Open access peer-reviewed chapter
By Sangwoo Shin and Albert S. Kim
Submitted: April 19th 2017Reviewed: October 28th 2017Published: March 28th 2018
DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.72044
Downloaded: 1240
Forward osmosis, or simply, osmosis, refers to a process by which a solvent moves across a semipermeable membrane due to the difference in the solute concentration established across the membrane. Because of its spontaneous nature, forward osmosis has received immense attention during the last few decades, particularly for its diverse applications, which include municipal wastewater treatment, seawater desalination, membrane bioreactor, potable water purification, food processing, drug delivery, energy generation, and so forth. Of many parameters that determine the performance of the forward osmosis process, the most fundamental factor that impacts performance is temperature. Considering the importance of the temperature on the forward osmosis process, there have been only a limited number of studies about the effect of temperature on the osmosis-driven process. In this chapter, we discuss the temperature effect on the forward osmosis process from two main aspects. First, we provide an extensive and in-depth survey on the currently available studies related to the anisothermal osmosis phenomena. Second, we then discuss a state-of-the-art theoretical framework that describes the anisothermal forward osmosis process that may shed light on achieving an enhanced performance via temperature control.
Osmosis, one of the most fundamental transport processes responsible for homeostasis in living organisms, has a rich history of applications—ranging from food preservation to water treatment and drug delivery. Osmosis occurs when a solute concentration difference is established across a semipermeable membrane. Due to the chemical potential imbalance, the water molecules will spontaneously migrate across the membrane toward the higher solute concentration side. Such a process has been regarded as one of the most central mechanisms that dictates the membrane-based water treatment technologies. The most widely utilized process, in our opinion, is reverse osmosis (RO) for solute removal, which requires an external hydraulic pressure to overcome the osmotic pressure difference across the membrane. In contrast to RO, the process that exploits the spontaneous transport of solvent molecules driven by the osmotic phenomenon is referred to as forward osmosis (FO) or direct osmosis (DO), which is, in principle, the same as the original osmosis.
FO was first conceptualized by Batchelder as a means for water treatment since the 1960s [1]. Since then, there has been a growing interest in applying FO to wastewater treatment technologies either as a stand-alone or in combination with other technologies such as membrane distillation, thermal distillation, or reverses osmosis [2]. Particularly, FO has been utilized in space stations for wastewater reclamation due to its excellent long-term stability and low energy consumption [3, 4]. Not limited to wastewater treatment, FO has also been explored extensively for many useful applications such as seawater desalination [5, 6, 7], portable hydration bags [8], food processing [9, 10, 11], pharmaceutical systems [12, 13, 14], and energy conversion [15, 16].
Unlike RO, FO is purely an osmosis-driven process, which is thermodynamically spontaneous. The osmotic pressure difference
for weakly interacting molecules, where
In the FO process, the solvent (water) transport is driven solely by osmotic pressure difference without the need of any external hydrostatic pressure, allowing for lower energy consumption compared to RO. To extract water from the feed solution, the osmotic pressure at the opposite side of the membrane must be higher, which requires a highly concentrated solution; this concentrated solution is typically referred to as the draw solution. Draw solutes need to be inert and easily removable. A semipermeable membrane separates the feed solution and the concentrated draw solution where the chemical potential difference allows the water to flow through the membrane while leaving behind the solutes in the feed stream. Regions of high and low solute concentrations refer to those of low and high solvent chemical potentials, respectively. As the semipermeable membrane restricts the solute transport and maintains chemical potential differences of both solute and solvent, water migrates from its high solvent chemical-potential region (i.e., of low solute concentration) to low solvent chemical-potential region (i.e., of high solute concentration). Such a water transport leads to dilution of the draw solution where the diluted draw solution can be further recycled such that the initial solute concentration is recovered. Particularly for desalination applications, the solutes in the draw solution (osmotic agent or draw solutes) are chosen to be inert, nontoxic, and easily removed to obtain the desalinated water with ease. One example includes
The water flux across the membrane results in concentration of the feed solution and dilution of the draw solution since the membrane mainly allows passage of water molecules. This phenomenon, referred to as concentration polarization (CP), has an adverse impact on the efficacy of the FO process since such an effect reduces the effective osmotic pressure difference across the membrane, thus hindering water transport.
