Summary of ANOVA results for effects of prolonged sitting (p<0.05).
\r\n\tThe LED can be lingering further into three major categories are (i) Traditional inorganic LEDs, (ii) Organic LEDs (Small Molecule OLED, Polymer LED, Passive Matrix OLED Active Matrix OLED), (iii) High brightness LEDs, (iv) Deep-UV LEDs, (v) Active Matrix Organic Light-Emitting Diodes (AMOLED).
",isbn:"978-1-83968-886-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-885-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-887-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"97e861d1556a639f0e5cc6ee8bdb0a0f",bookSignature:"Prof. Jagannathan Thirumalai",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10559.jpg",keywords:"Aluminum Gallium Arsenide, Gallium Arsenide Phosphide, Indium Phosphide, Thin-Film-Display, Organic Rare-Earth Complexes, Colour Rendering Index, High Brightness Leds, Luminous Control, Air Purification, Skin Therapy, Organic Compounds Form the Electroluminescent Material, Specific Type of Thin-Film-Display",numberOfDownloads:4,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 21st 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 19th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 18th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 8th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 7th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"As an expert in the optoelectronics and nanotechnology area, Dr.Thirumalai has been invited to examine several MSc and Ph.D. theses, invited to give a talk in various forums, and to review papers for international and national journals.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",middleName:null,surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99242/images/system/99242.png",biography:"Dr. J. Thirumalai received his Ph.D. from Alagappa University, Karaikudi in 2010. \n\nHe was awarded the Post-doctoral Fellowship from Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Republic of Korea, in 2013.\nHe worked as an Assistant Professor of Physics, B.S. Abdur Rahman University, Chennai, India (2011 to 2016). \nCurrently, he is working as an Assistant Professor & Head of the Department of Physics, SASTRA Deemed to be University, Kumbakonam (T.N.), India. \n\nHis research interests focus on luminescence, self-assembled nanomaterials, thin-film optoelectronic devices & Supercapacitors. \n\nHe has published more than 60 SCOPUS/ISI indexed papers, 11 book chapters, and he edited 5 books. He is serving as a member in various national and international societies. Currently, he is acting as a principal investigator for a funded project towards the application of luminescence-based thin-film optoelectronic devices, funded by the Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB), India. \nAs an expert in optoelectronics and nanotechnology area, he has been invited to examine several MSc and Ph.D. theses, invited to give a talk in various forums and to review papers for international and national journals.",institutionString:"SASTRA University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"10",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"SASTRA University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"74673",title:"Economic Applications for LED Lights in Industrial Sectors",slug:"economic-applications-for-led-lights-in-industrial-sectors",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"150046",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad M.A.S.",surname:"Mahmoud",slug:"muhammad-m.a.s.-mahmoud",fullName:"Muhammad M.A.S. Mahmoud"}]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"297737",firstName:"Mateo",lastName:"Pulko",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297737/images/8492_n.png",email:"mateo.p@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5348",title:"Luminescence",subtitle:"An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d982c49fed4423a0ea7367af4f917b82",slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",bookSignature:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5348.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6489",title:"Light-Emitting Diode",subtitle:"An Outlook On the Empirical Features and Its Recent Technological Advancements",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"20818f168134f1af35547e807d839463",slug:"light-emitting-diode-an-outlook-on-the-empirical-features-and-its-recent-technological-advancements",bookSignature:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6489.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6242",title:"Hydroxyapatite",subtitle:"Advances in Composite Nanomaterials, Biomedical Applications and Its Technological Facets",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6a18a9b6617ae6d943649ea7ad9655cc",slug:"hydroxyapatite-advances-in-composite-nanomaterials-biomedical-applications-and-its-technological-facets",bookSignature:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6242.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5699",title:"Thin Film Processes",subtitle:"Artifacts on Surface Phenomena and Technological Facets",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"164177fc1e3eca542ebad5fd34a79d1e",slug:"thin-film-processes-artifacts-on-surface-phenomena-and-technological-facets",bookSignature:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5699.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9414",title:"Advances in Condensed-Matter and Materials Physics",subtitle:"Rudimentary Research to Topical Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3aebac680de7d3af200eadd0a0b2f737",slug:"advances-in-condensed-matter-and-materials-physics-rudimentary-research-to-topical-technology",bookSignature:"Jagannathan Thirumalai and Sergey Ivanovich Pokutnyi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9414.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6124",title:"Micro/Nanolithography",subtitle:"A Heuristic Aspect on the Enduring Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c94caf617c31b349bd3d9dd054a022a3",slug:"micro-nanolithography-a-heuristic-aspect-on-the-enduring-technology",bookSignature:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6124.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"57359",title:"White Matter Tracts Visualized by Parvalbumin in Nonhuman Primates",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70510",slug:"white-matter-tracts-visualized-by-parvalbumin-in-nonhuman-primates",body:'The primate brain exhibits abundant species-specific specializations. Among others, it is gyrencephalic and has an appreciable amount of white matter. These features occur in other large brain species (for example, elephants, cetaceans, and large carnivores; cf.:
The WM in primates has long been known to have suborganization and compartments (“tracts”) (as reviewed in [1]). These have traditionally been identified on the basis of origin and target (for example, “corticospinal tract”). WM organization is most frequently investigated from classical myelin stains [2], diffusion MR imaging, and tractography (as reviewed in [3]), or, for nonhuman primates (NHP), labeled profiles after injection of anterograde tracers (as reviewed in [1]). Antibodies against neurofilaments (e.g., SMI32 or SMI312) can also be used [4]. Often overlooked is the fact that some WM tracts can effectively be visualized by immunohistochemistry (IHC) for calcium-binding proteins (calbindin, calretinin, or parvalbumin). These tracts include some callosally projecting axons and some corticofugal projections, originating from parvalbumin-positive (PV+) pyramidal neurons in motor and other cortical areas, as well as thalamocortical projections from PV+ thalamic projection neurons.
Importantly, visualization of neural structures by IHC for PV and the other calcium-binding proteins is a widely applicable technique and, in particular, can be used on immersion-fixed postmortem tissues. This is a definite advantage for morphofunctional investigations of human brains and allows (1) for easier extrapolation between human brains and those of the experimentally more accessible NHPs, (2) for assessment of neural changes between normal and abnormal conditions, and (3) for at least partial validation of tractography imaging data by the histological “gold standard.”
This chapter focuses on three PV+ WM compartments (callosal, corticofugal, and thalamocortical) and the distribution of their likely cells of origin (see schematic in Figure 1). In addition, data from tracer injections relevant to the trajectory of callosal axons are included.
Sagittal sections of the corpus callosum in macaque monkey to illustrate PV+ fibers crossing in the corpus callosum. Anterior is to the left. (A) Low magnification overview near the mid-sagittal plane. Part of the anteroventral callosum was trimmed for a separate study, and the section is tilted from the horizontal plane for the sake of formatting. The density of PV+ fibers increases progressively from anterior to posterior. The zone of peak density corresponds to the territory of crossing premotor and motor axons (see schematic at lower right). The short arrow marks a distinct fall-off in density of PV+ fibers, anteriorly, in the vicinity of the rostrum (cut from the section). The histological sections at the upper left show the mediolateral planes of the fields illustrated in A (from the section at right), and B–D (from the section at left, which is 3.0 mm lateral to the midline). Asterisks = anterior corpus callosum. (B–D) Three photomicrographs sampling the anterior (B), middle (C), and posterior (D) regions of the corpus callosum (from the left histological section in A. Note increasing density of PV+ fibers with posterior progression. v = ventricle and f = fornix (devoid of PV+ fibers). The arrows in C point to three of the organized fascicles of PV+ fibers evident within the larger bundle. Asterisks in C and D indicate fields at a higher magnification in F and G. (E–G) Higher magnification from anterior (E), middle (F), and posterior (G) regions of the corpus callosum, showing increasing density of PV+ fibers. Scale bar in B applies to A, C, and D. Scale bar in E applies to F, G. Schematic inset in A is reproduced from [12]; Figure 1.
