Concentrations of PCBs (ng/g) in sediment from Vietnam.
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Therefore, when penetrating into the river, POPs tend to accumulate in creatures in the river (such as fish, shellfish…), suspended solids, and sediment. In sediment, most POPs accumulate in organic phases and persist for a long time. A part of POPs is transformed through chemical reactions, decomposed, and diffused back into the rivers. Flowing from the river to the sea, POPs are transmitted along with suspended solids and creatures. POPs distribution in the river water-sediment is a continuous process, which is considered to be important for detailed valuation in studies about POPs in the environment; it can be simulated using the modeling method.
Studies about POPs residue in sediment are mostly about the surface layer. The selected depths of sampling in the surface layer vary depending on the viewpoint of research groups in the world (usually 2, 3, and 10 cm in depth). Several studies also evaluate POPs residue according to depth and carry analysis for numerous segments (which can be tens of centimeters, depending on the substance in POP group and characteristics of the waste source). However, in many cases, it is very difficult to compare the obtained results of studies because of the difference in the quantity of POPs used for analysis. For example, total polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) residue can consist of 6, 7, 10, or 13 PCBs congeners, depending on the research conditions of standard substances, equipment, procedures, and capability of the research group. Still, within its research conditions and obtained results, each study about POPs residue in sediment contributes to the overall picture of POPs in the environment.
Among POPs, dichlorodiphenyltrichloro-ethane (DDTs), hexachlorocyclohexane (HCHs), polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs), and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are found in sediment from big cities to remote areas. This chapter will focus on contamination status, composition analyses, and ecological risk assessment of these selected POPs (S-POPs).
PCBs are industrial products, which constitute a global environmental health hazard of solely anthropogenic origin. Theoretically, there are 209 PCB isomers and congeners with 1–10 chlorine atoms attached to the biphenyl molecule.
The term “PCBs homolog” is used to refer to all PCBs with the same number of chlorines. Homolog with different substitution patterns is referred to as isomer. The numbering system for the PCBs is shown above. Positions 2, 2′, 6, and 6′ are called ortho positions, positions 3, 3′, 5, and 5′ are called meta positions, and positions 4 and 4′ are called para positions. The benzene rings can rotate around the bond connecting them. The two extreme configurations are planar and the nonplanar in which the benzene rings are at a 90° angle to each other [1]. The benzene rings of non-ortho substituted PCBs, as well as monoortho substituted PCBs, may assume a planar configuration and are referred to as planar or coplanar congeners. The PCBs congeners are arranged in ascending numerical order using a numbering system that follow the IUPAC rules.
Monitoring surveys of PCBs residue in sediment have been conducted during the early 1994s. In the northern Vietnam, PCBs were found in environmental sediment of Thaibinh province (Ba Lat Estuary, coast lines of Thai Binh province), Quangninh province (Halong Bay), and Hanoi city (Set, Kim Nguu, CauBay River, Yen So Lake). PCBs penetrated into the estuaries, urban rivers, lakes, and coastal areas. High PCB concentrations were found in sediment of Kim Nguu River (328 ng/g) and Yen So Lake of Hanoi city (384 ng/g) in 2006 [2]. Hoai et al. [2] reported that the sediment levels of PCBs measured in their study in 2006 revealed a clear increase compared to 0.79–40 ng/g (mean 13 ng/g) in 1997 and 15–120 ng/g (mean 45 ng/g) in 1999 [3, 4]. Until 2015, sediment levels of PCBs decreased compared to 31.72–167.32 ng/g [5]. Toan et al. reported that the main source of contamination in Hanoi city could originate from the dielectric oil used in old hanging transformers and capacitors [6]. From such equipment, PCBs could penetrate into the environment by re-filling of dielectric oil, mechanical damage, electrical accident, and fire. Statistics until 2006 show that the total amount of dielectric oil containing PCBs in the entire country is approximately 19,000 tons [7]. This clearly indicates a huge contamination source of PCBs in the environment in Vietnam. In central Vietnam, PCBs were found in the environmental sediment of Hue city (Phu Da, A Luoi, and Tam Giang-Cau Hai Lagoon), Quy Nhon city (Thi Nai Lagoon). PCBs penetrated into the lagoons and canals near paddy fields or municipal sewage at low levels (<25 ng/g). In southern Vietnam, PCBs were also found in Mekong River Delta (Tra Vinh), Can Tho city, and Hochiminh city. PCBs were distributed in wide spaces such as drainage from rice fields, rivers near ferry harbors, river near the mouth of Mekong, shrimp farming areas, and canals in the densely populated areas. Highest PCBs concentrations were found in sediment of Saigon River, Hochiminh city (590.5 ng/g) [8]. According to typical data about PCB residues in sediment in Vietnam in Table 1, we can draw a number of general conclusions about studies of PCB residues in sediment in Vietnam (Figures 1 and 2):
Within 23 years (1994–2016), about 143 typical sediment samples in several areas of Vietnam were analyzed. Obtained results had a great effort to show the PCB residues level in a number of studied areas. However, the database of PCBs is still limited and further assessment is required in the future.
Studies about total PCBs are quantified according to various PCBs standards. Several studies do not report the depth of sediment sampling, and the component of total PCBs is not the same (total PCBs can be the sum of 6, 7, 22, 53, 93, or even more than 100 PCBs isomers and congeners). Therefore, the comparisons of total PCBs of different studies are relative and are not precise. This calls for a unified standard about PCBs research for application and further study in the future. We recommend that the researchers can analyze only six indicator congeners (PCB 28, 52, 101, 138, 180). After, the sum of six PCBs can be multiplied by five relatively to get the value of total PCBs. This recommendation is in good agreement with Kohler et al. [16].
Published studies about PCBs in sediment only provide an initial evaluation about the residue in a point in time without assessments about the time trend variation or in-depth studies about the consequences of PCBs residue in the studied areas. These problems can be additional research directions for PCBs in Vietnam in the future.
