensation. The same strategy is applied for each axis.
Sensors Conditioning
The Sensors Conditioning Module provides the output signal from geophone by means of an instrumentation amplifier circuits. The component is configured for dual-channel operation, in order to connect two geophones together. Figure 11, shows the circuit layout for dual-channel. R1A and R1B are the gain setting resistors.
With the ADC input in the range [0-3] V and assuming the maximum magnitude of noise in geophone measurement nearly equal to 1000 m/s, the setting resistors are selected to achieve a gain of 100.
Instrumentation amplifier circuits AD8224. R1A and R1B are the gain setting resistors.
Power Electronics
The Power Electronics Moduleis based on a trans-conductance amplifier instead of a switching amplifier in order to avoid noise due to the switching frequency. This kind of amplifier operates as a voltage-to-current converter whit a differential input voltage (voltage controlled current source configuration).
The electronics layout that is divided in three main stages: a) the trans-conductance amplifier, b) the current amplifier and c) the feedback resistor.
The power module uses the voltages reference
Two different models have been developed to permit the design of the three proposed control strategies:
Four degrees of freedom model used for the design of: a) a feedback controller with a Lead Lag approach, b) Feedforwardcontrol strategy.
Six degrees of freedom model used for the design of c)Modal controller.
The system has been modeled by using four degrees of freedom describing the dynamics in
YZ plane 4 dof kinematic relationships scheme.
The degrees of freedom of the model are:
that indicate the displacement of the frame along
Referring to Figure 12, it is possible to obtain the formulation of the velocity of a generic point
The kinetic energy
WheremSandJS are the mass and the rotating inertia measured in the center of mass of the stage S, and mF andJF the mass and the rotating inertia measured in the center of mass of the frame
The potential energy
Formula: Eqn055.wmf>plane 4 dof model scheme.
The potential energy
where yGand zG are the displacement of the ground and d1, d2, and hthe quantities reported in Figure 13.
Owing to the Rayleigh formulation,the damping of the system isgoverned by the following dissipation function:
where each damping term
The inputs of the system are: the force of the electromagnetic actuators
YZ plane 4dof model scheme – input and output.
Using the Lagrange formulation is possible to write the equations of motion in the form:
where
are the vectors of the generalized coordinates,
is the vector of the generalized forces and M is the mass matrix
The stiffness matrix
The damping matrix
The selection matrix T of the generalized forces is:
In the state space formulation the equations of motion of the system can rewritten as:
where the state vector X and the input vector are:
with A the state matrix, B the input matrix
The relationship between input and output can be represented as:
where
As well as the dynamics on the YZ plane described in the previous section, it has been developed a six degrees of freedom model of system dynamics on the XY plane. In this case, the degrees of freedom of the model are:
indicating the stage displacements xS along X-axis, ySalong Y-axis, the rotation θS about the axis passing through the mass center and oriented along the Z-axis, the frame displacementsxF along X-axis, yF along Y-axis, and the rotation θF about the axis passing through the mass center oriented along the Z-axis. Stage and frame degrees of freedom, inputs, and geometric properties are illustrated in Figure 15 and 16.
Resorting to the Lagrange formulation as reported in (12), the q vector of the generalized coordinates is:
and the Fthe vector of the generalized forces is
it is possible to obtain the corresponding mass matrix M, stiffness matrix K and damping matrix C (not reported due to its excessive size).
XY Plane 6 dof model scheme: stage degrees of freedom and inputs.
XY Plane 6 dof model scheme: stage degrees of freedom and inputs.
The selection matrix T of the generalized forces is:
Similarly in the state space formulation the equations of motion of the system can rewritten as:
where the state vector X and the input vector
with the following state and input matrix
The relationship between input and output can be represented as:
where
C is the output matrixand
In this section three different control strategies to damp vibration and isolate the machine are proposed: a) Feedback control by the use of a Lead-Lag technique, b) Feedforward control and c) Modal control. The experimental validation has been carried out just for the first strategy as proof of the correctness of the modeling approach. Feedforward and modal controls are validated numerically.
The control action is designed to achieve two main goals: active isolation of the payload from the ground disturbances and vibration damping during the machine work processes. These two actions allow to operate on the stage without external disturbances. Dynamics on
Furthermore, from the control point of view, the adopted model is oversized with respect to the control requirements if the goal is the isolation of the stage. As a matter of fact, in this case a two degrees of freedom model is sufficient while if also the dynamics of the frame is required to be controlled, then a 4 dof model is necessary.
The considered system can be regarded as intrinsically stable due to the presence of mechanical stiffness between the stageand the frame, which allows to obtain a negative real part for all the eigenvalues of the system.
Root loci of the system in open and closed loop configurations are reported in Figure 17.
Root loci of open loop (a) and closed loop (b) configurations (Circles: zeros; Crosses: poles).
Poles and zeros of the system are reported in Table 4.
Poles [rad/s] | Zeros [rad/s] | |
Geophone | -28.2743 | - |
-28.2743 | - | |
Feedback Controller | -1 | -75 |
-4 | -12 | |
Open Loop Plant | -6.4136 + 79.8805i | -5.8786 + 80.8581i |
-6.4136 - 79.8805i | -5.8786 - 80.8581i | |
-3.7383 + 46.4898i | -2.0791 + 37.9468i | |
-3.7383 - 46.4898i | -2.0791 - 37.9468i | |
-0.2371 + 10.9133i | -1.9325 + 33.6912i | |
-0.2371 - 10.9133i | -1.9325 - 33.6912i | |
-1.9557 + 33.7951i | 0 | |
-1.9557 - 33.7951i | 0 | |
-28.2743 | 0 | |
-28.2743 | - | |
Close Loop Plant | -6.3137 + 79.8109i | -5.8786 + 80.8581i |
-6.3137 - 79.8109i | -5.8786 - 80.8581i | |
-5.3540 + 46.2140i | -2.0791 + 37.9468i | |
-5.3540 - 46.2140i | -2.0791 - 37.9468i | |
-1.9649 + 33.7933i | -1.9325 + 33.6912i | |
-1.9649 - 33.7933i | -1.9325 - 33.6912i | |
-27.7026 + 12.6862i | -1 | |
-27.7026 - 12.6862i | -4 | |
-1.8090 + 9.2149i | 0 | |
-1.8090 - 9.2149i | 0 | |
-4.7413 | 0 | |
-0.9885 | - |
Poles and zeros of the system
Since the system along
Figure 18 shows that the system dynamics has a peak at 1.8 Hz related to the stage and higher modes related to the interaction of the stage with the frame and the ground at 10 Hz and beyond.