CP is highly influenced by the morphology of the membranes. The membranes used in the FO process consist of a thin, dense layer that rejects the solutes (active layer) followed by a coarse, thick porous layer (support layer or porous substrate) to reinforce the mechanical stability against fluid pressure and shear. This configuration makes the membrane asymmetric in which the orientation of the membrane with respect to the direction of the water flux (i.e., from low to high osmotic pressure) leads to significantly different transport dynamics [20].
Typically in the FO process, the active layer is placed against the feed stream in order to minimize fouling since the support layer is more susceptible to colloidal fouling due to the large pores. This configuration is called FO mode, as shown in Figure 1(a). However, the downside of placing it in this way is that there is a significant dilutive internal concentration polarization (ICP) in the thick porous substrate. This is because the support layer is in contact with the concentrated draw solution hindering the solute diffusion, which significantly reduces the water flux (Figure 1(a)).
Influence of CP on the osmotic pressure distribution in the FO process. The membrane is configured in (a) FO mode and (b) PRO mode.
In contrast, when the active layer is placed against the draw stream, one can expect a higher water flux since this configuration can avoid the dilutive ICP at the expense of accelerated membrane fouling. This configuration is called the pressure-retarded osmosis (PRO) mode, as shown in Figure 1(b), typically realized in standard PRO systems. To avoid any confusion, we will refer to the membrane configuration in which the active layer is placed against the feed solution as the
The first quantitative experiments on temperature-dependent osmosis go back almost a century ago [21]. Traxler demonstrated the osmosis of pyridine by using a thin rubber sheet as a semipermeable membrane within a uniform system temperature, ranging from 5 to 85°C (Figure 2(a)). He showed that as the temperature is increased, the transport of pyridine across the membrane is also increased (Figure 2(b)). In this chapter, such a uniform temperature will be refered to as ‘system temperature’ indicating the absence of local or transmembrane temperature gradient.
The first quantitative experiments reported on the effect of temperature on the osmosis phenomenon. (a) A schematic of the experimental setup that allows temperature control via a thermostat. (b) Transport of pyridine across a rubber membrane under various temperature conditions. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [
From the van’t Hoff equation, the osmotic pressure is directly proportional to the system temperature, which is an indispensable factor for the FO process. However, temperature not only influences the osmotic pressure but also impacts many other key properties that are important to the transport process such as viscosity, diffusivity, solubility, density, and so forth. Such a change in the properties not only influences the water flux but also alters the solute rejection/diffusion and membrane fouling. In this section, we provide a summary of how the system temperature influences the water transport, solute rejection, and membrane fouling. We note that the experimental studies that will be covered in the following sections employ a circulating crossflow type setup (in contrast to a dead-end type as seen in Traxler’s experiments in Figure 2).
The most direct consequence of raising the system temperature is the increased water flux across the membrane due to lowered water viscosity and increased water diffusivity, which effectively increases the water permeability across the membrane. Since the transport of water through the active layer of the membrane follows the solution-diffusion mechanism [22], it is commonly believed (and also observed) that the diffusivity
On the basis of our survey, the available literature related to the temperature-dependent FO reported increased water flux with temperature. Table 1 provides a summary of experimental conditions and resulting water flux from the available literature [23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31]. Here, we define a new quantity to indicate how much solvent flux increases with respect to the system temperature, as indicated in the last column of Table 1:
| Reference | Feed solution (concentration) | Draw solution (concentration) | Membrane1 | Mode2 | Temperature (°C) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| [25] | Tomato juice (0.13 M) | NaCl (3.9 M) | PA | 26–58 | 1.5 | 0.030 | |
| [26] | NaCl (0–86 mM) | KCl (0.5–3 M) | CT | FO | 25–45 | 19 | 0.43 |
| [27] | Deionized water | NaCl (0.5 M) | CT | 20–40 | 5.5 | 0.14 | |
| PA | 17 | 0.49 | |||||
| [23] | Sucrose (0–1.65 M) | NaCl (2–4 M) | CT | 20–30 | 24 | 0.91 | |
| Sucrose (0–0.7 M) | NaCl (4 M) | PA | 2.5 | 0.15 | |||
| [28] | NaCl (0.1 M) | NaCl (1 M) | CT | PRO | 20–40 | 11 | 0.89 |
| FO | 9.4 | 0.59 | |||||
| [29] | NaCl (0–1 M) | NaCl (1.5 M) | CT | PRO | 20–40 | 43 | 1.4 |
| FO | 18 | 0.63 | |||||
| [24] | NaCl (60 mM) | CT | 25–45 | 15 | 0.35 | ||
| [30] | NaCl (0.2–0.5 M) | CE | PRO | 30–50 | 5.4 | 0.10 | |
| [31] | Deionized water | NaCl (1.2 M) | CT | FO | 20–30 | 14 | 0.61 |
A summary of influence of temperature on the water flux.