The data presented here are derived from four macaque brains histologically sectioned and reacted for PV, and two additional macaque brains with injections of the anterograde tracer biotinylated dextran amine (BDA) in inferior parietal cortex [5, 6]. Experimental protocols were all approved by the IACUC at the University of Iowa or the Animal Care Committee at RIKEN Institute (Wako-shi, Japan) and carried out in strict conformance with the NIH Guide for the care and use of laboratory animals (NIH Publication No. 80–23; revised 1996). Every effort was made to minimize the number of animals used and any pain or discomfort experienced by them. As a terminal step, animals were deeply anesthetized with ketamine (11 mg/kg, i.m.) and Nembutal (overdose, 75 mg/kg, i.p.) and were perfused transcardially, in sequence, with 0.9% saline containing 0.5% sodium nitrite, 4% paraformaldehyde in 0.1 M phosphate buffer (PB, 4 L over 30 minutes, pH 7.3), and chilled aliquots of 0.1 M PB with 10, 20, and 30% sucrose.
Brains were removed and, after equilibrating in 30% sucrose buffer, sectioned at 50 μm on a freezing microtome. For PV IHC [7], sections were incubated for 1 h in 0.1 M PB saline (PBS; pH 7.3) containing 0.5% Triton X-100 and 5% normal goat serum (PBS-TG) at room temperature and then for 40–48 h at 4°C with PBS-TG containing mouse monoclonal anti-PV antibody (Swant, Bellinzona, Switzerland; 1:50,000). After rinses, the sections were placed in PBS-TG containing biotinylated goat antimouse IgG (Vector Labs, 1:200) for 1.5 h at room temperature. Immunoreactivity was visualized by ABC incubation (one drop of reagent per 7 ml in 0.1 M PB; ABC Elite kits; Vector Labs) followed by diaminobenzidine (DAB) histochemistry with 0.03% nickel ammonium sulfate.
For the two monkeys with injections of the anterograde tracer BDA, surgery was carried out under sterile conditions after the animals were deeply anesthetized with barbiturate anesthesia (25 mg/kg Nembutal, i.v., following a tranquilizing dose of 11 mg/kg ketamine, i.m.). Parietal cortical areas of interest were localized by direct visualization, subsequent to craniotomy and durotomy, in relation to sulcal landmarks (i.e., the intraparietal and superior temporal sulci). Injections were made by pressure through a Hamilton syringe (10% BDA in 0.0125 M (PBS, 0.5–2.0 μl per injection); Molecular Probes, Eugene, Oregon).
Animals were allowed to recover and survived 18–29 days after injections. They were then reanesthetized, given an overdose of Nembutal (75 mg/kg), and perfused as described above. Brains were cut serially in the coronal plane by frozen microtomy (at 50 μm thickness) and processed histologically for BDA, as described in [5, 6]. Tissue was reacted for 20–24 h in avidin-biotin complex (ABC Elite kits; Vector Laboratories, Burlingame, California) at room temperature (one drop of reagent per 7 ml of 0.1 M PBS). In the final step, BDA was demonstrated by DAB histochemistry with the addition of 0.5% nickel-ammonium sulfate.
Regions of interest (ROIs) were digitized on a Zeiss Axiophot microscope using a 2.5×, 5×, or higher power objective. These high resolution images were then, if needed, stitched using the pairwise stitch function in Image J. Low magnification images of tissue sections were obtained by a high resolution flatbed scanner (Epson Perfection V700 Photo). Figures were assembled in GIMP or powerpoint and saved as JPEG (300 dpi). Axon reconstruction was carried out by camera lucida at low (5× objective) and higher magnifications (20× and 40× objectives).
A subset of callosal axons in NHP is PV+, and this appears not to be the case for rat or mouse brains (Figures 1–3). The PV+ axons are evident through a large anterior-posterior (AP) extent of the callosum, but they are absent or sparse in the most anterior and most posterior portions (Figure 1). This corresponds to axons crossing between parts of prefrontal cortex (anteriorly) or early visual cortices (posteriorly), which are evidently PV−.
PV+ callosal fibers were consistently seen in all four brains, although staining in one brain was both fainter and more restricted in the AP extent, possibly suggesting intersubject variability in amount of PV expression. Inspection of online material (
In the coronal plane of section, most fibers are cut in segments of short to intermediate lengths, as would be expected from coronal sectioning of fibers having an overall medial-lateral orientation and trajectory (Figure 2). At the light microscopic level, diameters vary from <1.0 to 2.0–4.0 μm. A previous analysis of BDA-labeled callosal fibers reported a range of 0.6–1.2 μm [9]. This study further found that the thickest axons originated from primary motor, somatosensory, and visual areas and the thinnest from prefrontal and temporal areas. Consistent with these findings, another investigation reports the majority of callosal axons as having a diameter of less than 1.0 μm [10], and an electron microscopic study of human and macaque brain also found average values below 1.0 μm [11].
Coronal sections in macaque monkey to illustrate PV+ fibers crossing in the corpus callosum. Midline is to the right. (A, C, E) Anterior one-third, middle, and posterior AP levels, where C corresponds to the level of the solid vertical line in the right schematic hemisphere in F. Arrow in C calls attention to the sharp ventrolateral border of PV+ callosal fibers. Arrows in E highlight three of the fasciculations within the PV+ tract (see also Figure 1C). (B and D) Higher magnification from the regions of the asterisks in A and C. Note the scattered large fibers in B (and compare with the larger and more numerous large fibers in Figure 4). (F) Schematic of a right hemisphere, lateral, and medial surfaces (at the left and right of the schematic, respectively). The vertical lines indicate the coronal plane of section, with the more anterior, solid line corresponding to the level in C. The more posterior dashed line corresponds to the fields in Figure 6 (and also the coronal histology section in Figure 8C). Reproduced from [4]; Figure 6. Scale bar in E applies to A and C.
Photomicrographs of (A) a coronal section of mouse brain and (B) a coronal section of rat brain, both reacted for PV. Note the lack of PV+ fibers at the midline of the corpus callosum (“cc” in B). (C) Sagittal section through the corpus callosum in rat, slightly lateral to the midline. A few, scattered PV+ fibers are apparent (arrow, and at higher magnification: Inset). a = anterior and p = posterior. Scale bar in C applies to A and B.
Several papers have investigated fiber diameter, length, and trajectory, in part to evaluate impulse speed and conduction delay of callosal axons, in macaques and humans [10, 11, 12]. An early influential paper [13] used electron microscopy and IHC for glia to investigate and compare features of four cerebral commissures in macaque monkey. The increasing use of diffusion MR tractography, alone or in combination with stereology [14], offers an important new tool for WM analysis. The availability of a robust IHC marker, as described here for PV+ fibers, would facilitate comparisons across different age points, different conditions, and different species. Three-dimensional analysis, via serial sections or “clarified” tissue slabs, could easily reveal whether and how often branching occurs in the callosum and support quantification of axon diameters or clustering.
Other fiber tracts originating from PV+ corticofugal neurons (i.e., corticostriatal, corticorubral, or corticobulbar) are also identifiable by IHC. Figure 4 documents PV+ corticostriatal and corticopontine fibers, and any number of images on the web (for human, see [8] and for macaque:
Dorsomedial segment of a coronal section (see solid vertical line in Figure 2F) to compare PV+ fibers in the corpus callosum (cc: at right) and those in the lateral white matter (coronal radiata and dorsal part of the internal capsule). The latter are subjacent to overlying motor cortex and partly correspond to corticopontine fibers (CP). CP fibers are thicker and often contorted (see higher magnification inset: upper right).