Vibration damping action. Transfer function from the actuator force to the difference of frame and stage velocities(YZ). Open-loop vs Closed-loop. Solid line: experimental; Dashed line: numerical.
The feedback controller is focused on damping the mode related to the stage by adding on the loop a lead-lag compensator.
The two actions can be expressed as:
Therefore the resulting Lag-Lead action allows to compensate the critical phase behavior of the geophones and furthermore guarantees a quick damping action with good levels of stability margins.
The experimental tests have been performed to validate the two control actions. Figure 18 shows the numerical and experimnental frequency response function in open loop and closed loop, obtained from the actuator force to the velocity measured on the stage. The force acts both on the stage and the frame, the dynamics of both the subsystems are visible. The vibration damping effect of the control action is validated on the stage mode (1.8 Hz peak) and the good correspondence shown between the simulated and experimental response is useful to validate the modeling approach.
Impulse time response, force from the actuator and velocity measured on the stage. Open-loop (a), Closed-loop (b), Force exerted by the actuators. Solid line: experimental results. Dashed line: numerical results.
A further demonstration of the correctness of the damping action is the velocity time response reported in Figure 19. In this case the system is excited with an impulse from the actuator and the velocity is measured on the stage. Numerical and experimental responses are superimposed to provide a further validation of the model (the position time response is not reported since the machine is not provided with displacement sensors and hence this validation could not be possible to performed). Figure 19.a shows open loop response, Figure19.b shows closed loop response while in Figure19.c the force exerted by the actuators is reported.
The excitation coming from the laser-axis action on the stageis controlled in an effective way as shown in Figure 20 where the numerical transfer function between a force impulse on the stage and the related measured velocity is reported.
Vibration damping action. Transfer function from a force applied on the stage to the velocity measured on the stageCLAG. Numerical response. Solid line: closed-loop; Dashed line: Open-loop.
Active isolation action. Transfer function from a simulated ground velocity to the velocity measured on the stageCLEAD. Numerical response. Solid line: Open loop configuration. Dashed line: Closed loop configuration.
The active isolation action is verified by simulating the excitation coming from the ground. The experimental test in this case has not been performed since in reality it is difficult to excite the machine from the ground in a controlled and effective way. Nevertheless the model is reliable as proved in Figure 14 and the obtained results can be assumed as a good validation of the control action.
Figure 21 illustrates that the closed loop system is capable to reject the disturbances coming from the ground in an effective way.
Although the feedback control explained in Section 5.1 is strongly effective for external disturbances coming from the ground, it could not be sufficient to make the machine completely isolated from the direct disturbance generated by the movement of the payload. It is indeed possible that in the case of high precision requests, feedback control approaches such as PID, Lead-Lag or LQR are not able to satisfy by themselves severe specifications. Hence different schemes, operating selectively on the stage direct disturbances, are required.
In this section an off-line feedforward scheme allowing to isolate the machine from the action of payload direct disturbance in operating condition is proposed. The scheme is not classical, i.e. the command is not generated on-line but it is computed in advance on the basis of the data response to the direct disturbance and the transfer function between the control command and the controlled output. As illustrated in Figure 3, the action of feedforward control is superimposed to the one of the Lead-Lag feedback control and acts exclusively on the disturbance acting from the payload.
The technique is based on the complete knowledge of the fixed pattern followed by the payload of the machine during operations. Since also the operation timing is known, it is possible to compute in advance a feedforward command, so as to be able to suppress the effects of the direct disturbance that are generated by the payload movements, and that cannot be measured. These commands are stored in the electronic control unit and are summed to the feedback control action at the appropriate time.
The model used to design the control law is the four degrees of freedom model exposed in Section 4.1. Being the XZ-plane and YZ-plane symmetric, just the latter is considered in the design phases.
The controlled output is the velocity measured on the stage
where
The control signal is:
Since the operation pattern and timing are known (Figure 23 (a)), the transfer function
It is worthy to notice that the inversion of
Bode diagram of h(s) is reported in Figure 22 (feedback control is on, vibrations coming from the ground are damped).
Figure 23 (c) shows that the proposed technique is effective and allows to isolate the machine from the direct disturbance generated by the payload operations. The excitation signal reproduces a standard laser cut periodic profile.
The coupling of this action with the feedback control system permits to obtain a full vibration damping and active isolation from external disturbance coming from the ground and direct disturbance coming from the stage.
Control command to controlled output stage velocity transfer function (h(s)) Bode diagram.
a) Feedforward control: disturbance profile; b) Control signal. Solid line: feedforward off, dashed line: feedforward on; c) Controlled output: stage velocity. Solid line: feedforward off, dashed line: feedforward on.
The third and last control technique proposed in this chapter is a modal approach to perform a feedback control scheme. This strategy is similar in performance to the Lead–Lag strategy illustrated in Section 5.1, but it simplifies the control design procedure once it gives a direct feeling on actuators action on machine modes.
The method is based on the scheme reported in Figure 24. The goal of the technique is to decouple the rotational and translational motion modes of the machine to direct the action of the controller selectively on the dynamic of interest.
Modal control overall scheme.
The eight geophones measurements on stage and frame are elaborated to obtain four velocity differences:
These values are then summed and subtracted in order to obtain the motion mode uncoupling.
Rotational mode:
Translational mode
The control dynamic is the same of Lead-Lag approach, the difference consisting in the error fed to the controller. The poles of the system in open and closed loop are reported in Table 4.