PA: polyamide; CT: cellulose triacetate; CE: cellulose ester
FO mode: active layer placed against feed solution; PRO mode: active layer placed against draw solution
where
McCutcheon and Elimelech were the first to study the influence of temperature on the CP phenomena [29]. Raising the temperature increases the water flux because of the decreased water viscosity in solutions (and/or solubility) and increased water solubility and diffusivity within the membrane. At the same time, however, the higher flux also increases both the ICP and ECP, which essentially limit the water flux as a feedback hindrance. Therefore, such a self-limiting behavior driven by two counteracting effects leads to the fact that the temperature has a “modest” effect on the water flux at high water flux conditions [29]. This self-hindering effect of the solvent flux is unavoidable in most membrane separation processes. It is similar to the fact that, in RO, applying high pressure initiates increasing permeate flux, which will eventually bring more solutes from the bulk phase to the membrane surface, enhancing the CP. Therefore, additional gain of the RO permeate flux is not as much as anticipated when the pressure is increased.
The change in the temperature influences the CP phenomena in different ways depending on the orientation of the membrane. This is because the formation of the ICP, which is the most critical factor that limits the driving force, is dependent on the membrane configurations. In the PRO mode, the concentrative ICP is developed in the feed side (see Figure 1(b)). By reducing the ICP using deionized water as the feed, the water flux was shown to be highly dependent on the temperature, confirming the impact of ICP on the FO process [29].
In the presence of solutes in the feed side so that the ICP is present, however, the water flux was shown to be almost insensitive to the temperature, at least in the operating temperature range (20–40°C). This behavior is attributed to the coupled interaction between ICP and ECP. Although the increased solute diffusion at higher temperature mitigates the concentrative ICP in the support layer so that the water flux can be increased, such an increased water flux carries more solutes from the feed bulk phase to the vicinity of the support layer surface and enhances the dilutive ECP, thereby reducing the osmotic driving force. Therefore, the two opposing effects on the water transport effectively limit the enhancement of the water flux such that the temperature has a marginal effect on the overall water flux. If both water and solute diffusivities increase in a similar behavior, the net diffusive transport must be more or less the same.
In the FO mode, however, the water flux was shown to be significantly influenced by the temperature. Overall, the water flux was observed to be lower than the PRO mode due to the presence of the dilutive ICP. This was proven mathematically using the method of proof by contradiction [32]. Such a low water flux effectively suppresses the extent of concentrative ECP in the feed side. Also, the influence of concentrative ECP on the water flux is less important than the dilutive ECP in the draw solution side because the initial solute concentration in the bulk phase is much lower at the feed solution than the draw solution. This implies that the ECP has a minor effect on the driving force in the FO mode. Therefore, when the membrane is placed in the FO mode, the water flux is significantly influenced by the temperature since the ICP is the only major factor that determines the driving force.
One assumption McCutcheon and Elimelech had made while analyzing their data were the insignificant solute diffusion across the membrane [29], which otherwise leads to further ICP. Obviously, commercially available membranes are known to permit diffusion of the solutes, which can impact the formation of the CP effect. Since the solute diffusion is also sensitive to the temperature, the transmembrane solute flux should also lead to a change in the water flux. We discuss the effect of temperature on the solute diffusion and rejection in the following section.
It is of general consensus that the transmembrane solute diffusion increases with temperature. A number of groups have recently investigated experimentally the temperature effect on the transmembrane solute diffusion and the solute rejection [26, 27, 28].