An interesting question is whether the PV+ callosal connections are collateral branches of any of these corticofugal projections. In mice and rats, at least some corticostriatal neurons send collaterals to contralateral cortex [18], and contralateral corticostriatal projections have been described in [19]. Collateral branches from layer 5 neurons to thalamus and brainstem have been discussed in the context of links between perception and action (“efference copy”) and may be another instance of primate specializations [20].
PV is generally associated with subtypes of GABAergic, inhibitory interneurons, mainly basket and chandelier cells. While some GABAergic neurons have been reported to send axons through the corpus callosum [21], the numbers are small, much fewer than the number of PV+ callosal axons illustrated here.
A probable origin of the PV+ callosal fibers is the population of glutamatergic excitatory pyramidal neurons that co-label with PV (Figures 5 and 6). These include large Betz cells in layer 5 of motor cortex, large Meynert cells at the border of layers 5 and 6 of primary visual cortex, and large layer 5 pyramidal neurons in several other cortical areas [7, 22]. In histological sections of motor cortex, the PV+ pyramidal neurons typically measure 20 × 50, 30 × 40, or 20 × 30 μm. In the other areas, they can be as large as in motor cortex (i.e., 20 × 50 μm in the posterior cingulate) or toward the smaller range (20 × 30 μm), as in the parietal area 5 (Figures 5 and 6). These unusually PV+ pyramidal cells often have a more diffuse DAB filling (i.e., lighter brown) than adjacent PV+ interneurons, perhaps indicative of lower levels of PV (Figure 6E). The distribution of these neurons closely parallels that of corticospinal or corticopontine projecting neurons in frontal, premotor, and parietal areas, among others ([23, 24] and Figure 7). Thus, the question arises, as noted above, of whether at least some of the callosal connections could be collaterals of corticosubcortical projections originating from PV+ pyramidal cells.
(A and B) PV+ Betz cells in motor cortex of macaque (coronal sections). Arrows point to two of the PV+ cells in each frame. PV+ interneurons and terminations are also evident. Asterisk in A highlights PV+ axons in the underlying white matter. AP level is slightly anterior to the solid vertical line in Figure 2F. (C) Another example, from the same brain, of PV+ fibers, putatively originating from the PV+ Betz cells in layer 5 and crossing in the corpus callosum (cc). Asterisk marks the callosal tract in a dorsolateral position, as it approaches the midline (at left in C). v = ventricle. Scale bar in B applies to A–C.
PV+ pyramidal neurons. These are the likely origins of PV+ callosal and/or corticosubcortical fibers. (A) A cluster of PV+ pyramidal neurons in layer 5, in the upper bank of the intraparietal sulcus. Arrows point to two of these. Medial is to the right (for A–C). (B) Arrows point to two of several PV+ pyramidal neurons in layer 5 at the depth of the cingulate sulcus (ci). (C) For comparison, a low magnification view from the same brain of PV+ Betz cells in motor cortex (approximately at the vertical dark line in Figure 2F). Asterisk marks PV+ fibers in the immediately subjacent white matter, probably corresponding to a mix of outgoing callosal and corticosubcortical fibers. (D) PV+ pyramidal neuron (arrow) in parietal area 5. A, B, and D are at approximately the same AP level as the dashed red line in Figure 2F (and see also coronal section in Figure 8C). (E) Higher magnification image of a PV+ pyramidal neuron (arrow) in a field of PV+ interneurons within the gray matter of the superior parietal lobule. Note lighter intensity of the PV stain for the pyramidal neuron. Scale bar in B applies to A and D.
Distribution of retrogradely labeled neurons following retrograde tracer injections in the spinal cord at upper cervical levels (one dot = one neuron). Dorsolateral views of the cerebral hemispheres are shown for two brains (cases 10 and 21) contralateral to the injections. Reproduced from [24]; Figure 15.
For Betz and Meynert cells, these PV+ neurons also express the Kv3.1b potassium channel, which is usually associated with the fast-firing properties of PV+ interneurons [7, 25]. Physiological studies report that the PV+ pyramidal neurons in NHP exhibit short duration “thin spikes,” in contrast to long-duration action potentials, characteristic of neurons in rat motor cortex [26]. The functional significance of this result has been discussed as relating to the fast-conducting property of macaque corticospinal neurons, with the conjecture that fast-conducting corticospinal neurons in macaque may make monosynaptic connections with the motoneurons innervating the most distal muscles controlling the fingers and toes (as discussed in [26]), and thus might be unique to dexterous primate species. This interpretation, however, does not readily apply to PV+ pyramidal neurons in areas outside motor cortex proper.
PV+ excitatory pyramidal neurons have been consistently reported in NHP [27] and, recently, in mice [28]. In PV-Cre transgenic mice, GFP-positive pyramidal neurons were found in layer 5 in a broad swath of cortical areas. In this preparation, the greatest number was in somatosensory cortex, but there were also PV+ pyramidal neurons in motor and visual areas. PV+ corticostriatal pyramidal neurons have been reported by co-labeling with retrograde tracers in mice. These were mainly in layer 5 of retrosplenial and somatosensory areas [29].
As a side observation, we should note that other CBPs are also expressed in subpopulations of glutamatergic cortical neurons, although with pronounced area and species differences [27, 30]. In rodents, there are numerous calbindin + (CB+) pyramidal neurons. CB+ pyramidal neurons are reported in NHP, mainly in the supragranular layers. In NHP, the density of CB+ pyramidal neurons has been described as an increasing gradient from primary visual cortex to temporal association areas [31], but, since a subpopulation of hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons is CB+ [32], in both rodents and NHPs, it could also be considered a decreasing density from CA1, through temporal association areas, to early and primary visual areas. Calretinin + pyramidal cells are reported in layer 5 of anterior cingulate cortex [27] and in deeper layers of entorhinal cortex in humans [33]. Fine analysis of CB+ or CR+ fiber tracts in NHP is lacking.
The thalamocortical tract, including optic radiations (from the lateral geniculate nucleus to primary visual cortex), is a compact, well-delineated bundle in primates and can be readily identified even in classical myelin preparations (e.g., Figure 18-1 in [1]).
In primates, many thalamocortical projections are PV+. An influential distinction has been drawn between thalamocortical terminations that are PV+ and topographically organized vs. those that are CB+ and more diffuse (“core” and “matrix,” respectively [34]), although this may hold for only a subdivision of thalamic nuclei. An extensive literature has confirmed that glutamatergic thalamic projection neurons co-localize with either PV or CB, and that their cortical terminations can also be visualized by PV or CB [35, 36]. Relatively under-reported is the fact that the bundles of thalamocortical axons in their WM transit can also be visualized by CBP. This is immediately apparent in whole section atlases or histological images (“sste,” external sagittal stratum or optic radiations) in Figures 7 and 17, and level 72b, 77b as in [8] and from Figures 16–23 in the horizontal plane as in [4]. Figure 8 illustrates PV+ fibers in the thalamocortical tract in macaque (including the optic radiations). An obvious extension of this observation would be double IHC for CB and PV in the same histological preparation.
PV+ fibers in the thalamocortical tract. (A) Low magnification of the asterisk in C, which shows a coronally sectioned histological section. Medial (med) is to the left. Obliquely sectioned geniculocortical axon segments in A are subjacent to primary visual cortex. These have exited from the larger, more lateral thalamocortical tract. (B) PV+ thalamocortical tract is clearly evident in two horizontally sectioned tissue sections (The upper section is more ventral, and both are below the corpus callosum.) Arrows in B and D identify the PV+ thalamocortical tract. (D and E) Higher magnification of the asterisk in A, showing detail and different orientation of PV+ fibers. The thalamocortical tract takes a predominantly AP trajectory, so that the coronal plane of section results in fibers cut almost in cross-section. v = ventricle, ant = anterior, lat = lateral, post = posterior, and th = thalamus. Scale bar in D applies to E.