Modal control. a) Control command to stage-frame velocities difference transfer function. b) Control command to translational dynamics transfer function. c) Control command to rotational dynamics transfer function. Solid line: open loop. Dashed line: closed loop.
Figure 25 shows the motion modes uncoupling and system behaviour in open and closed loop. Figure 25.a illustrates control command to stage-frame velocities difference transfer function where translational and rotational modes are coupled. Figure 25.b and Figure 25.c report the translational (
In this chapter the design of three different control techniques for vibration damping and active isolation for high precision laser cutting machines has been illustrated. After an overview on the main actuation technologies in this field the work explains the advantages of electromechanical actuators and focuses on the mechatronics approach of the machine subsystem design. For controller implementation, two different models (four and six degrees of freedom) have been developed. The considered controllers are:
Feedback control with a Lead-Lag approach;
Off-line Feedforward scheme;
Modal control.
Experimental and simulation results used to check the effectiveness of the modeling approach and of the three proposed control techniques.
Over the last decades, investigations about composite materials have made great advances in understanding the importance of the starting materials and the manufacturing process, for the development of novel materials with outstanding properties [1]. In this regard, in the field of metal matrix composites, research studies have been conducted to achieve optimal bounding matrix reinforcement, improving the strength of the metal matrix composites (MMCs) [2]. Light metal matrix composites are valued, particularly in certain applications where low density should be balanced with mechanical requirements [3]. In particular, titanium composites (TMCs) offer these advantages over other light metal matrices [1, 4]. Their good corrosion behaviour and high specific properties make TMCs one of the most suitable candidates for aerospace applications [5].
Several authors have described several classifications of these materials. One of these classifications could be considered based on the kind of reinforcements: continuous or discontinuous reinforcement [6, 7]. Other classifications could be done according to the manufacturing route: traditional methods or powder metallurgy techniques [8, 9, 10, 11, 12]. An interesting route to promote the strengthening of the matrix is the “in situ” formation of secondary phases. This method allows a clean and well bounding between the matrix and the reinforcement [9]; consequently, better final behaviour of the TMCs may be expected [13, 14].
On the basis of previous and recent studies, this work focuses on TMCs which were manufactured employing discontinuous ceramic reinforcement. These ceramic phases were selected according to their reactivity with the titanium matrix. Many authors show the great variety of ceramic reinforcements; however, in this investigation TiC, TiB2, B, and B4C particles were studied. They were considered as precursors of secondary phase formation by in situ techniques [15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20].
From the manufacturing process point of view, powder metallurgy techniques of hot consolidation have proved useful at the study of in situ composites [21]. Therefore, for the development of TMCs, inductive hot pressing has been selected among other manufacturing processes. The experience of the authors in this technique had led to laying the basis of this study [22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28].
By a thorough analysis of the properties of the produced specimens via inductive hot pressing at different temperatures by the use of several starting material compositions, specific features of the TMCs could be studied. In this regard, the employment of the XRD technique is crucial in understanding the reaction phenomena between the matrix and the reinforcement. Furthermore, the behaviour of the ceramic particles in the matrix could be unpredictable and variable depending upon many factors; this study is the main objective to analyse the phenomena that could occur when factors as starting powder composition and processing parameters are varied and ultimately how these factors affect the final properties of the TMCs.
The interest in understanding the influence of the starting materials on the final behaviour of TMCs motived the study of three ceramic materials as reinforcements testing various concentrations in titanium matrices. Hence, for the TMC manufacture, diverse starting blends were prepared. The innovation of this investigation lies in the phase analysis carried out in specimens made from these blends. The employment of several operation temperatures and reinforcement typologies and concentrations allowed for the searching of significant differences, among the fabricated TMCs, while all these specimens have been processed at similar processing conditions.
The titanium grade 1 employed was manufactured by TLS GmbH (Bitterfeld, Germany). This titanium powder showed a spherical morphology and D50 below 45 μm. The four ceramic reinforcements were chosen considering their reactive behaviour in respect of the secondary phases’ formation in titanium matrices. The supplier for TiC powder was H.C. STARK GmBH (Goslar, Germany) and for B4C powders was abcr GmbH (Karlsruhe, Germany), and the company for TiB2 was Treibacher Industrie AG (Althofen, Austria). The characterization of all the powders was carried out to verify the manufacturers’ data about their size and morphology. The particle size distribution of the powders was measured by laser diffraction analysis (Mastersizer 2000, Malvern Instruments, Malvern, United Kingdom); these results are shown in Table 1.
Material | Morphology | D50 (μm) |
---|---|---|
Ti | Spherical | 29.05 |
TiC | Faceted | 4.9 |
TiB2 | Irregular | 4.76 |
B4C | Faceted | 63.76 |
Characteristics of the starting materials.
X-ray powder diffraction analysis was done using a Bruker D8 Advance A25 (Billerica, Massachusetts, United States of America) with Cu-Kα radiation for the phase characterisation of as-received Ti, TiC, TiB2, and B4C powders and studying the phase evolution of sintered TMCs. The reference intensity ratio (RIR) analysis was performed to semi-quantitatively determine the phases. This method is based on setting the diffraction data to the diffraction of standard reference materials. The intensity of a diffraction peak profile is a convolution of diverse factors, being the most representative of the concentration of the analysed species.
In Figure 1, the X-ray diffraction spectra of the starting materials (as-received) are shown. Based on the obtained diffraction patterns, these materials consist of only Ti, TiC, TiB2, and B4C, respectively.
XRD analysis of the starting powders: Ti grade 1, TiC, TiB2, and B4C.