Xie et al. recognized that the effective size of the solute molecules was the most important parameter for the transmembrane solute diffusion [27], which was predicted theoretically using the integral equation theory [33]. Hydration of charged organic solutes results in an increase in the effective solute size, which directly influences the solute diffusion and rejection rate, as it was well understood that the rejection of the charged organic solutes would be much higher than the neutral organic solutes. In this regard, neutral solutes were more likely to diffuse across the pores than the charged solutes in both the cellulose triacetate membranes and polyamide membranes. This implies that increasing the temperature leads to higher solute diffusion due to the increased solute diffusivity. Moreover, increasing the temperature leads to faster dissolution of the solutes into the membrane such that even hydrophobic neutral solutes absorb into the membrane at an order of magnitude higher rate at elevated temperatures.
Notably, the ratio between the water flux
Meanwhile, You et al. showed that the transmembrane solute diffusion was also shown to be dependent on the membrane orientation regardless of the temperature in which the PRO mode was shown to exhibit higher solute flux across the membrane than the FO mode, which is similar to the behavior of the water flux [28].
Membrane scaling occurs when the solute concentration is high enough to initiate precipitation. This is directly related to solute rejection and the CP phenomena, implying that membrane scaling should also be temperature-dependent.
Zhao and Zou studied how the temperature influences the membrane scaling over time, which is important in long-term operations [24]. Due to the fast water flux at elevated temperature, increase in the final concentration of the feed solution (i.e., concentration after 28 hours of running) was accelerated by more than 100% when the temperature was raised from 25 to 45°C, which led to faster membrane scaling. Concentrative polarization is also enhanced when the water flux is increased, which results in an accelerated membrane scaling. This was confirmed by directly visualizing the fouled membrane by using a scanning electron microscope (Figure 3(a)–(d)) and also by measuring the decrease in flow rate over time (Figure 3(e)), showing faster decline of water flux over time at elevated temperatures due to the scaling. In addition to higher solute concentration near the membrane surface driven by the temperature-enhanced solvent flux, the changes in solubility limits for inorganic species may contribute to the accelerated fouling behavior.
Temperature-dependent membrane fouling and associated water flux decline. (a–d) Scanning electron microscope images of the (a) virgin and (b–d) fouled membranes at various temperatures; (b)
One step further, we can also consider a case where the temperature is unevenly distributed across the membrane. In such a case, the temperature gradient may allow independent control of transport on either side of the membrane. In practice, temperature gradients can occur frequently; temperature of the feed solution can increase due to the heat released from the hydraulic pumping or when the solution is pretreated. Likewise, the temperature of the draw solution may change due to the post-treatment process for recovery and recycling of draw solutes such as thermal and membrane distillation. Since heating only on one side of the solution requires lower energy than heating up the entire system, imposing a temperature gradient across the membrane may offer an energy-efficient control over the osmotic phenomena.
In the presence of a temperature gradient, van’t Hoff’s law (of Eq. (1)) cannot be used directly to calculate the osmotic pressure difference since it relies on the assumption of the constant system temperature. A full theory accounting for the temperature gradient in osmosis may result in highly nonlinear effects on the FO performance. Furthermore, the temperature gradient may provide an additional complexity to the coupled mass and heat transfer phenomena within the membrane. In this section, we provide a summary of how the temperature difference between the feed and the draw solution influences the FO performance, including the water transport and solute diffusion/rejection.
Although the temperature dependence on the water flux shows an agreeable consensus as shown in Table 1, the anisotropic temperature effect is shown to differ largely across various studies. When the temperature on either side of the solutions is increased, the water flux becomes higher than that at the base temperature, but lower than when the temperatures of both sides of the solutions are increased. It is, however, left unclear which side of the solution has more influence on the FO process when heated as this does not have an agreeable consensus. Table 2 provides a summary of the effect of temperature difference on the FO process under various experimental parameters. For simplicity, we define
| Reference | Feed solution | Draw solution | Membrane | Mode | Temperature (°C) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| [10] | Pineapple juice (0.37 M) | Sucrose (40 wt%)+NaCl(12 wt%) | CT | 25–45 | 1.2 | 0.045 | ||
| [26] | NaCl (0–86 mM) | KCl (0.5–3 M) | CT | FO | 25–45 | 19 | 0.048 | 0.12 |
| [27] | Deionized water | NaCl (0.5 M) | CT | 20–40 | 5.5 | 0.045 | 0.065 | |
| PA | 17 | 0.125 | 0.175 | |||||
| [35] | NaCl (0–0.5 M) | NH4HCO3 (1–4 M) | CT | PRO | 25–45 | 2.5 | 0.028 | |
| FO | 1.9 | 0.018 | ||||||
| [28] | NaCl (0.1 M) | NaCl (1 M) | CT | PRO | 20–40 | 11 | 0.54 | 0.19 |
| FO | 9.4 | 0.41 | 0.18 | |||||
| [36] | Anthocyanin (24 | NaCl (6 M) | CT | PRO | 25–40 | 4.9 | 0.013 | |
| FO | 13 | 0.53 | ||||||
| [31] | Deionized water | NaCl (1.2 M) | CT | FO | 20–30 | 14 | 0.22 | 0.54 |
A summary of influence of temperature difference on the water flux.