Interests in the corpus callosum has burgeoned in this epoch of MRI, and many studies have investigated the topographic organization and axon diameter distribution within the corpus callosum, both by histological [9, 10, 11] and imaging [11, 12] approaches. The trajectory of individual axons, as visualized at high resolution, has been relatively unaddressed. However, serial section analysis (about technique, see [37]) through small segments of the callosum (1.0–2.0 mm AP) reveals that fibers take a complicated, shifting trajectory. Figure 9 shows five groups of callosal axons (n = 3–5) anterogradely labeled by an injection of BDA in parietal areas (areas 5 or 7) in NHP (see coronal sections at right for orientation). When followed through a reconstructed 3D space (5.4–6.4 mm ML and 2.2–2.8 mm AP), these can be seen to intertwine and exchange dorsoventral position. The “intertwining” (hollow arrows) is within a histological section of 50 μm thickness. At some points (solid arrows), the intertwining is within the same focal plane, compatible with the possibility of physical axon-axon contact.
(A and C) Serial section reconstruction of five groups of parietal callosal axons (consisting of 5, 3, and 4 axons in A and 4 and 5 axons in B, anterogradely labeled by BDA). As shown for each of the five groups, axons were followed for 1.1–2.8 mm AP and 2.3–6.6 mm ML (mediolateral). Case P4 had a tracer injection in area 5, and case I26 had a large tracer injection in the inferior parietal lobule (area 7). Medial and the cut edge of the corpus callosum are at the left. By color coding the individual axons, it becomes apparent that the order is shuffled, even over these relatively short distances. The medialmost and lateralmost positions of the individual axons are summarized in the color boxes, at upper left for the five axon groups. Small histology sections at the right indicate the AP level of the reconstructions. Intertwinings of individual axons are indicated by solid arrows or, if the crossings occur in the same focal plane, hollow arrows. (B and D) Histological images corresponding to one coronal histology section (i.e., one AP level) of the axon reconstructions. Arrows point to regions depicted at progressively higher magnification in the three photomicrographs in B and D.
The principle conclusion from this result is that individual axons do not maintain a stereotyped position but rather shift position within 3D space. An additional conclusion is that closely adjacent axons do not necessarily travel in a parallel trajectory but can intertwine. Similar reconstructions are not available for rodent.
The large, gyrencephalic brains of primates are associated with a well-developed white matter. This has its own organization, in part based on identifiable bundles of axons connecting specific source and target areas. This is increasingly investigated by diffusion MR, although the accuracy of relationships between anatomical substrates and imaging data is still being determined [3, 12, 14]. The white matter also has neurochemically distinct elements. Some of these—the great transmitter-defined glutamatergic, GABAergic, or neuromodulatory fiber tracts—persist across species, although probably with quantifiable species-specific specializations. In primates, as discussed in this chapter, subsystems are characterized by co-localization with PV and other calcium-binding proteins. Callosal and corticofugal PV+ fibers originate from PV+ cell bodies in motor and other cortical areas. PV+ thalamocortical fibers originate from PV+ subpopulations of thalamic neurons. The current interpretation, supported by evidence from the corticospinal tract, is that PV+ excitatory cortical neurons (which are often coincident with neurons positive for the KV3.1b potassium channel) have fast firing properties such as might be needed for fine motor dexterity. Since IHC for PV can be easily carried out in postmortem tissues, this provides a useful morphological label across primate species.
I thank Andrew Chang for assistance with figures and manuscript preparation and Dr. Haiyan Gong for the use of her flatbed scanner. Dr. Marie Wintzer (RIKEN Brain Research Institute) contributed substantially to the axon reconstructions in Figure 9 (Section 3.6).
Electromyography (EMG) is an electrodiagnostic technique for assessing the contractile activity produced by skeletal muscles. Through electrodes placed on top of the skin’s surface, surface EMG signals can detect neuromuscular states and abnormalities, muscle contraction levels, muscle recruitment order, and disorders of motor control and can estimate muscle forces and human movement.
\nBy understanding the muscle state via EMG, the impacts of modern lifestyles and work conditions on the human musculoskeletal system that could lead to potential injuries and illnesses, such as low back pain (LBP), may be identified. LBP is one of the most common societal health problems, causing day away from works, high health services cost, and considerable disability. LBP is one of the leading factors that cause injuries and disability among those under 43 years old [1]. More than 38% of work-related musculoskeletal disorders can be linked to back disorders each year, with a total of 134,550 cases reported in the United States in 2016 [1].
\nAs a new trend in both modern living and contemporary work, sedentary behaviors have become more and more prevalent. Prolonged sitting as a form of sedentary behavior presents emerging health risks in both occupational and non-occupational settings [2]. Sitting is commonly considered a critical ergonomic exposure related to LBP [3, 4]. Recent research has found that muscle activation levels around the lumbar area increase over time during sitting [5, 6] and cause higher levels of muscle co-contractions [7], which have been shown to positively correlate to the development of low back pain [6, 7].
\nDuring the sitting, postural muscles, such as trunk extensors, are required to stabilize the sitting posture via sustained contractions, which, however, usually require very low levels of muscle contractions (<10% of maximal muscle capacity) [8, 9]. However, after a long exposure duration, seated posture could block muscle oxygenation and blood flow [10], cause lumbar muscle fatigue, increase intradiscal loads, and further contribute to the development of LBP [11, 12]. Therefore, even though the muscle contraction level during sitting is low, the sustained contractions may cause above mentioned issues even after a continuous duration only greater than 20 minutes [13, 14]. After a long period of sitting (i.e., >90 min), EMG median power frequency has also been observed to shift to the lower frequencies [15, 16]. Even though there is evidence that EMG can measure muscle fatigue caused by sitting, it is generally believed that 15% of muscle contraction level (compared to maximum muscle contraction capacity) is required to detect and distinguish fatigue-induced EMG changes from noises [21]. Both lowered EMG median frequency and increased EMG amplitudes under consistent workloads are generally considered a sign of muscle fatigue [15]. However, such methods may lead to conflicting results when detecting muscle fatigue under low-level contractions.
\nTherefore, EMG-related measurements provide potential paths to reveal the underneath mechanisms that link prolonged sitting with LBP. At the same time, some potential challenges may affect measurement performance. Therefore, in this chapter, using a prolonged sitting experiment as an example, a series of EMG-based muscle fatigue measurement methods are discussed with respect to their capabilities and limitations in quantifying the negative impacts of prolonged sitting.
\nSix participants [gender balanced, mean age (SD) = 25.1 (3.3) yrs] were recruited from the local community to complete a one-hour prolonged seated task. As shown in \nFigure 1\n, participants were required to sit in a relaxed posture without significant in-chair body movements, such as trunk rotation or bending that could cause significant off-sagittal plane movement. No use of backrest was allowed to minimize potential confounding effects caused by the backrest support on muscle activation pattern during the experiment.
\nIllustration of seating device and seated tasks.
During the experiments, participants were asked to conduct a relaxed internet browsing task to minimize the potential impacts of high mental workloads on muscle activities. The browsing tasks were self-selected with a similar level of mental/physical workloads, e.g., participants can choose to browse websites or stream videos but cannot play intense games or other high demanding tasks. All participants read and signed an informed consent with IRB approval prior to participation.