Location | Year of sampling | Number of samples | Depth of sampling (cm) | Component of analyzed PCBs/PCBs standards | Total PCBs (ng/g) | Reference | Remark |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ba Lat Estuary, coast lines of Thai Binh province | 1995/1996 | 1 | 0–5 | Aroclor 1254, Aroclor 1260b | 1.1/0.7a | [9] | Sediment, intertidal mudflat areas |
2003–2004 | 10 | –c | 8, 18, 28, 29, 44, 52, 66, 87, 101, 105, 110, 118, 128, 138, 153, 170, 180, 187, 195, 200, 206, 209 | 0.04–0.26 | [10] | Sediment, intertidal mudflat areas | |
Ha Long Bay, Quang Ninh province | 1997 | 1 | 0–5 | Aroclor 1254, Aroclor 1260 | 11 | [9] | Marine sediment |
1998 | 1 | – | Aroclor 1254, Aroclor 1260 | 37 | [4] | Estuary sediment | |
2003–2004 | 16 | – | 8, 18, 28, 29, 44, 52, 66, 87, 101, 105, 110, 118, 128, 138, 153, 170, 180, 187, 195, 200, 206, 209 | 0.11–10.1 | [10] | Surface sediment | |
Nhue River, suburb of Hanoi city | 1997 | 2 | 0–5 | Aroclor 1254, Aroclor 1260 | 1.7 (0.97–2.51)d | [3] | Sediment, canal, densely populated |
1997 | 1 | 0–5 | Aroclor 1254, Aroclor 1260 | 0.74 | [3] | Sediment, canal, rural area | |
2006 | 2 | – | 28, 52, 101, 118, 138, 153, 180 | 22–153 | [2] | Sediment, river | |
Set River, Hanoi city | 2006 | 2 | – | 28, 52, 101, 118, 138, 153, 180 | 36–139 | [2] | Sediment, river |
Kim Nguu River, Hanoi city | 2006 | 2 | – | 28, 52, 101, 118, 138, 153, 180 | 237–328 | [2] | Sediment, river |
Yen So Lake, Hanoi city | 2006 | 6 | – | 28, 52, 101, 118, 138, 153, 180 | 20–384 | [2] | Sediment, lake |
CauBay River, Hanoi city | 2015 | 10 | – | 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 19, 21, 22, 26, 28, 31, 32, 37, 41, 42, 44, 45, 47, 48, 49, 52, 53, 56, 60, 61, 64, 66, 70, 71, 74, 77, 81, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 89, 91, 92, 95, 99, 100, 101, 105, 110, 114, 118, 119, 123, 126, 128, 131, 132, 135, 138, 144, 149, 153, 156, 157, 163, 167, 169, 170, 171, 172, 174, 180, 189, 194, 199, 200, 202, 205, 206, 207 | 31.72–167.32 | [5] | Sediment, river |
Phu Da, Hue city | 1990 | 1 | No data | KC-300, KC-400, KC-500, KC-600e | 0.65 | [11] | Sediment, near paddy field |
A Luoi, Hue city | 1990 | 1 | No data | KC-300, KC-400, KC-500, KC-600 | 0.18 | [11] | Sediment, municipal sewage |
Tam Giang, Hue city | 2002 | 10 | 0–2; 2–4; 8–10; 20–23; 23–26; 32–35; 38–41; 47–50 | 53 congener (no data in detail) | 2.03–24.7 | [12] | Sediment, Tam Giang-Cau Hai Lagoon |
Thi Nai Lagoon, Quy Nhon city | 2010 | 18 | – | 11, 16, 19, 18, 17, 24, 27, 16, 32, 34, 29, 26, 25, 31, 28, 20, 33, 22, 20, 45, 46, 52, 49, 47, 48, 44, 42, 59, 41, 64, 71, 40, 67, 63, 74, 70, 66, 56, 60, 104, 93, 95, 91, 92, 84, 90, 101, 99, 97, 87, 115, 85, 110, 82, 107, 123, 118, 105, 136, 151, 135, 144, 147, 149, 146, 153, 132, 141, 138, 164, 158, 128, 167, 156, 157, 169, 13, 179, 176, 178, 187, 183, 174, 177, 171, 172, 180, 193, 170, 190, 199, 196, 203, 194, 208, 209 | 0.47–6.40 | [13] | Surficial sediment, lagoon |
Tra Vinh, Mekong River Delta | 1998 | 1 | – | 44, 49, 52, 101, 105, 118, 128, 138, 149, 153, 170, 180, 200 | 0.985 | [14] | Sediment, canal |
Can Tho city, Mekong River delta | 2003–2004 | 4 | No data | KC-300, KC-400, KC-500, KC-600 | 1.8 (0.12–3.7) | [11] | Sediment, canals in Cantho city |
Hau River, Mekong River delta | 2003–2004 | 7 | No data | KC-300, KC-400, KC-500, KC-600 | 0.21 (0.12–0.54) | [11] | Sediment, river |
Saigon River, Hochiminh city | 2004 | 5 | No data | No data | 81 | [15] | Canals, densely populated areas |
1996 | 11 | – | 28, 52, 101, 138, 153, 180 | N.D – 590.5f | [8] | Canals, densely populated areas |
Concentrations of PCBs (ng/g) in sediment from Vietnam.
Dry season/rainy season.
PCB mixture from the US; Aroclor 1254 and Aroclor 1260 contain more than 100 PCBs isomers and congeners.
Not reported.
Mean (range).
PCB mixture from Japan. KC-300, KC-400, KC-500, and KC-600 contain more than 100 PCBs isomers and congeners.
Not detected.
The five sampling stations along the coast of northern Vietnam [
The sampling stations along the Tam Giang-Cau Hai Lagoon, Central Vietnam [
Concerning the PCB congeners, PCBs could be detected from tri-CB to octa-CB in the collected sediment samples. The mean percentages of six selected PCB indicators in the collected sediment samples from several studies (Table 1) followed the order PCB138 > PCB153 > PCB101 > PCB52 > PCB180 > PCB28. This order can be explained by physical and chemical properties of PCBs. According to Toan et al., lightly chlorinated PCBs are less persistent, have lower log Kow, and are more volatile than heavily chlorinated PCBs. Therefore, heavily chlorinated PCBs are more accumulative in the sediment, whereas lightly chlorinated PCBs are degraded and volatilized faster [6].
Another explanation could be related to the compositions of PCB mixtures that probably escaped from the dielectric oil. Up to April 1998, 48.3% of the total quantity of dielectric oils in Vietnam was imported from the Soviet Union. Japan and China contributed with smaller percentages of 7.5 and 3.6%, respectively [6, 17]. According to Falandysz et al., the percentages of PCB138, PCB153, PCB101 (along with PCB90), PCB52, PCB180, and PCB28 (along with PCB31) in Sovol (trade name of Soviet Union dielectric oil) were 11.4, 7.0, 6.5, 3.6, 0.4, and 0.8%, respectively [18]. It seems that the predominance of heavily chlorinated PCBs, PCB138, and PCB153, still remained when they penetrated the sediment. In general, low percentages of lightly chlorinated PCBs and a high percentage of heavily chlorinated PCBs in the analyzed sediment samples reflect their long-time release Figure 3 [6].
Mean percentages of PCB congeners in sediment samples in CauBay River [
To evaluate the ecotoxicological significance of PCBs contamination, total PCBs in collected sediments were compared with the NOAA sediment quality guideline (SQG) [19]. This guideline specifies the “effects range low” (ERL) and the “effects range median” (ERM). The ERL represents the chemical concentration below which an adverse effect would rarely be observed. The ERM represents the concentration above which adverse effect would frequently occur [20]. Only total PCBs of sediment samples in two big cities (Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh cities) exceeded ERM levels (ERM of total PCBs is 180 ng/g). The other sediment samples listed in Table 1 that were collected from the estuaries, coastal areas, lagoons, canals near paddy field or municipal sewage, drainage from rice fields, rivers near ferry harbors, river near the mouth of Mekong, shrimp-farming areas, were lower than ERL levels (ERL of total PCBs is 22.7 ng/g). This finding raises the concern on PCBs impact in the two big cities of Vietnam. Thus, further investigation is required in Hanoi and Hochiminh cities to assess possible toxic effects on human health and ecological system.
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are used commercially as additives in plastics and textiles, building materials, carpets, and vehicles and aircraft with half-lives in the order of 2–10 years. In computers, these compounds are commonly used in printed circuit boards, components such as connectors, cables, plastic covers, and parts of keyboards and monitors. Theoretically, there are 209 PBDEs isomers and congeners with 1–10 bromine atoms attached to the biphenyl molecule.