and
as included on the right-hand side of Table 2. Eqs. (3) and (4) refer to the water flux increase per temperature change when the
In general, regardless of either the feed or draw, raising the temperature on either side leads to increase in both the water flux and the solute flux. Xie et al. stated that raising the feed solution temperature leads to enhanced diffusivity of the water molecules, whereas raising the draw solution temperature leads to decreased draw solution viscosity and increased draw solute diffusivity, both of which lead to increased water flux and reverse solute flux [27]. However, the degree to which the water flux and solute flux are increased varies across the literature [10, 26, 27, 28, 31, 35, 36] (see Table 2).
Phuntsho et al. showed that increasing the
You et al. showed, however, that regardless of the membrane orientation, the water flux increased more when the
Interestingly, in Nayak and Rastogi’s study [36], the water flux in the FO mode was shown to be higher than the water flux in the PRO mode particularly when the molecular size of the feed solute is large enough such that the external concentration polarization cannot be ignored. They also showed that this is indeed true for concentrating anthocyanin, which is a large sugar molecule. In their work, the water flux in the FO mode was measured to be 260% higher than that in the PRO mode.
As mentioned in the preceding section, Xie et al. showed that the neutral solutes are more likely to diffuse through the membrane than the charged ones due to their smaller hydrodynamic size [27]. In this sense, transmembrane temperature differences barely influenced the solute rejection rate for the
To the best of our knowledge, effects of temperature and its gradient on the osmosis phenomena and FO processes have been investigated only phenomenologically without fundamental understanding. The theoretical research is currently in a burgeoning state in explaining the transmembrane temperature gradient effect on the FO performance. In this section, we first briefly review the conventional FO theories [37, 38] based on the solution-diffusion model and van’t Hoff’s law. Then, we revisit statistical mechanics to identify the baseline of the osmosis-diffusion theories, where the isothermal condition was first applied. We then develop a new, general theoretical framework on which FO processes can be better understood under the influence of the system temperature, temperature gradient, and chemical potentials.
The solution-diffusion model is widely used to describe the FO process, which was originally developed by Lonsdale et al. to explain the RO phenomena using isothermal-isobaric ensemble [39]. In the model, the chemical potential of water is represented as a function of temperature, pressure, and solute concentration, i.e.
where the integration is over the membrane region. From the basic thermodynamic relationship,
is used where
and hence we derive
which becomes
where
where
Figure 4(a) shows a schematic representing the PRO and FO modes altogether. Concentrations in the PRO and FO modes are denoted as
A schematic representation of (a) concentration polarization across a skinned membrane during FO process in the PRO and FO modes, represented using the solid and dashed lines, respectively and (b) arbitrary temperature profile increasing from the active layer to the porous substrate.
In the PRO mode, the solvent flux (in magnitude) is
where
and that in the porous substrate:
In a steady state,
and
respectively, where
is interpreted as the characteristic mass transfer resistance, proposed by Lee et al. [37]. Following the convention of standard mass transfer theory,
where
is an integer to toggle between the two modes. Any theoretical development can be initiated from Eq. (17) to consider universally both the FO and PRO modes, and then a proper value of
In the theory, there are several key assumptions during derivations of Eqs. (14) and (15). These assumptions are summarized in the following for the PRO mode for simplicity, but conceptually are identical to those in the FO mode.
1. Mass transfer phenomena are described using the solution-diffusion model in which the solvent and solute transport are proportional to the transmembrane differences in the osmotic pressures and solute concentrations, respectively [39]. If one sees these combined phenomena as diffusion, the solvent transport can be treated as semibarometric diffusion. In other words, under the influence of pressure, the solute transport can be treated as Fickian diffusion, driven by the concentration gradient. In a universal view, the net driving forces of the solvent and solutes are their chemical potential differences.