\nTo understand how muscles support the trunk against the continuous sitting, the major muscles around the lumbar spine should be studied. In detail, sixteen muscles around the lower lumbar region were studied, which can usually be categorized into the trunk flexors group and the trunk extensors group based on the different function of each muscle. Trunk flexors are those dominant muscles that drive trunk flexion movement, while trunk extensors are those dominant muscles that lead the trunk extension movement. Trunk sideways bending and rotation usually are the results of the combined muscle activities from trunk flexors and extensors.
\nThe tested trunk flexors group includes internal oblique (IO), external oblique (EO), and rectus abdominis (RA). The tested trunk extensors group includes iliocostalis lumborum pars lumborum (ILL), iliocostalis lumborum pars thoracis (ILT), multifidus (MF), longissimus thoracis pars lumborum (LTL), and longissimus thoracis pars thoracis (LTT). Both trunk flexors and extensors can be further divided bilaterally into the left side (L) and the right side (R). The deeper trunk muscles (e.g., psoas, quadratus lumborum, and transverse abdominis) are not included in the analysis due to the fact that such deeper muscles cannot be measured through surface EMG and do not significantly contribute to lumbar kinetics [17]. Each muscle is composed of a group of functional fascicles, each of which has distinct insertion, via, and origin points attached to the bone, which represent the diverse anatomy within each muscle. The initial insertion, via, and origin points are defined as the attach or wrap points where the muscles connect to the bone [18]. For these sixteen trunk muscles, there are a total of ninety-two fascicles (EO = 4, IO = 12, RA = 4, MF = 24, ILL = 8, ILT = 16, LTL = 10, LTT = 14). Equal contraction level is usually assumed among all the fascicles from the same muscle [19]. During trunk movement, each fascicle moves differently due to the different insertion, via, and origin points positions on the bone. Measured trunk kinematics can be used to estimate the line of action and length of each fascicle at each sample instant. So, the EMG activity measured from surface EMG devices can be used to describe the muscle contraction levels.
\nTo monitor and collect muscle EMG data over a long period, a high-fidelity multimodal EMG system is required to collect reliable data continuously with flexible measurement options. A wireless EMG system (Trigno™, Delsys, MA) is included in this chapter. The Trigno wireless EMG system supports up to 16 wireless sensors, which can be used to monitor all 16 muscles simultaneously. To maximize the quality of the collected data, skin near the central position over the muscle belly (but not directly over motor points) of each target muscle was shaved, abrased, and cleaned with a mild alcohol solution to ensure that the impedance was lower than 10 KΩ. Electrodes were placed bilaterally over the surface of each muscle, as suggested in [20]. Raw EMG single amplitude usually ranges from −5000 to 5000 microvolts with frequency ranges between 10 and 500 Hz, in which most frequency power lies between 20 and 400 Hz. Using the Trigno system, raw EMG signals were collected at 2000 Hz, pre-amplified at 500 gain, and band-pass filtered between 20 and 400 Hz. To further smooth the signal, the root-mean-square (RMS) of EMG was calculated using a 200-milliseconds sliding window for the relatively static task, i.e., sitting. Then RMS EMG of the same muscle collected bilaterally were averaged since no significant off-sagittal plane in-chair movements were allowed during the experiment. Collected EMG data were furthered analyzed to answer the following questions for a better understanding of the impact of the prolonged sitting:
\nThe first question is how much effort the related muscles have to contribute continuously to maintaining a seated posture for a prolonged duration. By answering this question, the neuromuscular demands required during prolonged seated tasks could be determined, and a corresponding ergonomics intervention can be developed to lower the stress and strain on workers.
\nTo answer this question, the muscles’ contraction levels relative to their maximum capacity need to be determined. Muscle EMG collected from a maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) test can be used as a reference of 100% muscle capacity, and muscle EMG measured during a task can be normalized to this reference to generate the percentage of effort needed to complete the task. The MVC values of all sixteen muscles were measured from suggested MVC tests [20, 21]. Once the MVC value for each muscle is determined, the muscle EMG during prolonged sitting can be converted into the percentage of the MVC value to estimate the level of neuromuscular effort needed for the prolonged sitting [22].
\nAs shown in \nFigure 2\n, the average muscle activation levels over the entire one hour sitting are generally less than 10% MVC. However, unlike other physically demanding tasks, the exposure duration in such low load seated tasks is long, necessitating a significant amount of time for the muscles to recover from previous fatigue [11].
\nAverage muscle contraction level (%MVC) over the prolonged seated task.
The second question is whether there is any muscle fatigue developed during prolonged sitting. Muscle fatigue is one of the leading indicators that directly link to the development of LBP. Traditionally, both EMG amplitude and EMG median frequency show time-domain changes due to muscular fatigue. Therefore, monitoring EMG amplitude changes over time during prolonged sitting can estimate the level of muscle fatigue development. Using EMG amplitude, muscle fatigue is defined as an amplitude increase over time without an increase in the level of physical demands.
\nIn this study, EMG amplitudes were continuously collected for one minute, and this procedure was repeated every ten minutes. The collected EMG over one minute was then averaged to present the general trend at each data collection period during prolonged sitting. As shown in \nFigure 3\n, EMG amplitude collected from both muscle groups, in general, increased toward the end of the sitting period. Both LMF and LLTT have a significant increase in measured EMG amplitude. Such an upward change trend, however, was not consistent and fluctuated up and down, which could further indicate that many moderating factors, such as body movement and external forces, could have affected the amplitudes of the collected muscle EMG.
\nAn example of EMG amplitude (LMF and LLTT) changes over the one-hour prolonged seated task.
The second indicator is the median power frequency (MPF) of raw EMG obtained from the prolonged sitting. Such MPF was calculated over 3-second windows. As described above, EMG data were continuously collected for one minute every ten minutes, and the mean EMG MPF from each one-minute period was calculated and compared. Changes between these mean values were used as a predictor of fatigue development in these muscles. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA, using Wilks’ Lambda) was used to determine the effects of prolonged sitting on all EMG MPFs as a whole. In the event of a significant MANOVA effect, univariate ANOVAs were performed to determine which muscle was mostly impacted by the prolonged seated task, which was considered significant when p < 0.05.
\nMANOVA results indicated that prolonged sitting (p < 0.01) had significant effects on the tested EMG MPFs. As shown in \nTable 1\n, subsequent univariate ANOVAs indicated that prolonged sitting significantly affected MPFs from some of the muscles, which manifested as a declining percentage of EMG MPF: left side LILL (16%) and LLTT (18%) muscles and right side RMF (14%) and RIO (8%) muscles.
\n\n | Prolonged Sitting | \n||
---|---|---|---|
\n | \n\nF\n\n(1,320)\n | \n\n\np\n\n | \n|
EMG Median Frequency | \nLMF | \n2.16 | \n0.15 | \n
LILL | \n7.65 | \n\n<0.01\n | \n|
LILT | \n3.36 | \n0.06 | \n|
LLTL | \n3.37 | \n0.88 | \n|
LLTT | \n9.16 | \n\n<0.01\n | \n|
LEO | \n3.46 | \n0.06 | \n|
LIO | \n4.51 | \n0.05 | \n|
LRA | \n2.71 | \n0.12 | \n|
RMF | \n5.58 | \n\n0.02\n | \n|
RILL | \n4.25 | \n0.06 | \n|
RILT | \n4.34 | \n0.06 | \n|
RLTL | \n3.17 | \n0.08 | \n|
RLTT | \n4.02 | \n0.06 | \n|
REO | \n0.03 | \n0.86 | \n|
RIO | \n4.98 | \n\n0.04\n | \n|
RRA | \n4.10 | \n0.06 | \n
Summary of ANOVA results for effects of prolonged sitting (p<0.05).