PBDEs are highly resistant to heat, light, oxidizing, and reducing compounds. Thus, PBDEs are extremely persistent when released into the environment. The use of PBDEs has increased over the last 30 years with production estimated to be about 3000–5000 tons in Europe. Deca-BDE is the largest mix on the market and makes up over 80% of the total PBDE production, whereas penta-BDE and octa-BDE products constitute about 12 and 6%, respectively, of the total PBDE production [21]. The presence of high levels of these compounds in samples from remote areas suggests that they may now have been distributed worldwide as a result of long-range atmospheric transport. PBDEs have been associated with endocrine disruption, neurotoxicity, and cancer. Sediments are major sinks for these contaminants in aquatic environments, and their study is an important step in mapping possible pollution sources and exposure pathways that facilitate PBDE bioavailability to sediment-dwelling organisms [21].
From the north to the south of Vietnam, PBDEs was found in environmental sediment of Hanoi city (CauBay river), Quy Nhon city (Thi Nai Lagoon), Hochiminh city (canals), and Saigon-Dongnai River. PBDEs penetrated in the environmental sediment of rivers, lagoon urban canals, urban sewer systems, and estuary. Data about PBDE residue in sediment in these areas of Vietnam are presented in Table 2.
Location | Year of sampling | Number of samples | Depth of sampling (cm) | Component of analyzed PBDEs | Concentration PBDEs (ng/g) | Reference | Remark |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CauBay River, Hanoi city | 2014 | 10 | –a | 28, 47, 99, 100, 153, 154, 209 | 15.39–25.64 | [21] | Sediment, river |
Thi Nai lagoon, Quy Nhon city | 2010 | 18 | – | 17, 28, 47, 66, 100, 99, 85, 153, 183 | N.D – 9.62b | [13] | Surficial sediment, lagoon |
Hochiminh city canals | 2004 | 5 | 0–5 | 28, 47, 99, 100, 153, 154, 183, 196, 197, 206, 207 | 54.5–119 | [22] | Urban sediment, sewer system |
Hochiminh city canals | 2004 | 6 | 0–5 | 28, 47, 99, 100, 153, 154, 183, 196, 197, 206, 207 | <0.2–10.63 | [22] | Sub-urban sediments |
Saigon-Dongnai estuary | 2004 | 3 | 0–5 | 28, 47, 99, 100, 153, 154, 183, 196, 197, 206, 207 | <0.02–0.065 | [22] | Estuary sediment |
Concentrations of PBDEs (ng/g) in sediment from Vietnam.
Not reported.
Not detected.
A number of general conclusions can be drawn from studies about PBDE in Vietnam:
At present, there is a lack of studies about PBDE in Vietnam. In three representative studies presented in Table 2, the numbers of samples and research areas are not enough to represent PBDE residue in sediment in Vietnam. Published studies do not report the depth of sampling. There are also different viewpoints about the total PBDE value. Components of total PBDE can be the sum of 7, 9, or 11 PBDEs. Therefore, it is difficult to compare research results.
Published studies about PBDE in sediment are mainly about initial evaluation of residue in a point in time. There is no assessment about the change in trend or in-depth research about the consequences of PBDE residue in the studied areas. Further studies about PBDE residue and its impact on the environment are necessary.
When compared with other regions in the world, the residues of total PBDEs in Hanoi and Hochiminh are lower than those in Dianchi lake, China and and higher than residues found in Hongfeng and Chenghai lake, China [23].
Concerning the composition analyses, PBDEs congeners could be detected from tri-BDE to deca-BDE in the collected sediment samples (Table 2). BDE-209 was a predominant congener in sediment samples. In the past, BDE-209 is the largest mix on the market and makes up over 8% of the total PBDE production, whereas penta-BDE and octa-BDE products constitute about 12 and 6%, respectively, of the total PBDE production [24]. This is one of important factors to explain the predominance of BDE-209.
The mean percentages of six PBDEs indicators in the collected sediment samples followed the order: BDE-47 > BDE-99 > BDE-100 > BDE-154 > BDE-153 > BDE-27. This order is in agreement with chemical properties of PBDEs as well as the percentages of PBDEs in the commercial mixtures.
It has been suggested that PBDEs biomagnified as they move along a food web. In addition, PBDEs can inhibit growth in colonies of algae as well as depress the reproduction of zooplankton. Based on the toxicity data of benthic organisms, the multiple species have no observed effect on the concentrations of ΣPBDEs which is 3.1 mg/kg of sediment [21, 25]. Most of the collected sediment samples in Table 2 had residues of PBDEs lower than 3.1 mg/kg. However, the values of PBDEs in the urban canals and urban sewer system of Hochiminh city are very high (maximal 119 ng/g). Due to the propensity of PBDEs to highly accumulate in various compartments of wildlife and human food webs, further evaluation of ecological risk assessment in Hochiminh city should be undertaken as a high priority.
Chemical formula of DDT is C14H9C15. Technical DDT is prepared by the Bayer condensation of chlorobenzene with trichloroacetaldehyde in oleum (fuming sulfuric acid), and the reaction is carried out with an excess of chlorobenzene (recommended molar ratio 3:1). Technical grade DDT is composed of up to 14 chemical compounds of which only 65–80% is the active ingredient,
1,2,3,4,5,6-Hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH), also called benzene hexachloride (BHC), is an organochlorine insecticide used throughout the world. HCH is available in two formulations: technical HCH and lindane. A total of eight HCH isomers have been identified in technical HCH. However, only the γ-HCH, α-HCH, β-HCH, and δ-HCH and ε-HCH isomers are stable, and these are the ones commonly identified in technical formulations [26]. Generally, technical HCH consists of approximately 60–70% α-HCH, 5–12% β-HCH, 10–15% γ-HCH, 6–10% δ-HCH, and 3–4% ε-HCH. Lindane contains more than 90% of γ-HCH, but lindane used in many countries is almost pure γ-HCH [27]. Total concentration HCH can be evaluated by the sum of ϒ-HCH, α-HCH, β-HCH, and δ-HCH.
Data about DDT and HCH residues in sediment in Vietnam are relatively adequate, including sediment in freshwater, brackish water, and seawater. There are research results about DDT and HCH in sediment from 1994 up to now (Table 3). According to data in Table 3, DDT and HCH have deposited in the sediment in Vietnam in a wide range and for a long time with considerable extent. DDT and HCH residue in sediment in Vietnam is on the decreasing trend.
Location | Year of sampling | Number of samples | Depth of sampling (cm) | Component of analyzed DDTs; HCHs | Concentration DDTs; HCHs (ng/g) | Reference | Remark |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Diem Dien Estuary, Thai Binh coast lines | 1995/1996 | 1 | 0–5 | 6.2; 0.36 | [3] | Sediment, intertidal mudflat areas | |
Ha Long Bay | 1997 | 1 | 0–5 | 7.2; 1.8 | [3] | Marine sediment | |
1998 | 1 | –a | 28; 6.1 | [4] | Estuary sediment | ||
2003–2004 | 16 | – | 1.60–274; N.Db – 0.85 | [3] | Surface sediment | ||
Set River, Hanoi city | 2006 | 2 | – | 215–680; <0.2 | [2] | Sediment, river | |
Kim Nguu River, Hanoi city | 2006 | 2 | – | 82–1100; <0.2–17 | [2] | Sediment, river | |
Yen So Lake, Hanoi city | 2006 | 6 | – | 17–109; <0.2–36 | [2] | Sediment, lake | |
CauBay River, Hanoi city | 2012 | 10 | – | 51.84–92.76; 4.65–11.39 | [27] | Sediment, river | |
Phu Da, Hue city | 1990 | 1 | No data | 0.52; 0.43 | [11] | Sediment, paddy field | |
A Luoi, Hue city | 1990 | 1 | No data | 68; 2.4 | [11] | Sediment, municipal sewage | |
Can Tho city, Mekong River delta | 2003–2004 | 4 | No data | 1.8–4.3; <0.02–0.11 | [11] | Sediment, canals in Can Tho city | |
Duyen Hai, Mekong River delta | 1998 | 1 | – | 0.48; 0.113 | [14] | Near the mouth of Mekong, shrimp farming area | |
Tra Vinh, Mekong River delta | 1998 | 1 | – | 67.49; 0.65 | [14] | Sediment, canals | |
Saigon River, Hochiminh city | 2004 | 5 | No data | 37c | [15] | Sediment, canals, densely populated areas | |
1996 | 11 | – | 1.76–253.6 | [8] | Sediment, canals, densely populated areas |
Concentration of DDTs and HCHs (ng/g) in sediment from Vietnam.