Previously in the TMC consolidation, the raw material blends were prepared according to the fixed percentages in volume (see Table 2). The mixing procedure was described in previous authors’ work [28]. Next, the specimens were sintered. To consolidate the TMCs, a self-made hot pressing machine, inductive hot pressing (iHP) equipment of RHP-Technology GmbH & Co. KG (Seibersdorf, Austria), was used. This machine enabled the operational cycle time to be reduced thanks to its advantageous high heating rate, which in turn is due to its special inductive heating setup. The prepared powders were inserted in the graphite die; it was lined with thin graphite paper and a protective coating of boron nitride (BN). The same procedure and die were used for all the iHP cycles (punch Ø 20 mm). Methods based on this rapid hot consolidation are considered as preferred techniques for in situ fabrication of nearly fully dense TMCs [29]. In Table 2, the processing conditions are shown. Likewise, the curves of the process cycle are represented graphically in Figure 2. The iHP equipment worked in vacuum conditions (5 10−4 bar), the cycle heating rate being 50°C/min. Following the consolidation, the specimens were dislodged from the graphite die and cut in half vertically.
Ti matrix and reinforcement | Processing parameters | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Reinforcement material | Volume [%] | Temperature [°C] | Time [min] | Pressure [MPa] |
TiC | 10, 20, 30 | 1000, 1100, 1200 | 15 | 50 |
TiB2 | 10, 20, 30 | 1000, 1100, 1200 | 15 | 50 |
B4C | 10, 20, 30 | 1000, 1100, 1200 | 15 | 50 |
Reinforcement percentages and processing parameters.
Diagram of the inductive hot-pressing cycle: time vs. temperature and piston displacement.
After a thorough metallographic preparation on the cross section of the specimens, the X-ray analysis and the microstructural study were performed. It was studied by means of SEM, using JEOL 6460LV (Tokyo, Japan) and FEI Teneo (Oregon, United States of America). Furthermore, the hardness measurement was carried out; seven indentations were performed on each specimen, avoiding the ceramic particles. A tester model, Struers Duramin A300 (Ballerup, Denmark), was employed to ascertain the Vickers hardness (HV2). An ultrasonic method (Olympus 38DL, Tokyo, Japan) was employed to calculate the Young modulus by measuring longitudinal and transversal propagation velocities of acoustic waves [30]. Archimedes’ method (ASTM C373-14) was set for the density measurement.
This section has been structured according to the employed reinforcement, in order to present the results and to perform their discussion clearly and concisely. Therefore, there have been three subparts taking into account the ceramic materials used as starting reinforcements in the TMC manufacturing.
The X-ray diffraction spectra of TMCs made from TiC-Ti blends are shown in Figure 3. Based on the obtained diffraction patterns, these materials consist of Ti and TiCx phases. On the one hand, the X-ray analysis reveals that there are only Ti and TiC phases in specimens produced at 1000°C, regardless of whether the highest or the lowest TiC concentration (vol.%) was used in the starting blend. Likewise, only TiC stoichiometric phase is detected in specimens made from 10 vol.% of TiC, even in specimens produced at 1100 and 1200°C. On the other hand, the peak intensity of the Ti phase decreased; meanwhile, there was an apparition of slight diffraction peaks of nonstoichiometric TiC phase named TiC0.67. It suggested that there were possible reactions between the Ti and diffused C from the TiC particles at high concentrations (20 vol.% TiC and 30 vol.% TiC). The intensification of the nonstoichiometric TiC peaks from 1100 to 1200°C indicates the increase in the volume fraction of this phase, which can be confirmed by the RIR semi-quantification analysis. The results from RIR analysis are shown in Table 3. These results may lead to the assumption that the phenomenon of C diffusion was more significant at the highest TiC concentration (30 vol.%) and the highest operational temperature (1200°C). In agreement with the values of the RIR semi-quantification analysis in Table 3, the higher the TiC in starting materials was used, the higher the TiC phase values in the RIR analysis was detected.
XRD patterns of TMCs reinforced using (a) 10 vol.% of TiC, (b) 20 vol.% of TiC and (c) 30 vol.% of TiC.
Temperature (°C) | vol.% | Ti (%) | TiC (%) | TiC0.67 (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1000 | 10 | 97.8 | 2.2 | |
20 | 96.3 | 6.4 | ||
30 | 88.5 | 11.5 | ||
1100 | 10 | 96.9 | 3.1 | |
20 | 91.9 | 8.1 | ||
30 | 84.4 | 15.6 | ||
1200 | 10 | 94.6 | 3.6 | 1.8 |
20 | 91.4 | 8.6 | ||
30 | 81.0 | 19.0 |
Reinforcement percentages and processing parameters.
To clarify the distribution of the nonstoichiometric TiCx phases in TMCs, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) analysis was performed. In Figure 4, the EDS result revealed that there were concentration gradients between the centres of the TiC particles and the matrix. This clearly demonstrated the value of the temperature and the starting material compositions as influencing factors in the final behaviour of the TMCs. Moreover, it can be observed from Figure 4 that C was diffused in the region, which is rich in titanium. This is in accordance with the slight displacement of the Ti peaks in the TMC patterns when the specimens were consolidated especially at 1200°C.
On the left, SEM image of TMCs processed at 1200°C, with starting TiC composition of 20 vol.%. On the right, EDX analysis of three spots on the cross section of such TMC.
From the microstructural point of view, there were several differences observed in the specimens, which depended not only on the processing temperature employed but also on the starting reinforcement concentration. In this regard, the lower the concentration of TiC (10 vol.%), the fewer the pores observed in the TMC microstructure. Moreover, some agglomerations of the TiC particles could be clearly appreciated in specimens made from the blend with 30 vol.% of TiC; there are little pores observed in the centre of these ceramic particles’ agglomerations in the titanium matrices (Figure 5a). The pores tended to close with the increase in temperature. In line with the diffusion phenomenon mentioned above, a possible reason for the porous reduction may be the diffusion of the C element and, consequently, the formation of TiCx phases. Furthermore, the cited pores could also be caused by material removal during the metallographic preparation, which suggested that major bonding between TiC particles and the matrix decreases the material removal. It indicates that the reaction between the C sourced by TiC particles and Ti from the matrix involved a strong interfacial bonding. Therefore, the rising of the temperature benefited, and it was very useful to obtain major densification. It is worth noting that the reinforcement agglomeration could be a problem as a barrier for affecting the diffusion phenomenon and the interfacial contact. For that reason, the pores are only observed in the centre of the mentioned agglomerations (see Figure 5).