As mentioned above, muscle contraction at 15% MVC or higher is usually considered to be the minimal muscle contraction level to detect fatigue-related changes in the EMG signal during different working levels [23]. During low-level sustained muscle contractions, inconsistent evidence of fatigue development was observed between different muscle groups and across individuals [10]. Therefore, the analysis of EMG amplitude and median frequency as a measurement of muscle fatigue could lead to unreliable or conflicting results under low-level contractions. Existing evidence [11, 24], on the other hand, also illustrates the possibility of using traditional EMG methods to quantify muscle fatigue during low-level contractions as low as 2% MVC. However, these results were achieved from a relatively short duration with large inter-subject variations. Therefore, a sensitive method is needed to obtain reliable muscle fatigue measurements under these conditions of low-level sustained muscle contractions, i.e., prolonged sitting.
\nAn alternative method to identify muscle fatigue is to combine muscle EMG with muscle stimulation technology. In this approach, an electrical stimulation pulse is sent to the target muscle to evoke an artificial muscle contraction, and the corresponding muscle stimulation response from these artificial contractions can be captured through surface EMG and other quantitative methods. In this method, muscle fatigue is defined as a significant change of observed muscle stimulation responses from the initial pre-fatigue status [25, 26]. Muscle fatigue has been identified using a single stimulation frequency [27, 28] or calculated as a decrement ratio of stimulation response results from high-frequency (50–100 Hz) and low-frequency (1–20 Hz) stimulation [26, 29]. While various stimulation frequencies have been used, low-frequency stimulation (LFS) usually creates stable stimulation responses and fatigue-induced changes [27]. Another benefit of using LFS is that it is less likely to cause muscle fatigue, and the level of discomfort is also low [28].
\nTherefore, in this chapter, a muscle stimulation method was further applied to determine the muscle fatigue results from prolonged sitting. All six participants completed a muscle stimulation trial after the initial MVC test and then repeated after the prolonged seated task, and the stimulation responses collected through both stimulation trials were compared to identify the potential muscle fatigue caused by the prolonged sitting.
\nMuscle stimulation responses were evoked using a dual-channel current-controlled muscle stimulator (Grass S88, AstroMed, RI) connected with a stimulus isolation unit (SIU5, AstroMed, RI) and a constant current unit (CCU1, AstroMed, RI). In this study, the MF muscle was selected to evaluate prolonged sitting induced muscle fatigue. The participant’s skin around the MF muscle was appropriately prepared following the procedure described by [30]. After bilaterally placing the positive and negative stimulation electrodes (PALS, Axelgaard Manufacturing, CA) at the level of the rib cage bottom and the iliac crest, respectively, the most effective site for electrical stimulation was determined as suggested in [31] to determine appropriate stimulus intensity and electrode location for each participant. During the stimulation trial, participants were asked to sit in a customized fixture (\nFigure 4\n), with their upper body locked in a comfortable and relaxed upright sitting posture using a metal bar connected to their chest harness around the T8 level. A load cell (SM2000, Interface, AZ) was connected to the other end of the metal bar to collect the stimulation response (i.e., stimulation generated forces) generated by the artificial muscle contraction evoked by the stimulation. Muscle voluntary contractions were minimized by asking participants to relax their muscles and let the fixture hold their sitting postures. The muscle EMG were also monitored bilaterally to ensure minimal voluntary muscle contraction involved during the stimulation procedure. The stimulation train was repeated if the voluntary muscle contraction level monitored by surface EMG were greater than 5% of MVC. The fixture also has a height-adjustable seat pan to align the participant’s trunk rotation center at the level of the L5/S1 joint in the sagittal plane. The participant’s knee and ankle were also required to maintain a 90-degree using an adjustable footrest. While maintain such sitting posture, participants were also instructed to try to relax their muscles and eliminate potential movement during the data collection.
\nIllustration of experimental fixture setup with a participant in an upright sitting posture.
The overall experimental procedure was illustrated in \nFigure 5\n. Each participant completed one stimulation trial, starting with one conditioning train and three sampling trains, before and after the prolonged seat task. A conditioning train included stimulating muscles continuously at 2 Hz until a plateau and steady phases of measured muscle stimulation responses were observed. The duration of conditioning, i.e., the time-to-potentiation (tp), is determined as the time at which the increasing rate of muscle stimulation response becomes zero. Immediately after the conditioning train, the same 2 Hz stimulation was applied again, and muscle stimulation responses were collected during three 9-second trains with a 10-second rest in between.
\nIllustration of the overall experimental procedure. Conditioning: tp minutes continuous stimulation at 2 Hz; train: 9-second stimulation at 2 Hz with a 10-second rest in between.
A repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) method was used to identify any significant changes in muscle stimulation response before and after the one hour of prolonged sitting.
\nDescriptive summaries of the stimulation response (i.e., stimulation generated forces) from two test trials are presented in \nFigure 6\n. Signs of muscle fatigue were clearly found in the measured stimulation response. Prolonged sitting resulted in a significant (p = 0.03) decrease in stimulation responses from the measured muscles.
\nStimulation generated forces (mean and SD) collected among three trains before and after the prolonged seated task.
As a comparison shown in \nFigure 7\n, the average EMG MPF of bilateral MF showed some signs of fatigue with a shifted MPF value, but the development of muscle fatigue was inconsistent over time, and the level of the observed shift was small.
\nAverage EMG MPF of MF during the prolonged seated task.
Muscle fatigue was measured using EMG MPF, EMG amplitude, and muscle stimulation methods. In general, all three methods successfully captured the sign of muscle fatigue development through prolonged sitting. Consistency among these three measures supports that muscle fatigue indeed developed during the prolonged seated task.
\nEMG amplitude collected from 16 muscle groups showed a sign of increased amplitude toward the end of the sitting period. Two out of 16 muscles (i.e., LMF and LLTT) have significant increases in measured EMG amplitude, which in the absence of interference from external forces or movement may have been caused by muscle fatigue development over time. However, the EMG amplitude method did not detect any significant development of muscle fatigue over the rest of the 14 muscles, which may indicate the limited sensitivity of such methods in measuring muscle fatigue under prolonged sitting conditions. Furthermore, existing evidence also indicated that such EMG amplitude changes over a fatiguing task is also associated with the level of contraction, e.g., a task, which requires below 40% MVC, may show sign of EMG amplitude decrease [32], while other studies show increase of EMG amplitude during 40–50% MVC sustained contraction tasks [33, 34]. Therefore, using EMG amplitude alone may not be able to provide reliable estimation on muscle fatigue development.
\nEMG MPFs collected from four out of 16 muscles also showed signs of fatigue, but no general consistency was observed across all measured muscles. Some of the inconsistencies among various muscles in the measured MPFs may have been the result of the insensitivity of EMG in measuring low-load muscle fatigue. As shown in \nFigure 2\n, the average contraction level of most flexors and some extensors are between 2% and 5%. Since only a deficient level of muscle contractions are needed during the prolonged seated task, collected EMG signals may fall close to or even below the noise threshold, which may significantly affect the fatigue detection results derived from noisy EMG MPF. As a result, EMG amplitude and EMG MPF may only have limited capacity in measuring fatigue related muscle changes under such task conditions.
\nAnother potential explanation could be linked to the functional differences between the trunk flexors and extensors. During the prolonged sitting, trunk extensors usually work as postural muscles that continuously contract to stabilize the sitting posture [5, 6]. Therefore, the observed decline of EMG MPF among three trunk extensors (ILL, LTT, and MF) was more substantial and could be used as a reasonable measurement of muscle fatigue caused by prolonged sitting. The decline of EMG MPF in the IO suggests that this muscle may also play an essential role in stabilizing the trunk posture during sitting, which is consistent with existing evidence [35]. All other muscles may have received only limited impacts from the prolonged seated task, or the actual fatigue could not be accurately measured using surface EMG during prolonged sitting.