Not reported.
Not detected.
Mean value.
Monitoring surveys of DDTs and HCHs residue in sediment have been conducted during the early 1994s. In northern Vietnam, DDTs and HCHs were found in environmental sediment of Thaibinh province (Diem Dien Estuary, coast lines of Thai Binh province), Quangninh province (Halong Bay) and Hanoi city (Set, Kim Nguu, CauBay River; Yen So Lake). DDTs and HCHs have penetrated into the estuaries, urban rivers, lakes, and coastal areas. HCHs had low residues in most of the sediment samples. Besides, high DDTs concentrations were found in the sediment of Kim Nguu River (1100 ng/g) and Set River of Hanoi city (680 ng/g) in 2006 [2]. This can be explained by the usage of DDTs in the big cities of Vietnam in the past. Both DDTs and HCHs have been used in Vietnam in considerable amounts as pesticides for crop protection and as vector control for public health purposes. DDT had been imported and used in Vietnam from 1957 up to 1994.
In Central Vietnam, DDTs and HCHs were found in the environmental sediment of Hue city (Phu Da, A Luoi). DDTs and HCHs penetrated into the canals near paddy fields or municipal sewage at medium levels. In southern Vietnam, DDTs and HCHs also found in Mekong River Delta (Duyen Hai and Tra Vinh), Can Tho city, and Hochiminh city. DDTs and HCHs are distributed in wide spaces such as drainage from rice fields, river near ferry harbor, river near the mouth of Mekong, shrimp-farming areas, and canals in the densely populated areas. Highest DDTs concentrations were found in the sediment of Saigon River, Hochiminh city (253.6 ng/g) [8].
Composition differences of HCHs isomers or DDTs metabolites in the environment could indicate different contamination sources. DDT can be biodegraded in the environment to DDD under anaerobic conditions and DDE under aerobic conditions. Thus,
To evaluate the ecotoxicological significance of DDTs and HCHs contamination in collected sediments, our data in Table 3 were compared with the interim sediment quality guideline (ISQG) and the probable effective level (PEL), issued by the Canadian Council of Ministers of Environment [30]. Hoai et al. [2] reported that the concentrations of DDE, DDD, and DDT in all the Hanoi sediment samples were higher than the ISQG values (1.42, 3.54, and 1.19 ng/g, respectively). The DDE, DDD, and DDT generally exceed the PEL values (6.75 ng/g for DDE, 8.51 ng/g for DDD, and 4.77 ng/g for DDT) but vary among the sediment samples [2]. This conclusion is in agreement with DDTs residues in CauBay River and Hochiminh city [22, 28]. In general, most of the collected sediment samples in Table 3 had DDTs at low levels as well as lower than PEL values. With regards to HCHs, no values of ISQG and PEL were reported in the international guidelines. Due to the propensity of DDTs to highly accumulate in various compartments of wildlife and human food webs, further evaluation of ecological risk assessment in Hanoi and Hochiminh city should be undertaken Figures 4 and 5.
Mean percentages of DDT and its metabolites in sediment samples [
Mean percentages of HCH isomers in sediment samples [
This work investigated the contamination status of S-POPs in sediment of some areas in Vietnam. Wide occurrence and remarkable residue levels of S-POPs have been found in the sediment of study areas. Composition analyses show that S-POPs penetrated in the sediment for a long time. The main sources of S-POPs are from mix sources that have origin form old industrial and agricultural sources. Ecotoxicological of S-POPs is found at low levels. Due to the propensity of S-POPs to accumulate in various compartments of environment, further evaluation of ecotoxicological should be undertaken as a high priority.
Soil and water are indispensable for the existence and survival of all terrestrial life. These are the basic resources to the requirement for food, feed, fuel, and fiber of human beings. Soil supports plant life by providing a medium for their growth and development [1, 2]. It is a non-renewable natural resource and susceptible to rapid degradation through various forms of erosion processes. Worldwide, around 52% of total productive land has been degraded by various kinds of degradation processes and almost 80% of the terrestrial land is affected by water erosion [3, 4]. Further, annually ~10 million hectares (mha) of cropland becomes an unproductive at the global level due to soil erosion with an average rate of 30 t ha−1 year−1 soil erosion [5]. It has been estimated that water erosion results in a global flux of sediments of 28 Pg year−1 [6]. This, extensive degradation of finite soil resources can severely jeopardize global food security while deteriorating environmental quality. On the other hand, the future of living beings and agricultural production systems is at stake due to continuously depleting aquifers and increasing pressure on underground water under projected climate change scenarios [7]. Moreover, climate change will increase water demand globally by about 40% of the water needed for irrigation [8]. Hence, under the emerging scenario of acute water shortages and land degradation, we must focus our effort on the development and adoption of efficient approaches for soil and water conservation as well as for agricultural sustainability. Even the theme for “World soil day,” 2019 was “stop soil erosion, save our future” to raise awareness on the importance of sustaining healthy ecosystems and human well-being. Judicious use and management soil and water resources are more vital now than ever before to satisfy the needs of the ever-growing world population [9]. Conservation of soil and water has several agronomic, environmental, and economical benefits. Worldwide, around US$ 400 billion annual cost of on- and -off-site erosion has been estimated for replenishing lost nutrients, cleaning of water reservoirs and conveyances, and preventing erosion [10, 11].
\nGlobally, changes in land use and management practices accelerated soil erosion and have led to irrevocable land degradation, which is affecting 23.5% of the earth’s land area [12, 13]. Soil erosion is one of the serious problems which not only impair the quality of land and water resources but also harm agricultural production and the socio-economic condition of farmers. Soil erosion has degraded about 32% of total land area in the USA, 30.7% in China, 16% in Africa, 17% in Europe, and 45% in India through a wide range of degradation processes [14]. Among various land degradation processes, water erosion is a major problem affecting 68.4% of the total land area in India [15, 16]. In India, various organizations have estimated the extent of land degradation (Table 1). NBSS and LUP has been reported about 146.8 mha degraded land area in India [17].
\nAgency | \nEstimation year | \nDegraded area (mha) | \n
---|---|---|
National Commission on Agriculture | \n1976 | \n148 | \n
Ministry of Agriculture-Soil and Water Conservation Division | \n1978 | \n175 | \n
Department of Environment | \n1980 | \n95 | \n
National Wasteland Development Board | \n1985 | \n123 | \n
Society for Promotion of Wastelands Development | \n1984 | \n130 | \n
National Remote Sensing Agency | \n1985 | \n53 | \n
Ministry of Agriculture | \n1985 | \n174 | \n
Ministry of Agriculture | \n1994 | \n107 | \n
National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning (NBSS&LUP) | \n1994 | \n188 | \n
NBSS&LUP (Revised) | \n2004 | \n147 | \n
Extent of land degradation estimated by different agencies in India.