SEM images of TMCs made from composition of 30 vol.% of TiC hot consolidated at (a) 1000°C and (b) 1200°C.
Figure 6 shows the XRD patterns of the TMCs reinforced with TiB2 particles. In this respect, particular attention will be devoted to the existence of peaks of Ti3B4, while there was an increment of the temperature from 1100 to 1200°C. Likewise, it can be seen that the XRD patterns of the specimens produced at 1000°C only contain strong diffraction peaks of TiB2 phase and slight diffraction peaks of TiB phase. The Ti3B4 peaks appear independently of the starting TiB2 concentration (vol.%), being only related to the processing temperature (1100 and 1200°C).
XRD patterns of TMCs reinforced in the starting blend with (a) 10 vol.% of TiB2, (b) 20 vol.% of TiB2, and (c) 30 vol.% of TiB2.
Table 4 shows the semi-quantification analysis of the TMCs reinforced by TiB2 particles. As many authors describe [9, 12, 13, 16, 19, 22, 29], there are reactions between B from TiB2 particles and the Ti matrix, resulting in the in situ TiB phase. Thus, it would be expected that the percentages of in situ TiB phase were proportional to the initial composition of TiB2 in the starting blend. However, observing the values presented in Table 4, the key parameter was the temperature instead of the concentration, promoting the apparition of TiB as in situ formed phase. Owing to the rising temperature, the diffusion mechanism was driven by the temperature increments of 100°C (from 1000 to 1100°C and from 1100 to 1200°C). The highest temperature (1200°C) played a major role in the formation of TiB, independently of the operational temperature. Obviously, at the same temperature, there was more TiB detected in specimens made from starting powder with the higher TiB2 composition (30 vol.% of TiB2).
Ti matrix and TiB2 | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Temperature [°C] | vol.% | Ti (%) | TiB2 (%) | TiB | Ti3B4 (%) |
1000 | 10 | 91.3 | 4.7 | 4.0 | |
20 | 78.2 | 19.0 | 2.8 | ||
30 | 68.3 | 28.1 | 2.9 | ||
1100 | 10 | 90.2 | 4.1 | 3.9 | 1.8 |
20 | 77.9 | 12.0 | 6.8 | 3.3 | |
30 | 65.0 | 24.8 | 7.4 | 2.8 | |
1200 | 10 | 88.5 | 2.5 | 6.2 | 2.6 |
20 | 76.7 | 3.9 | 12.3 | 7.1 | |
30 | 72.9 | 3.5 | 20.9 | 3.4 |
RIR semi-quantification analysis of TMCs made from Ti-TiB2 blends, manufactured at different temperatures (by iHP).
Microstructural study of these TMCs confirmed the visual existence of the in situ TiBx phases. Moreover, some pores were detected in areas where the TiB2 particles were slightly agglomerated. As mentioned in the results of the microstructural analysis of TMC reinforced by TiCx phases, the referred pores were located in the centre of particle agglomeration. The higher the concentration of particles and the lower the operational temperature, the more significant the apparition of pores in the TMCs. In Figure 7, the commented pores can be recognized.
SEM image of TMC reinforced with 30 vol.% of TiB2 particles consolidated at 1000°C.
The influence of the temperature was relevant once again to close these pores, as in similitude with the TiC. Many studies [31] attempted to show the importance of strong bonding between the matrix and the TiBx phases; the no contact between the reinforcement and the matrix, in addition to the inappropriate processing temperature, inhibited the formation of in situ secondary phases. By increasing the operational temperature, improvement in the diffusion phenomenon was expected.
SEM images of the microstructure of TMCs processed at 1100°C are shown in Figure 8. The results about homogenous distribution and increase in the volume of reinforcements in the Ti matrix are in accordance to the RIR analysis. In Figure 8a, the reinforcements on the matrix can be easily recognized. Observing the microstructural evolution by increment of the composition, the smaller TiB2 particles were surrounded by the in situ formed phases when the starting composition of TiB2 was the lowest. However, in Figure 8c, coarse TiB2 particles were also surrounded by phases with minor size.
SEM images of TMCs processed at 1100°C with different percentages of TiB2 in the starting blends: (a) 10 vol.%, (b) 20 vol.%, and (c) 30 vol.%.
The rising in temperature was crucial for reactions between the matrix and the TiB2 particles. At 1200°C, there were major diffusion of B through the matrix and more formation of the in situ TiBx phases. Figure 9 shows two different areas on a cross section (iHP at 1200°C), where the B distribution varied considerably; the darkest region in the centre corresponds with the highest concentration of B. It suggests that the dark grey areas were originally the TiB2 particles, which were surrounded by the in situ TiBx phases.
SEM image of TMC with 10 vol.% of TiB2 in the starting blend, processed at 1200°C.
The use of B4C offers considerable scope for diversification and development of in situ secondary phases (TiC and TiB). Hence, a wide range of studies intended to demonstrate the suitability of B4C as a source of B and C for in situ secondary phases, owing to its reactive behaviour with the Ti matrix. The B4C particles can trigger reactions whose products contribute to enhance the TMC properties. In this regard, TiC and TiB phases may expect to be observed and analysed in this type of TMCs. Figure 9 shows the XRD patterns of the TMCs reinforced with B4C particles. It can be verified that the highest temperature of the iHP process and the holding time (15 minutes) were insufficient for a full reaction between the boron carbide particles and the titanium matrices, even at the lowest concentration of B4C. Thus, this fact occurred independently of the starting compositions, confirmed by the existence of peaks related to the boron carbide. Likewise, there were observed peaks matching TiB and TiC patterns.
The intensification of TiB and TiC peaks from 1000 to 1200°C reflects the increase in the volume fraction of these phases, which can also be seen in the RIR analysis shown in Table 5.