\nMuscle fatigue measured by muscle stimulation, on the other hand, was more announced with a significant drop in measured stimulation responses across all three sampling trains. The same sign of fatigue was also observed in measured EMG amplitude and EMG MPF, but the magnitude of changes was small and inconsistent. Such results could indicate that muscle stimulation methods, compared to traditional EMG-based fatigue measurement methods, could provide more stable and visible results as a more sensitive method.
\nIn summary, several EMG-based methods have been discussed in terms of their capabilities and limitations when used as ergonomic assessment methods to measure the effects of prolonged sitting. These outcomes were evident after one hour of continuous sitting. The effects of prolonged sitting have been successfully quantified by monitoring participants’ muscle fatigue development. Current findings suggest that individuals who sit for prolonged periods can be at increased risk of cumulative disorder and injury, and various EMG-based methods can be used together to provide more reliable estimation and evaluation.
\nThe author declares no sources of support or conflict of interest.
You have been successfully unsubscribed.
",metaTitle:"Unsubscribe Successful",metaDescription:"You have been successfully unsubscribed.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/unsubscribe-successful",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":""}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:""}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5681},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5161},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1683},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10200},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:886},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15610}],offset:12,limit:12,total:117096},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateendthirdsteppublish"},books:[],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:63},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Sanity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-sanity",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7807",title:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"05c608b9271cc2bc711f4b28748b247b",slug:"a-closer-look-at-organizational-culture-in-action",bookSignature:"Süleyman Davut Göker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7807.jpg",editors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5126},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Sanity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-sanity",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-health",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9523",title:"Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5eb6ec2db961a6c8965d11180a58d5c1",slug:"oral-and-maxillofacial-surgery",bookSignature:"Gokul Sridharan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9523.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82453",title:"Dr.",name:"Gokul",middleName:null,surname:"Sridharan",slug:"gokul-sridharan",fullName:"Gokul Sridharan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9018",title:"Some RNA Viruses",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a5cae846dbe3692495fc4add2f60fd84",slug:"some-rna-viruses",bookSignature:"Yogendra Shah and Eltayb Abuelzein",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9018.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"278914",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yogendra",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"yogendra-shah",fullName:"Yogendra Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9585",title:"Advances in Complex Valvular Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef64f11e211621ecfe69c46e60e7ca3d",slug:"advances-in-complex-valvular-disease",bookSignature:"Michael S. Firstenberg and Imran Khan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9585.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64343",title:null,name:"Michael S.",middleName:"S",surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10150",title:"Smart Manufacturing",subtitle:"When Artificial Intelligence Meets the Internet of Things",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"87004a19de13702d042f8ff96d454698",slug:"smart-manufacturing-when-artificial-intelligence-meets-the-internet-of-things",bookSignature:"Tan Yen Kheng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10150.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78857",title:"Dr.",name:"Tan Yen",middleName:null,surname:"Kheng",slug:"tan-yen-kheng",fullName:"Tan Yen Kheng"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9386",title:"Direct Numerical Simulations",subtitle:"An Introduction and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"158a3a0fdba295d21ff23326f5a072d5",slug:"direct-numerical-simulations-an-introduction-and-applications",bookSignature:"Srinivasa Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9386.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6897",title:"Dr.",name:"Srinivasa",middleName:"P",surname:"Rao",slug:"srinivasa-rao",fullName:"Srinivasa Rao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1145",title:"Hepatic Surgery",slug:"hepatic-surgery",parent:{title:"Surgery",slug:"surgery"},numberOfBooks:6,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:220,numberOfWosCitations:43,numberOfCrossrefCitations:28,numberOfDimensionsCitations:61,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"hepatic-surgery",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"7875",title:"Liver Disease and Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"163f3050d8d21a64401f9ef6f7230da5",slug:"liver-disease-and-surgery",bookSignature:"Georgios Tsoulfas and Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7875.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"57412",title:"Prof.",name:"Georgios",middleName:null,surname:"Tsoulfas",slug:"georgios-tsoulfas",fullName:"Georgios Tsoulfas"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7528",title:"Surgical Challenges in the Management of Liver Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"581524c01bd3dca324da84c25aa31a48",slug:"surgical-challenges-in-the-management-of-liver-disease",bookSignature:"Georgios Tsoulfas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7528.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"57412",title:"Prof.",name:"Georgios",middleName:null,surname:"Tsoulfas",slug:"georgios-tsoulfas",fullName:"Georgios Tsoulfas"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6502",title:"Topics in the Surgery of the Biliary Tree",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6e1e8b08aab8583fc30db6351ae123d6",slug:"topics-in-the-surgery-of-the-biliary-tree",bookSignature:"Hesham Abdeldayem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6502.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"72383",title:"Prof.",name:"Hesham",middleName:null,surname:"Abdeldayem",slug:"hesham-abdeldayem",fullName:"Hesham Abdeldayem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3164",title:"Hepatic Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e54bf2639e53e684ac2233e94ae53c19",slug:"hepatic-surgery",bookSignature:"Hesham Abdeldayem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3164.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"72383",title:"Prof.",name:"Hesham",middleName:null,surname:"Abdeldayem",slug:"hesham-abdeldayem",fullName:"Hesham Abdeldayem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"967",title:"Liver Transplantation",subtitle:"Basic Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d61ca05025c7154ff4579b2d6c95d7ae",slug:"liver-transplantation-basic-issues",bookSignature:"Hesham Abdeldayem and Naglaa Allam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/967.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"72383",title:"Prof.",name:"Hesham",middleName:null,surname:"Abdeldayem",slug:"hesham-abdeldayem",fullName:"Hesham Abdeldayem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2060",title:"Liver Transplantation",subtitle:"Technical Issues and Complications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f1a1413332fb74229afd9d4d68248cbc",slug:"liver-transplantation-technical-issues-and-complications",bookSignature:"Hesham Abdeldayem and Naglaa Allam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2060.