A harmonization exercise was done involving various organizations, to work out the water erosion, wind erosion, physical, and chemical degradation in India [18]. The harmonized data on degraded and wastelands with all possible combination classes is given in Table 2.
\nDegradation type | \nArable land (mha) | \nOpen forest\n*\n (mha) | \nData source | \n
---|---|---|---|
Water erosion (>10 t/ha/year) | \n73.27 | \n9.30 | \nICAR-IISWC | \n
Wind erosion (Eolian) | \n12.40 | \n— | \nICAR-CAZRI | \n
Sub-total | \n85.67 | \n9.30 | \n\n |
\n | \n|||
Exclusively salt-affected soils | \n5.44 | \n— | \nICAR-CSSRI, NBSS&LUP and NRSA, 2004 | \n
Salt-affected and water eroded soils | \n1.20 | \n0.10 | \n|
Exclusively acidic soils\n#\n\n | \n5.09 | \n— | \nNBSS&LUP, 2005 | \n
Acidic and water eroded soils\n#\n\n | \n5.72 | \n7.13 | \n|
Sub-total | \n17.45 | \n7.23 | \n|
\n | \n|||
Mining and industrial waste | \n0.19 | \n\n | Visual interpretation of satellite data, NRSA, 2003 | \n
Permanent Water logging\n$\n\n | \n0.88 | \n\n | |
Subtotal | \n1.07 | \n\n | |
Total | \n104.19 | \n16.53 | \n\n |
Grand total (Arable + open land) | \n120.72 | \n\n | \n |
Harmonized data of degraded and wastelands in India.
Area with <40% tree canopy cover.
pH < 5.5 and areas under paddy and plantation crops were also included in the total acid soils.
Sub-surface water logging is not considered.
Soil erosion is the removal of topsoil by the physical forces of erosion causing agents at a greater rate than the rate of its formation. Initially, erosion removes the nutrient-rich fertile top layer of soil which leads to the reduced production potential of soil. Soil erosion is classified into two categories, i.e., accelerated and geological erosion. Geological erosion is the natural phenomenon, occurs through the constant process of weathering and disintegration of rocks in which the rate of erosion remains lower than the soil formation rate. In contrast, in accelerated erosion, the rate of soil erosion exceeds a certain threshold level and becomes rapid. Anthropogenic activities such as slash-and-burn agriculture, overgrazing, deforestation, mining, and intensive and faulty agriculture practices are accountable for accelerated soil erosion [9]. This higher rate of soil erosion leads to the removal of organic matter and plant nutrients from the fertile topsoil and eventually lowering crop productivity. Hence, the conservation and management of natural resources are essential. Although the soil erosion cannot be eliminated, however it must be reduced to the level that can minimize its adverse impact on productivity and agricultural sustainability.
\nWater and wind are two key agents that degrade soils through various kinds of erosion processes. Globally, around 1100 mha is affected by water erosion (56% of the total degraded land) and around 28% of the total degraded land area is affected by wind erosion [19]. Runoff removes the soil particles from sloping and bare lands while the wind blows away loose and detached soil particles from unprotected lands. Other processes of land degradation are soil compaction, waterlogging, acidification, alkalinization, and salinization depends on parent material, climatic conditions, and crop management practices. In this chapter, we will discuss about the soil erosion by water, different types, processes, factors, and management.
\nWorldwide, water erosion is the most severe type of soil erosion. In this form of erosion, detachment, and transportation of soil particles from their parental source take place by water through the action of rainfall, runoff, hailstorm, and irrigation. Water erosion is a prevailing form of erosion in humid and sub-humid agro-ecosystems. It also creates the problem in arid and semiarid regions, characterized by an intensive rainstorm and scanty vegetation cover. Water erosion comprises three basic phases, i.e., detachment, transportation, and deposition. Rainfall is one of the major factors which causes the movement and detachment of soil particles. The detached soil particles seal the open-ended and water-conducting soil pores, reduce water infiltration, and cause runoff. The first two phases determine the quantity of soil to be eroded and the third phase determines the distribution of the eroded material along the landscape. If there is no dispersion and transport of soil particles, there will be no deposition. Hence, detachment and transport of soil particles are the primary processes of soil erosion. Understanding the mechanisms and extent of water erosion is crucial to manage and develop erosion control practices. Splash, sheet, rill and gully erosion are main forms of soil erosion by water (Figure 1). The other forms of water erosion are ravine formation, slip, tunnel, stream bank, and coastal erosion [20, 21]. The different forms of water erosion are described below:
\nFour basic forms of soil erosion by water.
Splash erosion is the first form of soil erosion by water. Falling raindrops on the soil surface break the soil aggregates and disperse and splash soil particles from their source, known as splash erosion. The process of splash erosion involves raindrop impact on soil particles, a splash of soil particles, and the formation of craters [22]. The raindrops falling on soil surface act like a small bomb which disintegrates soil particles and forms cavities of contrasting shapes and sizes. The depth of craters is equal to the depth of raindrop penetration which is a function of raindrop velocity, size, and shape. In this form, soil particles can move only a few centimeters away from their source.
\nThis is the next phase to splash erosion, which promptly initiates sheet erosion. The fertile topsoil surface is removed uniformly as a thin layer from the entire sloping surface area of the field by runoff water. Sheet erosion is a function of particle detachment, rainfall intensity, and land slope. The shallow flow of runoff water causes this type of soil erosion in which small rills are formed. This is the most common and severe form of soil erosion from an agricultural point of view as it removes the nutrient-rich top layer of soil. Out of total soil erosion, nearly 70% is caused by splash and sheet erosion only.
\nIt describes the flow of runoff water loaded with soil particles and organic matter in finger-like small channels, known as rill erosion. This is the advanced form of sheet erosion for soil loss. Water flow in small channels erodes soil at a faster rate than sheet erosion. Rill erosion is the second most common form of water erosion. These rills can be easily managed by tillage operations but can cause higher soil loss during intensive rainfall. The key factors that cause rill erosion are soil erodibility, land slope, runoff transport capacity, and hydraulic shear of water flow.
\nGully erosion is the advanced form of rill erosion. When the volume and velocity of concentrated runoff water increase, the rills become deep and broad and forms gullies. The gullies are linear incision channels with 0.3 m width and 0.3 m depth. Concentrated runoff flow is a primary factor for gully formation. Continuous gully erosion results in the removal of the entire soil profile. The extreme form of gully erosion may results in failure of crops, expose plant roots, reduce the groundwater level, and adversely affects landscape stability. It can cut apart the fields and aggravate the non-point source pollution (e.g., sediment, chemicals) to nearby water bodies. Gullies cannot be corrected by usual tillage operations. The dominant factors affecting gully erosion are shear stress of flowing water and critical shear stress of the soil. The further erosion of gullies results in ravines formation. Based on the size, depth, and drainage area, gullies can be classified as:
It is referred to as a network of deep and narrow gullies that flows parallel to each other while linking with the river system. Mismanagement and non-judicious use of land result in enlargement of rills and gullies and eventually lead to ravine formation. Abrupt changes in elevation of the river bed and the adjoining land surface, deep and permeable soil with high erodibility, sparse vegetation, and backflow of river water during the recession period causes severe bank erosion which consequently results in ravine formation.