2. In the flux equations,
3. The osmotic pressure is presumed to be linear with the solute concentration
using
4. Rigorously saying, mass transport phenomena are assumed to be in a steady state and equilibrium thermodynamics are used to explain the filtration phenomena. Although the FO phenomenon occurs in an open system, transient behavior is barely described in the literature.
5. In the porous substrate, the bulk porosity is assumed to be uniform, which implies isotropic pore spaces. Moreover, the interfacial porosity between the active and porous layers is assumed to be equal to the bulk porosity. An in-depth discussion on the interfacial porosity can be found elsewhere [40]. In the same vein, the tortuosity is a characteristic geometric constant of the substrate, which is hard to measure independently. More importantly, tortuosity is included in the definition of the structural parameter
6. The solute diffusivity
7. Finally, temperatures of the draw and the feed streams are assumed equal although hydraulic and thermal conditions of these two streams can be independently controlled. As a consequence, heat transfer across the membrane is barely discussed in the literature.
In practice, solvent and solute permeability
This chapter aims to explain how the temperature across the FO membrane, which consists of the active and porous layers, may affect the performance of the mass transfer at the level of statistical physics. The transmembrane temperature gradient prevents from using the abovementioned assumptions and approximations, which are widely used in the FO analysis. First, the SD model is purely based on isothermal-isobaric equilibrium in a closed system. Second, the external concentration polarizations in the draw and feed sides cannot be neglected at the same level because the temperature gradient causes a viscosity difference across the membrane. Third, the weighting factor connecting
Figure 4(b) shows an arbitrary temperature profile across the FO membrane, increasing from the active layer side to the porous layer side. In bulk phases of the active and porous sides, temperatures are maintained at
where subscripts BA and BP indicate bulk phases in the active and porous layer sides, respectively, and AL and PL mean the active layer and porous layer, respectively. The net temperature difference across the membrane is
Note that Eq. (24) assumes that the heat transfer is solely based on thermal conduction without thermal convection, that is, transfer rate of heat by solvent flux. In the FO process with the transmembrane thermal gradient, Eqs. (21) and (22) should be revised as
where
where
This heat balance analysis is very similar to that of membrane distillation [43, 44], but the FO process does not have any solvent phase transition so that the latent heat is not considered.
In statistical mechanics, Gibbs energy is the master function of the isothermal-isobaric ensemble. Consider a box in which two regions are separated by a semipermeable membrane. In equilibrium, the maximum entropy condition requires that the chemical potential divided by the temperature should be constant, i.e.
which converts to the constant chemical potential for the isothermal environment, i.e.
which can perhaps be extended intuitively to
where
Fick’s law is a phenomenological equation based on experimental observations. The equation states that the diffusive flux
In the dilute limit, the diffusivity is independent of concentration
where
In the presence of the spatial variation of
Thus, substitution of the Stokes-Einstein diffusivity into Eq. (36) gives
which is valid if the solvent viscosity
where one can write the chemical potential gradient as
Substitution of Eq. (39) into (38) gives
which defines the thermal diffusion coefficient
In the conventional isothermal theory of FO, one can write a conceptual relationship between the water flux and the transmembrane osmotic pressure difference as [33]
which clearly indicates that
If we write intuitively the anisothermal osmotic pressure as
across the membrane with
As both
so that both the solvent and solute fluxes increase with the mean temperature
On the basis of our investigation, temperature effects on the osmotic phenomena are not as simple as expected from the linear van’t Hoff equation, but highly correlated through the temperature-dependent material constants of solvent
This chapter provides a comprehensive review on the effect of temperature on the FO process. Although the motivation for studying the temperature effect comes from the fact that osmosis is a thermodynamically spontaneous process, changing the system temperature either locally or globally can offer more effective ways of engineering the FO process with lower energy consumption. However, as evidenced by the scattered data across the literature and a lack of theoretical descriptions, more robust and systematic studies are warranted for deeper understanding of the phenomena. For example, most of the temperature-dependent FO studies relate the changes in the water and the solute flux to the change in the physical properties of the bulk solution only, neglecting any changes in the membrane properties such as water permeability
© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
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