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"72383",title:"Prof.",name:"Hesham",middleName:null,surname:"Abdeldayem",slug:"hesham-abdeldayem",fullName:"Hesham Abdeldayem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:6,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"41260",doi:"10.5772/51829",title:"Experimental Models in Liver Surgery",slug:"experimental-models-in-liver-surgery",totalDownloads:3089,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"hepatic-surgery",title:"Hepatic Surgery",fullTitle:"Hepatic Surgery"},signatures:"M.B. Jiménez-Castro, M. Elias-Miró, A. Casillas-Ramírez and C. Peralta",authors:[{id:"74565",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Peralta",slug:"carmen-peralta",fullName:"Carmen Peralta"}]},{id:"42362",doi:"10.5772/54222",title:"Anesthetic Considerations for Patients with Liver Disease",slug:"anesthetic-considerations-for-patients-with-liver-disease",totalDownloads:6750,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"hepatic-surgery",title:"Hepatic Surgery",fullTitle:"Hepatic Surgery"},signatures:"Aparna Dalal and John D. Jr. Lang",authors:[{id:"153090",title:"Dr.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Lang",slug:"john-lang",fullName:"John Lang"}]},{id:"28628",doi:"10.5772/30124",title:"The Post-Reperfusion Syndrome (PRS): Diagnosis, Incidence and Management",slug:"the-post-reperfusion-syndrome-prs-diagnosis-incidence-and-management",totalDownloads:3250,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"liver-transplantation-basic-issues",title:"Liver Transplantation",fullTitle:"Liver Transplantation - Basic Issues"},signatures:"Kyota Fukazawa and Ernesto A. Pretto, Jr.",authors:[{id:"126448",title:"Prof.",name:"Ernesto",middleName:null,surname:"Pretto",slug:"ernesto-pretto",fullName:"Ernesto Pretto"},{id:"174429",title:"Prof.",name:"Kyota",middleName:null,surname:"Fukazawa",slug:"kyota-fukazawa",fullName:"Kyota Fukazawa"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"42361",title:"Essential Functional Hepatic and Biliary Anatomy for the Surgeon",slug:"essential-functional-hepatic-and-biliary-anatomy-for-the-surgeon",totalDownloads:6679,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"hepatic-surgery",title:"Hepatic Surgery",fullTitle:"Hepatic Surgery"},signatures:"Ronald S. Chamberlain",authors:[{id:"67289",title:"Prof.",name:"Ronald",middleName:null,surname:"Chamberlain",slug:"ronald-chamberlain",fullName:"Ronald Chamberlain"}]},{id:"61521",title:"Introductory Chapter: Biliary Tree",slug:"introductory-chapter-biliary-tree",totalDownloads:499,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"topics-in-the-surgery-of-the-biliary-tree",title:"Topics in the Surgery of the Biliary Tree",fullTitle:"Topics in the Surgery of the Biliary Tree"},signatures:"Hesham Abdeldayem",authors:[{id:"72383",title:"Prof.",name:"Hesham",middleName:null,surname:"Abdeldayem",slug:"hesham-abdeldayem",fullName:"Hesham Abdeldayem"}]},{id:"42362",title:"Anesthetic Considerations for Patients with Liver Disease",slug:"anesthetic-considerations-for-patients-with-liver-disease",totalDownloads:6750,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"hepatic-surgery",title:"Hepatic Surgery",fullTitle:"Hepatic Surgery"},signatures:"Aparna Dalal and John D. Jr. Lang",authors:[{id:"153090",title:"Dr.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Lang",slug:"john-lang",fullName:"John Lang"}]},{id:"67296",title:"Surgical Treatment of Hepatic Hydatidosis",slug:"surgical-treatment-of-hepatic-hydatidosis",totalDownloads:967,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"liver-disease-and-surgery",title:"Liver Disease and Surgery",fullTitle:"Liver Disease and Surgery"},signatures:"Luis Burgos San Juan, Hector Losada Morales, Jorge Silva Abarca, Cesar Muñoz Castro, Marcelo Klein Diaz and Pablo Guzmán González",authors:null},{id:"62713",title:"Mucinous Cystic Neoplasms of the Liver and Extrahepatic Biliary Tract",slug:"mucinous-cystic-neoplasms-of-the-liver-and-extrahepatic-biliary-tract",totalDownloads:607,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"topics-in-the-surgery-of-the-biliary-tree",title:"Topics in the Surgery of the Biliary Tree",fullTitle:"Topics in the Surgery of the Biliary Tree"},signatures:"Dzeina Mezale, Ilze Strumfa, Andrejs Vanags, Guntis Bahs, Boriss\nStrumfs, Arturs Silovs, Reinis Riekstins and Janis Gardovskis",authors:[{id:"54021",title:"Prof.",name:"Ilze",middleName:null,surname:"Strumfa",slug:"ilze-strumfa",fullName:"Ilze Strumfa"},{id:"160000",title:"Prof.",name:"Janis",middleName:null,surname:"Gardovskis",slug:"janis-gardovskis",fullName:"Janis Gardovskis"},{id:"174929",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrejs",middleName:null,surname:"Vanags",slug:"andrejs-vanags",fullName:"Andrejs Vanags"},{id:"202548",title:"Dr.",name:"Dzeina",middleName:null,surname:"Mezale",slug:"dzeina-mezale",fullName:"Dzeina Mezale"},{id:"205692",title:"MSc.",name:"Boriss",middleName:null,surname:"Strumfs",slug:"boriss-strumfs",fullName:"Boriss Strumfs"},{id:"252855",title:"Dr.",name:"Reinis",middleName:null,surname:"Riekstins",slug:"reinis-riekstins",fullName:"Reinis Riekstins"},{id:"252856",title:"Dr.",name:"Arturs",middleName:null,surname:"Silovs",slug:"arturs-silovs",fullName:"Arturs Silovs"}]},{id:"68284",title:"Challenging Issues in Hepatic Adenoma",slug:"challenging-issues-in-hepatic-adenoma",totalDownloads:652,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"liver-disease-and-surgery",title:"Liver Disease and Surgery",fullTitle:"Liver Disease and Surgery"},signatures:"Mirela Patricia Sîrbu Boeți, Beatrice Tivadar, Ioana G. Lupescu, Vlad Herlea, Mirela Boroș, Dana Tomescu and Vladislav Brașoveanu",authors:null},{id:"61361",title:"Biliary Tract Injuries",slug:"biliary-tract-injuries",totalDownloads:648,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"topics-in-the-surgery-of-the-biliary-tree",title:"Topics in the Surgery of the Biliary Tree",fullTitle:"Topics in the Surgery of the Biliary Tree"},signatures:"Marko Zelic, Veronika Lekic, Edo Bazdulj and Goran Hauser",authors:[{id:"236604",title:"Prof.",name:"Marko",middleName:null,surname:"Zelic",slug:"marko-zelic",fullName:"Marko Zelic"},{id:"238892",title:"Dr.",name:"Veronika",middleName:null,surname:"Lekic",slug:"veronika-lekic",fullName:"Veronika Lekic"},{id:"238896",title:"Dr.",name:"Edo",middleName:null,surname:"Bazdulj",slug:"edo-bazdulj",fullName:"Edo Bazdulj"},{id:"238898",title:"Dr.",name:"Goran",middleName:null,surname:"Hauser",slug:"goran-hauser",fullName:"Goran Hauser"}]},{id:"42374",title:"Hepatic Trauma",slug:"hepatic-trauma",totalDownloads:3865,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"hepatic-surgery",title:"Hepatic Surgery",fullTitle:"Hepatic Surgery"},signatures:"Bilal O. Al-Jiffry and Owaid AlMalki",authors:[{id:"153686",title:"Dr.",name:"Bilal",middleName:null,surname:"Aljiffry",slug:"bilal-aljiffry",fullName:"Bilal Aljiffry"},{id:"165263",title:"Dr.",name:"Owaid",middleName:null,surname:"Almalki",slug:"owaid-almalki",fullName:"Owaid Almalki"}]},{id:"67050",title:"Non-alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease and Surgery",slug:"non-alcoholic-fatty-liver-disease-and-surgery",totalDownloads:404,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"liver-disease-and-surgery",title:"Liver Disease and Surgery",fullTitle:"Liver Disease and Surgery"},signatures:"Monjur Ahmed",authors:[{id:"206355",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Monjur",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"monjur-ahmed",fullName:"Monjur Ahmed"}]},{id:"28623",title:"Liver Transplantation for Hepatocellular Carcinoma (Hcc)",slug:"liver-transplantation-for-hepatocellular-carcinoma-hcc-",totalDownloads:5284,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"liver-transplantation-basic-issues",title:"Liver Transplantation",fullTitle:"Liver Transplantation - Basic Issues"},signatures:"Alejandro Mejia, Hector Nazario and Parvez Mantry",authors:[{id:"84140",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Mejia",slug:"alejandro-mejia",fullName:"Alejandro Mejia"},{id:"100406",title:"Dr.",name:"Parvez",middleName:"S",surname:"Mantry",slug:"parvez-mantry",fullName:"Parvez Mantry"},{id:"100413",title:"Dr.",name:"Hector",middleName:null,surname:"Nazario",slug:"hector-nazario",fullName:"Hector Nazario"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"hepatic-surgery",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/books/primates/white-matter-tracts-visualized-by-parvalbumin-in-nonhuman-primates",hash:"",query:{},params:{book:"primates",chapter:"white-matter-tracts-visualized-by-parvalbumin-in-nonhuman-primates"},fullPath:"/books/primates/white-matter-tracts-visualized-by-parvalbumin-in-nonhuman-primates",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()