\nIt is the sub-soil erosion through runoff flow in channels while surface soil remains intact. Tunnel erosion is also known as pipe erosion and commonly occurs in arid and semiarid regions where the soil permeability for water varied with the soil profile. The further widening and deepening of tunnels form large gullies which degrade the productive agricultural lands. Soil with erodible characteristics, having sodic B horizon and stable A horizon are highly prone to tunnel erosion. Runoff flow through natural cracks and animal burrows initiates tunnel formation by infiltrating thorough dispersible subsoil layers. Seepage, lateral flow, and interflow are key indicators of tunnel erosion. It alters the geomorphic and hydrologic characteristics of the affected areas. Management practices for tunnel erosion are ripping, contour farming, vegetation including trees and deep-rooted grasses with proper fertilization and liming, consolidation of surface soil, and diversion of concentrated runoff.
\nIt is the downward and outward movement of slope forming materials composed of natural rocks and debris from sloppy lands. It is also known as mudslide or mass erosion. This type of erosion mostly occurs in hilly regions having water-saturated soils slips down the hillside or mountain slope. Banks along highways, streams, and ocean fronts are often subject to landslides. The large masses of land slip down which destroy the vegetation and degrade the productivity of lands. The slope can be stabilized through developments of diversion drains, contour trenches, crib structures, geotextiles, kutta—crate structures, and retaining walls.
\nThe scouring of soil material from the stream bed and cutting of stream bank by the action of flowing water is known as stream bank erosion. Streams and rivers change their direction of flow by cutting the bed from one side and depositing the sediment to the other side of the stream. Flash floods enhanced the stream bank erosion which is more destructive. Stream and gully erosion are relatively comparable. Primarily, stream bank erosion predominantly occurs at the lower end water tributaries which have a relatively flat slope and continuous flow of water.
\nSea level is incessantly rising due which can increase the frequency of occurrence of natural disasters like the tsunami in the coastal areas in the future. Such natural hazards produce strong water waves which can severely erode the seaside areas. It is projected that the erosion rate will be higher in coastal regions in the coming years. The anthropogenic activities leading to coastal erosion are port construction, destruction of mangroves, and beach and river bed mining [23].
\nThe universal soil loss equation (USLE) was given by Wischmeier and Smith (1978) based on the soil erosion causing factors [24].
\nwhere A, mean annual soil loss (metric tons hectare−1 year−1);
\n\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Among the above-listed factors, vegetation and to some extent soil can be managed to reduce the rate of the soil erosion but the climatic and topographic factors, except slope length, are not manageable. Primarily, soil loss through erosion is a function of erosivity of raindrops and erodibility of the soil which can be mathematically expressed as follows:
\nwhere Erosivity is the potential of rainfall to cause erosion under given soil type and climatic condition; Erodibility is the vulnerability or susceptibility of the soil to erosion which depends on soil bio-physico-chemical properties, and land use and crop management practice. Sandy soils can be easily detached while well aggregated clayey soils are more resistant to erosion than sandy soils. When clay particles detached they can be easily removed by runoff due to their smaller size. Silt soils are the most erodible type of soil [9].
\nThe accelerated soil erosion significantly influences the soil quality, agricultural production and nutritional quality [25]. Higher soil erosion results in the removal of fertile topsoil along with nutrients which leads to reduced agronomic yield, land degradation, and terrain deformation [25, 26, 27]. The main causal factors affecting the rate of soil erosion are parent material, soil texture, slope steepness, plant cover, tillage, and climate [13]. According to an estimate of existing soil loss data, the mean annual rate of soil erosion in our country is approximately 16.4 ton ha−1 which results in annual total soil loss of 5334 million tons (m t) and nutrient loss of 8.4 m t throughout the country [17]. However, the mean annual permissible limit of soil loss is 12.0 tons ha−1. Out of total eroded soil around 29% is permanently lost to the sea, while 61% is transported by runoff from one place to another and the remaining 10% is directly deposited in reservoirs [21]. Higher nutrient concentration has been recorded in soil samples collected from runoff loads over the soil of agricultural fields [28]. Further, around 45.9 kg C ha−1 and 4.3 kg N ha−1 were recorded in eroded soil during the month of July [29].
\nThe soil organic matter (SOM) is vital for improving soil bio-physico-chemical properties and contains nearly 95% of N and 25–50% of phosphorus [30]. Higher rate of erosion results in loss of soil and fine organic particles. The soil removed by erosion has 1.5–5 times higher SOM than the soil left behind [31]. The availability of SOM also affects the biological activities and soil biodiversity in a particular agro-ecosystem. Moreover, the intensive and erratic rainfall results in higher soil erosion which leads to reduced infiltration and eventually less water availability to the vegetation. Sharda et al. studied the impact of the harshness of water erosion on agricultural productivity and advocated that water erosion reduced the annual crop production by 13.4 Mt in 2008–2009 at the national level [32]. Thus, the soil loss by water and wind severely affects the productive efficiency of all ecosystems [17, 33, 34]. The comprehensive impacts of erosion on soil and water resources which are liable to reduce agricultural productivity are given in Figure 2 [21].
\nImpact of erosion on soil and water resources.
The vegetation cover is imperative for moderating surface runoff and water erosion from agricultural lands [35]. The rate of runoff, soil, and nutrient loss is predominantly determined by the type of vegetation, canopy cover, slope gradient, and rainfall characteristics [36]. The higher canopy cover and crop residues mulching on soil surface results in the reduced rate of surface runoff and also reduces the impact of rainfall erosivity and soil erodibility [13, 35, 37]. Vegetation cover reduces the detachment of soil particles along with the protection of soil surface from intensive rainfall. Moreover, it also conserves soil moisture and retains sediment and organic materials [38]. To sustain agricultural productivity, it is imperative to reduce runoff, soil loss, and nutrient loss through water erosion [13].
\nThere are two types of measures for soil and water conservation, that is, mechanical/engineering/structural measures and biological measures. Mechanical measures are permanent and semi-permanent structures that involve terracing, bunding, trenching, check dams, gabion structures, loose/stone boulders, crib wall, etc., while biological measures are vegetative measures which involve forestry, agroforestry, horticulture and agricultural/agronomic practices [21].
\nAgronomic measures are applicable in the landscape of ≤2% slope. Agronomic measures reduce the impact of raindrops through the covering of soil surface and increasing infiltration rate and water absorption capacity of the soil which results in reduced runoff and soil loss through erosion [39]. These measures are cheaper, sustainable, and may be more effective than structural measures, sometimes [4]. Important agronomic measures are described below.
\nContour farming is one of the most commonly used agronomic measures for soil and water conservation in hilly agro-ecosystems and sloppy lands. All the agricultural operations viz. plowing, sowing, inter-culture, etc., are practiced along the contour line. The ridges and furrows formed across the slope build a continual series of small barriers to the flowing water which reduces the velocity of runoff and thus reduces soil erosion and nutrient loss [40, 41]. It conserves soil moisture in low rainfall areas due to increased infiltration rate and time of concentration, while in high rainfall areas, it reduces the soil loss. In both situations, it reduces soil erosion, conserves soil fertility and moisture, and thus improves overall crop productivity. However, the effectiveness of this practice depends upon rainfall intensity, soil type, and topography of a particular locality.