Ti matrix and B4C | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Temperature [°C] | B4C vol.% | Ti (%) | B4C (%) | TiB (%) | TiC (%) |
1000 | 10 | 92.2 | 5.7 | 1.6 | 0.5 |
20 | 86.4 | 10.8 | 1.8 | 1.0 | |
30 | 78.0 | 18.3 | 2.2 | 1.5 | |
1100 | 10 | 90.6 | 5.7 | 2.7 | 1.0 |
20 | 81.2 | 10.3 | 6.5 | 2.0 | |
30 | 73.3 | 17.9 | 6.5 | 2.3 | |
1200 | 10 | 89.0 | 4.9 | 5.0 | 1.1 |
20 | 80.6 | 10.0 | 7.0 | 2.3 | |
30 | 64.4 | 17.1 | 14.3 | 4.2 |
RIR semi-quantification analysis of TMCs made from Ti-B4C blends, manufactured at different temperatures (by iHP).
The microstructural study shows the homogenous dispersion of the B4C particles in the matrix. In this context, there were no agglomerations visually detected. This suggests that there was no porosity related to particles agglomerations as commented previously in TMCs reinforced by TiB2 and TiC. It could be considered as an advantage of the B4C as reinforcement in comparison with other ceramic particles. Figure 11 shows TMCs processed at the same temperature with different B4C percentages.
Regarding the processing temperature, there were significant differences related to the reaction between the matrix and the B and C from the B4C particles. At the lowest temperature (1000°C), the formation of the in situ TiB and TiC phases was proportional to the starting content of B4C. Employing 10 vol.% of B4C, small proportions of in situ phases were detected (see Table 5). However, increasing the temperature to 1100°C and using 10 vol.% of B4C, the percentage of in situ TiC phase doubled its value, also, by the employment of 20 and 30 vol.%. This is in agreement with the intensity of the peaks of this phase in the TMC patterns (Figure 10). As expected, the major in situ formation of secondary phases took place at 1200°C.
XRD patterns of TMCs reinforced in the starting blend with (a) 10 vol.% of B4C, (b) 20 vol.% of B4C, and (c) 30 vol.% of B4C.
SEM images of TMCs produced at 1000°C with (a) 10 vol.% of B4C, (b) 20 vol.% of B4C, and (c) 30 vol.% of B4C.
Figure 12 reveals how the in situ phases surrounded the B4C particles, being a reaction layer clearly defined. Obviously, the higher the starting B4C composition, the more the formation of in situ phases. Regardless of the starting compositions, the morphologies of the in situ phases TiC and TiB are similar to the ones observed previously. On the one hand, there were precipitates with the particular whisker shape of TiB in the matrix. On the other hand, the presence of TiC can be seen as globular precipitated; both in situ phase morphologies have been wide and thoroughly studied [32].
SEM images of TMCs produced at 1200°C with (a) 10 vol.% B4C, (b) 20 vol.% B4C, and (c) 30 vol.% B4C.
The relative density of the specimens was around 99.5% in the majority of the specimens, even in those whose microstructures had a few pores. It means that the processing parameters were suitable to achieve full densification.
As expected, the highest values of hardness and Young modulus were recorded in specimens whose starting blends were made from the highest ceramic particle contents. Figure 13 shows a comparison of the hardness and Young modulus values of the TMCs produced at the three processing temperatures (1000, 1100, and 1200°C) and using the three compositions (10, 20, and 30 vol.%).
Hardness (HV2) and Young modulus values vs. operational temperature of the TMCs made from the different blends.
The operational temperature contributed to enhancing the hardness and the Young modulus; however, its influence varied depending on the type of ceramic particles employed in the starting blend, as reflected in Figure 13. TMCs reinforced by TiB-TiB2 phases showed the highest hardness measured. This development is closely related to the content of in situ formed TiB. Although there was also in situ formed TiB in TMCs made from blends with B4C particles, the maximum percentage formed (14 vol.%) in these specimens was lower than in TMCs made from the blend with TiB2 (20 vol.%). In both cases, the TMCs were processed at 1200°C and 30 vol.%. In similar conditions, the highest Young modulus was also observed in TMCs reinforced with TiB-TiB2 phases, in agreement with the commented results above.
In specimens made from blends with TiC, the main variation was only caused by the addition of more TiC content. Hardness and Young modulus values hardly increased by temperature, despite the diffusion of the C in the matrix and the TiC0.67 formed.
Contrary to common thinking, the B4C reinforcement did not behave as the best precursor of in situ phases. Consequently, the expected properties may vary from the obtained values of hardness and Young modulus. The TiC and TiB formed were slightly lower than the in situ TiB formed in TMCs with TiB2. That means that the diffusion of B alone was major and the C could decelerate such diffusion. Furthermore, it should be highlighted that in specimens made from B4C, the values of hardness and Young modulus showed a wide standard deviation. This could be related to the in situ formed precipitates and their dispersion in the matrix.
The conclusions of the current study which analyse the influence of the starting materials and operational temperature in the TMC properties are drawn:
Reinforcing the titanium matrix with ceramic materials results in an enhancement of the TMC mechanical properties caused by the formation of in situ phases.
XRD analysis states that the diffusion phenomenon of B and C elements into the matrix increases by the rising temperature; it is becoming increasingly important in the apparition of secondary phases.
In evaluating the appropriateness of the operational parameters, the lower the temperature, the less the reactivity reinforcement matrix. This phenomenon was more significant when the concentration of reinforcement was the lowest one.
The highest hardness and Young modulus of the TMCs were measured in specimens reinforced by TiB2 particles.
The densification of the specimens was achieved at the processing parameters tested.