\nThe selection of the right crop is crucial for soil and water conservation. The crop should be selected according to the intensity and critical period of rainfall, market demand, climate, and resources of the farmer. The crop with good biomass, canopy cover, and extensive root system protects the soil from the erosive impact of rainfall and create an obstruction to runoff, and thereby reduce soil and nutrient loss. Row or tall-growing crops such as sorghum, maize, pearl millet, etc. are erosion permitting crops which expose the soil and induce the erosion process. Whereas close growing or erosion resisting crops with dense canopy cover and vigorous root system viz. cowpea, green gram, black gram, groundnut, etc. are the most suitable crops for reducing soil erosion [42]. To increase the crop canopy density, the seed rate should be always on the higher side.
\nCrop rotation is the practice of growing different types of crops in succession on the same field to get maximum profit from the least investment without impairing the soil fertility. Monocropping results in exhaustion of soil nutrients and deplete soil fertility. The inclusion of legume crops in crop rotation reduces soil erosion, restores soil fertility, and conserves soil and water [43]. Further, the incorporation of crop residue improves organic matter content, soil health, and reduces water pollution. A suitable rotation with high canopy cover crops helps in sustaining soil fertility; suppresses weed growth, decreases pests and disease infestation, increases input use efficiency, and system productivity while reducing the soil erosion [42].
\nThe close-growing crops having high canopy density are grown for protection of soil against erosion, known as cover crops. Legume crops have good biomass to protect soil than the row crops. The effectiveness of cover crops depends on crop geometry and development of canopy for interception of raindrops which helps in reducing the exposure of soil surface for erosion. It has been reported that legumes provide better cover and better protection to land against runoff and soil loss as compared to cultivated fallow and sorghum. The most effective cover crops are cowpea, green gram, black gram, groundnut, etc.
\nProtection of soil from the erosive impact of raindrops, runoff, and wind.
Act as an obstacle in water flow, reduce flow velocity, and thereby reduce runoff and soil loss.
Increase soil organic matter by residue incorporation and deep root system.
Improve nutrients availability to the component crop and succeeding crops through biological nitrogen fixation.
Improve water quality and water holding capacity of the soil.
Improve soil properties, suppress weed growth, and increase crop productivity.
Cultivation of two or more crops simultaneously in the same field with definite or alternate row pattern is known as intercropping. It may be classified as row, strip, and relay intercropping as per the crops, soil type, topography, and climatic conditions. Intercropping involves both time-based and spatial dimensions. Erosion permitting and resisting crops should be intercropped with each other. The crops should have different rooting patterns. Intercropping provides better coverage on the soil surface, reduces the direct impact of raindrops, and protects soil from erosion [36, 43].
\nHigh total biomass production.
Efficient utilization of soil and water resources.
Reduction of marketing risks due to the production of a variety of products at different periods.
Drought conditions can be mitigated through intercropping.
Reduce the weed population and epidemic attack of insect pests or diseases.
It improves soil fertility.
Growing alternate strips of erosion permitting and erosion resistant crops with a deep root system and high canopy density in the same field is known as strip cropping. This practice reduces the runoff velocity and checks erosion processes and nutrients loss from the field [36, 44]. The erosion resisting crops protects soil from beating action of raindrops, reduces runoff velocity, and thereby increased time of concentration which results in a higher volume of soil moisture and increased crop production [4]. Strip cropping is practiced for controlling the run-off and erosion and thereby maintaining soil fertility.
\nTypes of strip cropping
\n\n
Mulch is any organic or non-organic material that is used to cover the soil surface to protect the soil from being eroded away, reduce evaporation, increase infiltration, regulate soil temperature, improve soil structure, and thereby conserve soil moisture [45, 46, 47]. Mulching prevents the formation of hard crust after each rain. The use of blade harrows between rows or inter-culture operations creates “dust mulch” on the soil surface by breaking the continuity of capillary tubes of soil moisture and reduces evaporation losses. Mulching also reduces the weed infestation along with the benefits of moisture conservation and soil fertility improvement. Hence, it can be used in high rainfall regions for decreasing soil and water loss, and in low rainfall regions for soil moisture conservation. Organic mulches improve organic matter and consecutively improving the water holding capacity, macro and micro fauna biodiversity, their activity, and fertility of the soil [48, 49].
\nInorganic mulches have a longer life span than organic mulches and can reduce soil erosion, water evaporation losses, suppress weeds but cannot improve soil health. This practice is costly and labor intensive therefore, suitable for cash crops such as fruits and vegetables. Polyethylene mulch is commonly used for the conservation of soil and water resources to increase crop productivity [21].
\nIn this practice at least 30% of soil surface should remain covered with crop residue before and after planting the next crop to reduce soil erosion and runoff, as well as other benefits such as C sequestration. This term includes reduced tillage, minimum tillage, no-till, direct drill, mulch tillage, stubble-mulch farming, trash farming, strip tillage, etc. The concept of conservation tillage is widely accepted in large scale mechanized crop production systems to reduce the erosive impact of raindrops and to conserve the soil moisture with the maintenance of soil organic carbon. Conservation tillage improves the infiltration rate and reduces runoff and evaporation losses [4]. It also improves soil health, organic matter, soil structure, productivity, soil fertility, and nutrient cycling and reduces soil compaction [50].
\nOrganic farming is an agricultural production system that devoid the use of synthetic fertilizers or pesticides and includes organic sources for plant nutrient supply viz. FYM, compost, vermicompost, green manure, residue mulching, crop rotation, etc. to maintain a healthy and diverse ecosystem for improving soil properties and ensuring a sustained crop production. It is an environmentally friendly agricultural crop production system.
\nThe maintenance of high organic matter content and continuous soil surface cover with cover crops, green manure, and residue mulch reduce the soil erosion in organic farming. It leads to the addition of a large quantity of organic manures which enhances water infiltration through improved bio-physico-chemical properties of soil, and eventually reduces soil erodibility [51]. Organic materials improve soil structure through the development of soil binding agents (e.g., polysaccharides) and stabilizing and strengthening aggregates which reduce the disintegration of soil particles and thus reduced soil erosion. Soil erosion rates from soils under organic farming can be 30–140% lower than those from conventional farming [9].
\nAdoption of appropriate land configuration and planting techniques according to crops, cropping systems, soil type, topography, rainfall, etc. help in better crop establishment, intercultural operations, reduce runoff, soil and nutrient loss, conserve water, efficient utilization of resources and result in higher productivity and profitability. Ridge and furrow, raised bed and furrow, broad bed and furrow, and ridging the land between the rows are important land configuration techniques.
Increase
Safely dispose of excess runoff without causing erosion
Improved soil aeration for plant growth and development
Easier for weeding and mechanical harvesting
It can accommodate a wide range of crop geometry.
Agroforestry is a sustainable land management system which includes the cultivation of trees or shrubs with agricultural crops and livestock production simultaneously on the same piece of land [52, 53]. It is an emerging technology for effective soil and water conservation and comprises a wide range of practices for controlling soil erosion, developing sustainable agricultural production systems, mitigating environmental pollution, and increasing farm economy. The leaf litter addition act as a protective layer against soil erosion improves soil health and moisture retention capacity of the soil and increases crop productivity [54, 55, 56]. It has been reported that different agroforestry practices can reduce up to 10% of soil erosion [57]. Agroforestry not only controls soil erosion but also produce tree-based several marketable products.
\nTypes of agroforestry systems
\nMechanical measures or engineering structures are designed to modify the land slope, to convey runoff water safely to the waterways, to reduce sedimentation and runoff velocity, and to improve water quality. These measures are either used alone or integrated with biological measures to improve the performance and sustainability of the control measures. In highly eroded and sloppy landscape biological measures should be supplemented by mechanical structures. A number of permanent and temporary mechanical measures are available such as terraces, contour bunding, check dams, gabions, diversion drains, geo-textiles, etc. [43]. The mechanical measures are preferred based on the severity of erosion, soil type, topography, and climate [4].
\n\n
Trenches are constructed at the contour line to reduce the runoff velocity for soil moisture conservation in the areas having <30% slope. Bunds are formed on the downstream side of trenches for the conservation of rainwater. Trenches are of two types:
Terraces are earthen embankments built across the dominant slope partitioning the field in uniform and parallel segments [9]. Generally, these structures are combined with channels to convey runoff into the main outlet at reduced velocities. It reduces the degree and length of slope and thus reduced runoff velocity, soil erosion and improves water infiltration [5]. It is recommended for the lands having a slope of up to 33%, but can be adopted for lands having up to 50–60% slope, based on socio-economic conditions of a particular region. Where plenty of good-quality stones are available, stone bench terracing is recommended. Sometimes, semi-circular type terraces are built at the downstream side of the plants, known as half-moon terraces. Based on the slope of benches, the bench terraces are classified into the following categories:
Wattling is a technique of dividing the length of the slope into shorter sections and in these sections, the wattles are constructed at a vertical interval of 5–7 m up to 33% slope and 3 m up to 66% slope. It is not effective on slopes steeper than 66% and on very loose or powdery rocks [61].
\nCrib structures are used to stabilize the steep slopes of >40% by constructing log wood structures filled with stone/brushwood. Eucalyptus poles with 2–3 m length and 8–12 cm diameter can be used for the construction of crib structures. These poles are joined together with the help of 20–25 cm long nails. The height of the structure is kept 1.5–2 m above the ground depending upon the land slope [62].
\nGeo-textiles are made up of natural fibers of jute or coir, which are used for stabilization of degraded slopes in mine spoil and landslides areas along roadsides. It facilitates the initial establishment of vegetation on highly degraded sloping lands by holding the vegetation in place and conserving moisture. The open mesh size of geo-textiles varies from 3 to 25 mm. The biodegradability of geo-textiles was reported for 2–3 years. It can absorb 12–25% water under 65 and 95% humidity, respectively and when fully soaked in water it can absorb 40% moisture [63].
\nCheck dams are effective for preventing runoff rate and severe erosion in steep and broad gullies, and most suitable for high elevation areas of the catchment [62]. These structures are cheap, having a long life, and fewer maintenance requirements. The depth of gully bed is kept about o.3 m and flat stones of 20–30 cm size are used for the construction of dams. A spillway is provided in the middle of the dam to allow the safe discharge of runoff water [21, 60]. Similarly, gabion check dams are also used for drainage line treatment in sharp slanted gullied areas to check sedimentation, erosion, and to conserve soil moisture [62].
\nBranches of tree and shrub species are staked in two rows parallel to each other filled with brushwood and laid across the gully or way of the flow. These are usually built to regulate the overflow in small and medium gullies which are supplemented with vegetative barriers for long term effectiveness. There is enough soil volume to establish the vegetation. The tree species are planted in 0.3 m × 0.2 m trenches across the way of gullies. It reduces the runoff velocity, soil loss, and improves soil moisture which helps in the successful establishment of vegetative barriers.
\nThe channels are constructed to protect the downstream area and for safe draining and diverting of runoff water. It is applicable in high rainfall areas to control runoff losses during the initial stage. The gradient of diversion drain should preferably be kept within 0.5%. Generally, a narrow and deep drain does not get silted up as rapidly as a broad and shallow drain of the same cross-sectional area. Soil dug from the drain should be dumped on the lower side of the drain. Outlet end should be opened at natural drainage lines.
\nIn the conservation bench terrace (CBT) system, the land is divided into 2:1 ratio along the slope in which the upper 2/3 area (Donor area) contributes runoff to the lower 1/3 runoff collecting area (recipient area). The donor area is left in its natural slope condition. It is also known as the zingg terrace and developed by Zingg and Hauser in 1959. The runoff contributing area is used for cultivation of
The land is finite and diminishing gradually due to the increasing rate of varied kinds of degradation and thus there is no alternative to expend cultivable land area. The only way is either increasing agricultural productivity per unit resource available or restoring the degraded lands. Healthy soil and availability of water are vital for productivity in all kinds of terrestrial ecosystems because plants require fertile soil with improved bio-physico-chemical properties and good quality of water for their growth and development. Use of soil and water conservation measures including biological (agroforestry and agricultural) and mechanical measures (terracing, bunding, trenching, check dams, etc.) is imperative to reduce runoff, soil erosion and to improve soil quality, water quality, moisture conservation, and overall crop productivity in a sustainable way. Biological measures are economically feasible and environmental friendly; also improve soil properties along with the conservation of soil and water resources. Further, the combined use of biological and mechanical measures will help in improving and sustaining agricultural productivity.
\nThe burgeoning world population, food insecurity and natural resource degradation are the major issues in the present era of climate change. It has been projected that the world population will be ~10 billion in 2050 [66]. Further, the rapid industrial growth and intensive farming practices are expected to increase the pressure on land and water resources in near future. Therefore, a paradigm shift in soil and water conservation, and its management is needed for agricultural sustainability. The some of the future concern for soil and water conservation and sustainable agriculture are the following:
Formulation of new policies and development of new technologies based on social, economical and cultural aspect of a particular regional.
Implementation and adoption of effective conservation measures for sustaining agricultural productivity.
Existing soil and water conservation practices should be improved and developed based on the level of natural resources degradation.
Greater emphasis should be given on participatory approach for effective soil and water conservation.
Post impact assessment and monitoring of soil and water conservation measures should be done to evaluate their efficacy in increasing productivity, monetary returns, and livelihood of the stakeholders.
Development of cost effective conservation practices to restore the degraded lands and to sustain agricultural productivity.
The efficient technologies for soil and water conservation should be demonstrated on farmers’ fields with their active participation.
Emphasis on research, education and extension of soil and water conservation effective technologies to the stakeholders.
Adoption of efficient management practices and judicious use of soil and water resources.
C | carbon |
CAZRI | Central Arid Zone Research Institute |
CSSRI | Central Soil Salinity Research Institute |
ICAR | Indian Council of Agricultural Research |
ICRISAT | International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-arid Tropics |
IISWC | Indian Institute of Soil and Water Conservation |
N | nitrogen |
NBSS&LUP | National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning |
NRSA | National Remote Sensing Agency |
Ove Odredbe i uvjeti ističu pravila i regulacije u svezi korištenja IntechOpenove stranice www.intechopen.com i svih poddomena u vlasništvu IntechOpena, tvrtke sa sjedištem u 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.
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\n\nSljedeća terminologija odnosi se na Odredbe i uvjete, te na sve naše ugovore:
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\n\nStranke, strane odnosi se na klijenta i na nas, ili samo na klijenta ili nas.
\n\nSve odredbe koje se odnose na ponudu, prihvat ili razmatranje plaćanja, a za koja mi pružamo asistenciju klijentu, bilo na ugovoreni ili fiksni način, a s ciljem da se ostvare potrebe i želje klijenta u svezi s našim uslugama, su podložne zakonskim odredbama Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva.
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