The authors gratefully acknowledge the company “RHP-Technology GmbH” and the managers Dr. Neubauer and Dipl. Eng. Kitzmantel for their partial financial support of this work. In addition, the authors want to thank the Universidad de Sevilla for the use of experimental facilitates at CITIUS Microscopy and X-Ray Laboratory Services (VI PPIT-2018-I.5 EVA MARÍA PÉREZ SORIANO).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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She performed research in perioperative autotransfusion and obtained the degree of PhD in 1993 publishing Peri-operative autotransfusion by means of a blood cell separator.\nBlood transfusion had her special interest being the president of the Haemovigilance Chamber TRIP and performing several tasks in local and national blood bank and anticoagulant-blood transfusion guidelines committees. Currently, she is working as an associate professor and up till recently was the dean at the Albert Schweitzer Hospital Dordrecht. She performed (inter)national tasks as vice-president of the Concilium Anaesthesia and related committees. \nShe performed research in several fields, with over 100 publications in (inter)national journals and numerous papers on scientific conferences. \nShe received several awards and is a member of Honour of the Dutch Society of Anaesthesia.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Albert Schweitzer Hospital",country:{name:"Gabon"}}},{id:"83089",title:"Prof.",name:"Aaron",middleName:null,surname:"Ojule",slug:"aaron-ojule",fullName:"Aaron Ojule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Port Harcourt",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"295748",title:"Mr.",name:"Abayomi",middleName:null,surname:"Modupe",slug:"abayomi-modupe",fullName:"Abayomi Modupe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/no_image.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Landmark University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"94191",title:"Prof.",name:"Abbas",middleName:null,surname:"Moustafa",slug:"abbas-moustafa",fullName:"Abbas Moustafa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94191/images/96_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Moustafa got his doctoral degree in earthquake engineering and structural safety from Indian Institute of Science in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at Department of Civil Engineering, Minia University, Egypt and the chairman of Department of Civil Engineering, High Institute of Engineering and Technology, Giza, Egypt. He is also a consultant engineer and head of structural group at Hamza Associates, Giza, Egypt. Dr. Moustafa was a senior research associate at Vanderbilt University and a JSPS fellow at Kyoto and Nagasaki Universities. He has more than 40 research papers published in international journals and conferences. He acts as an editorial board member and a reviewer for several regional and international journals. His research interest includes earthquake engineering, seismic design, nonlinear dynamics, random vibration, structural reliability, structural health monitoring and uncertainty modeling.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Minia University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"84562",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbyssinia",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"abbyssinia-mushunje",fullName:"Abbyssinia Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Fort Hare",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"202206",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Abd Elmoniem",middleName:"Ahmed",surname:"Elzain",slug:"abd-elmoniem-elzain",fullName:"Abd Elmoniem Elzain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kassala University",country:{name:"Sudan"}}},{id:"98127",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdallah",middleName:null,surname:"Handoura",slug:"abdallah-handoura",fullName:"Abdallah Handoura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École Supérieure des Télécommunications",country:{name:"Morocco"}}},{id:"91404",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdecharif",middleName:null,surname:"Boumaza",slug:"abdecharif-boumaza",fullName:"Abdecharif Boumaza",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Abbès Laghrour University of Khenchela",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"105795",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdel Ghani",middleName:null,surname:"Aissaoui",slug:"abdel-ghani-aissaoui",fullName:"Abdel Ghani Aissaoui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/105795/images/system/105795.jpeg",biography:"Abdel Ghani AISSAOUI is a Full Professor of electrical engineering at University of Bechar (ALGERIA). He was born in 1969 in Naama, Algeria. He received his BS degree in 1993, the MS degree in 1997, the PhD degree in 2007 from the Electrical Engineering Institute of Djilali Liabes University of Sidi Bel Abbes (ALGERIA). He is an active member of IRECOM (Interaction Réseaux Electriques - COnvertisseurs Machines) Laboratory and IEEE senior member. He is an editor member for many international journals (IJET, RSE, MER, IJECE, etc.), he serves as a reviewer in international journals (IJAC, ECPS, COMPEL, etc.). He serves as member in technical committee (TPC) and reviewer in international conferences (CHUSER 2011, SHUSER 2012, PECON 2012, SAI 2013, SCSE2013, SDM2014, SEB2014, PEMC2014, PEAM2014, SEB (2014, 2015), ICRERA (2015, 2016, 2017, 2018,-2019), etc.). His current research interest includes power electronics, control of electrical machines, artificial intelligence and Renewable energies.",institutionString:"University of Béchar",institution:{name:"University of Béchar",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"99749",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdel Hafid",middleName:null,surname:"Essadki",slug:"abdel-hafid-essadki",fullName:"Abdel Hafid Essadki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École Nationale Supérieure de Technologie",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"101208",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdel Karim",middleName:"Mohamad",surname:"El Hemaly",slug:"abdel-karim-el-hemaly",fullName:"Abdel Karim El Hemaly",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/101208/images/733_n.jpg",biography:"OBGYN.net Editorial Advisor Urogynecology.\nAbdel Karim M. A. El-Hemaly, MRCOG, FRCS � Egypt.\n \nAbdel Karim M. A. El-Hemaly\nProfessor OB/GYN & Urogynecology\nFaculty of medicine, Al-Azhar University \nPersonal Information: \nMarried with two children\nWife: Professor Laila A. Moussa MD.\nSons: Mohamad A. M. El-Hemaly Jr. MD. Died March 25-2007\nMostafa A. M. El-Hemaly, Computer Scientist working at Microsoft Seatle, USA. \nQualifications: \n1.\tM.B.-Bch Cairo Univ. June 1963. \n2.\tDiploma Ob./Gyn. Cairo Univ. April 1966. \n3.\tDiploma Surgery Cairo Univ. Oct. 1966. \n4.\tMRCOG London Feb. 1975. \n5.\tF.R.C.S. Glasgow June 1976. \n6.\tPopulation Study Johns Hopkins 1981. \n7.\tGyn. Oncology Johns Hopkins 1983. \n8.\tAdvanced Laparoscopic Surgery, with Prof. Paulson, Alexandria, Virginia USA 1993. \nSocieties & Associations: \n1.\t Member of the Royal College of Ob./Gyn. London. \n2.\tFellow of the Royal College of Surgeons Glasgow UK. \n3.\tMember of the advisory board on urogyn. FIGO. \n4.\tMember of the New York Academy of Sciences. \n5.\tMember of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. \n6.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in the World� from the 16th edition to the 20th edition. \n7.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in Science and Engineering� in the 7th edition. \n8.\tMember of the Egyptian Fertility & Sterility Society. \n9.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Ob./Gyn. \n10.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Urogyn. \n\nScientific Publications & Communications:\n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asim Kurjak, Ahmad G. Serour, Laila A. S. Mousa, Amr M. Zaied, Khalid Z. El Sheikha. \nImaging the Internal Urethral Sphincter and the Vagina in Normal Women and Women Suffering from Stress Urinary Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol18, No 4; 169-286 October-December 2009.\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nFecal Incontinence, A Novel Concept: The Role of the internal Anal sphincter (IAS) in defecation and fecal incontinence. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 2; 79-85 April -June 2010.\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nSurgical Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, Fecal Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse By A Novel Operation \n"Urethro-Ano-Vaginoplasty"\n Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 3; 129-188 July-September 2010.\n4- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n5- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n6- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n7-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n9-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n10-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n11-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n12- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n13-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n15-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n\n16-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n17- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: An Update on the pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecology/?page=/ENHLIDH/PUBD/FEATURES/\nPresentations/ Nocturnal_Enuresis/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n18-Maternal Mortality in Egypt, a cry for help and attention. The Second International Conference of the African Society of Organization & Gestosis, 1998, 3rd Annual International Conference of Ob/Gyn Department � Sohag Faculty of Medicine University. Feb. 11-13. Luxor, Egypt. \n19-Postmenopausal Osteprosis. The 2nd annual conference of Health Insurance Organization on Family Planning and its role in primary health care. Zagaziz, Egypt, February 26-27, 1997, Center of Complementary Services for Maternity and childhood care. \n20-Laparoscopic Assisted vaginal hysterectomy. 10th International Annual Congress Modern Trends in Reproductive Techniques 23-24 March 1995. Alexandria, Egypt. \n21-Immunological Studies in Pre-eclamptic Toxaemia. Proceedings of 10th Annual Ain Shams Medical Congress. Cairo, Egypt, March 6-10, 1987. \n22-Socio-demographic factorse affecting acceptability of the long-acting contraceptive injections in a rural Egyptian community. Journal of Biosocial Science 29:305, 1987. \n23-Plasma fibronectin levels hypertension during pregnancy. The Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 13:1, 17-21, Jan. 1987. \n24-Effect of smoking on pregnancy. Journal of Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 111-121, Sept 1986. \n25-Socio-demographic aspects of nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 35-42, Sept. 1986. \n26-Effect of intrapartum oxygen inhalation on maternofetal blood gases and pH. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 57-64, Sept. 1986. \n27-The effect of severe pre-eclampsia on serum transaminases. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 479-485, 1986. \n28-A study of placental immunoreceptors in pre-eclampsia. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 211-216, 1986. \n29-Serum human placental lactogen (hpl) in normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women, during pregnancy and its relation to the outcome of pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:2, 11-23, May 1986. \n30-Pregnancy specific B1 Glycoprotein and free estriol in the serum of normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women during pregnancy and after delivery. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:1, 63-70, Jan. 1986. Also was accepted and presented at Xith World Congress of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Berlin (West), September 15-20, 1985. \n31-Pregnancy and labor in women over the age of forty years. Accepted and presented at Al-Azhar International Medical Conference, Cairo 28-31 Dec. 1985. \n32-Effect of Copper T intra-uterine device on cervico-vaginal flora. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet. 23:2, 153-156, April 1985. \n33-Factors affecting the occurrence of post-Caesarean section febrile morbidity. Population Sciences, 6, 139-149, 1985. \n34-Pre-eclamptic toxaemia and its relation to H.L.A. system. Population Sciences, 6, 131-139, 1985. \n35-The menstrual pattern and occurrence of pregnancy one year after discontinuation of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as a postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 105-111, 1985. \n36-The menstrual pattern and side effects of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 97-105, 1985. \n37-Actinomyces in the vaginas of women with and without intrauterine contraceptive devices. Population Sciences, 6, 77-85, 1985. \n38-Comparative efficacy of ibuprofen and etamsylate in the treatment of I.U.D. menorrhagia. Population Sciences, 6, 63-77, 1985. \n39-Changes in cervical mucus copper and zinc in women using I.U.D.�s. Population Sciences, 6, 35-41, 1985. \n40-Histochemical study of the endometrium of infertile women. Egypt. J. Histol. 8(1) 63-66, 1985. \n41-Genital flora in pre- and post-menopausal women. Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 4(2), 165-172, 1983. \n42-Evaluation of the vaginal rugae and thickness in 8 different groups. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 9:2, 101-114, May 1983. \n43-The effect of menopausal status and conjugated oestrogen therapy on serum cholesterol, triglycerides and electrophoretic lipoprotein patterns. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 12:2, 113-119, April 1983. \n44-Laparoscopic ventrosuspension: A New Technique. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet., 20, 129-31, 1982. \n45-The laparoscope: A useful diagnostic tool in general surgery. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:4, 397-401, Oct. 1982. \n46-The value of the laparoscope in the diagnosis of polycystic ovary. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:2, 153-159, April 1982. \n47-An anaesthetic approach to the management of eclampsia. Ain Shams Medical Journal, accepted for publication 1981. \n48-Laparoscopy on patients with previous lower abdominal surgery. Fertility management edited by E. Osman and M. Wahba 1981. \n49-Heart diseases with pregnancy. Population Sciences, 11, 121-130, 1981. \n50-A study of the biosocial factors affecting perinatal mortality in an Egyptian maternity hospital. Population Sciences, 6, 71-90, 1981. \n51-Pregnancy Wastage. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 11:3, 57-67, Sept. 1980. \n52-Analysis of maternal deaths in Egyptian maternity hospitals. Population Sciences, 1, 59-65, 1979. \nArticles published on OBGYN.net: \n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n4-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n5-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n6-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n7-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n9- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n10-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n11- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n12-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n13-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. 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