Definition of design variables.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"},{slug:"intechopen-s-chapter-awarded-the-guenther-von-pannewitz-preis-2020-20200715",title:"IntechOpen's Chapter Awarded the Günther-von-Pannewitz-Preis 2020"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1746",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Renal Failure - The Facts",title:"Renal Failure",subtitle:"The Facts",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'The book "Renal Failure - The Facts" consists of some facts about diagnosis, etiopathogenis and treatment of acute and chronic renal failure. 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Ersen Balcioglu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7615.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"198122",title:"Dr.",name:"Hayri Baytan",middleName:null,surname:"Ozmen",slug:"hayri-baytan-ozmen",fullName:"Hayri Baytan Ozmen"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"6051",leadTitle:null,title:"Financial Management from an Emerging Market Perspective",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'One of the main reasons to name this book as Financial Management from an Emerging Market Perspective is to show the main differences of financial theory and practice in emerging markets other than the developed ones. Our many years of learning, teaching, and consulting experience have taught us that the theory of finance differs in developed and emerging markets. It is a well-known fact that emerging markets do not always share the same financial management problems with the developed ones. This book intends to show these differences, which could be traced to several characteristics unique to emerging markets, and these unique characteristics could generate a different view of finance theory in a different manner. As a consequence, different financial decisions, arrangements, institutions, and practices may evolve in emerging markets over time. The purpose of this book is to provide practitioners and academicians with a working knowledge of the different financial management applications and their use in an emerging market setting. Six main topics regarding the financial management applications in emerging markets are covered, and the context of these topics are "Capital Structure," "Market Efficiency and Market Models," "Merger and Acquisitions and Corporate Governance," "Working Capital Management," "Financial Economics and Digital Currency," and "Real Estate and Health Finance."',isbn:"978-953-51-3737-5",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3736-8",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4019-1",doi:"10.5772/67898",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"financial-management-from-an-emerging-market-perspective",numberOfPages:332,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"48fd9d56d82da76c785db97e23ae398e",bookSignature:"Guray Kucukkocaoglu and Soner Gokten",publishedDate:"January 17th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6051.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:19970,numberOfWosCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitations:14,numberOfDimensionsCitations:19,numberOfTotalCitations:36,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 20th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 20th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 22nd 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 22nd 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 22nd 2017",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"4 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"70354",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Soner",middleName:null,surname:"Gokten",slug:"soner-gokten",fullName:"Soner Gokten",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/70354/images/2275_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Gokten is an Assistant Professor at Department of Management - Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Baskent University, Ankara, Turkey. He received his BSBA form Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences-Baskent University-Ankara, Turkey, MBA Finance and Ph.D. in Accounting and Finance degrees from Graduate School of Social Sciences-Gazi University, Ankara Turkey. He has published several articles, books, book chapters and conference proceedings. 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Dr. Kucukkocaoglu received his BSBA and MBA Finance degrees form Harmon College of Business Administration-Central Missouri State University, USA, Ph.D. degree from Faculty of Political Sciences-Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey. He has published a number of papers and is serving as a referee for national and international journals. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"62257",title:"Design Optimization of Reinforced Ordinary and High-Strength Concrete Beams with Eurocode2 (EC-2)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78734",slug:"design-optimization-of-reinforced-ordinary-and-high-strength-concrete-beams-with-eurocode2-ec-2-",body:'Structural elements with T-shaped sections are frequently used in industrial construction. They are used for repeated and large structures because they are cost effective when using the optimum cost design model which is of great value for designers and engineers. Compression reinforcement is not often required when designing the T-beams sections. One of the great advantages of T-beams sections is the economy in the amount of steel needed for reinforcement. The objective function is usually simplified to represent the weight, disregarding the costs of shaping and the construction details. However, the economy aspects in terms of costs and gain achieved should be the area where scope exists for extending the research works [1, 2, 3, 4].
Recent developments in the technology of materials have led to the use of the high-strength concrete (HSC); this is mainly due to its efficiency and economy. The reduction in the quantities of construction materials has enabled both a gain in weight reduction and in the foundation’s cost. HSC has a high compressive strength in the range of 55–90 MPa; it not only has the advantage of reducing member size and story height, but also the volume of concrete and the area of formwork. In terms of the amount of steel reinforcement, there is a substantial difference between the normal-strength concrete structures compared to high-strength concrete structures [5, 6]. In this chapter, not only does it presents the minimum weight design but it presents a detailed objective function that considers the ratio cost not the absolute cost with sensitivity analysis of this cost ratio as well. It considers both shaping and material costs. The generalized reduced gradient (GRG) method is used to solve nonlinear programming problems. It is a very reliable and robust algorithm; also, various numerical methods have been used in engineering optimization [7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12].
This work shows a method for minimizing separately the cost and weight of reinforced ordinary and high-strength concrete (HSC) T-beams at the limit state according to Eurocode2 (EC-2). The first objective function includes the costs of concrete, steel and formwork, whereas the second objective function represents the weight of the T-beam; all the constraints functions are set to meet the ultimate strength and serviceability requirements of Eurocode2 and current practices rules. The optimization process is developed through the use of the generalized reduced gradient algorithm. Two example problems are considered in order to illustrate the applicability of the proposed design model and solution methodology. It is concluded that this approach is economically more effective compared to conventional design methods applied by designers and engineers and can be extended to deal with other sections without major alterations.
In accordance with EC-2 [13], the assumptions used at the limit state for the typical reinforced T-beam-cross section are, respectively, illustrated in Figure 1(a)–(c).
(a) Typical T-beam cross section; (b) strains at ultimate limit state and (c) stresses at ultimate limit state.
In the linear strain diagram of Figure 1b, the symbols εs and εcu3 designate steel strain and the ultimate strain for the rectangular stress distribution compressive concrete design stress–strain relation. The parameter α represents the relative depth of the compressive concrete zone and the plastic neutral axis is located at the distance αd from the upper fiber for the ultimate limit state design, and x is the depth of elastic neutral axis for serviceability limit state design. In the assumed uniformly distributed stress diagram of Figure 1c, fcd is the design value of concrete compressive strength, γc is the partial safety factor for concrete and fck is the characteristic compressive cylinder strength of ordinary or HSC at 28 days. In accordance with EC-2, the possibility of working with rectangular stress distribution is offered. This requires the introduction of a factor λ for the depth of the compression zone and a factor η for the design strength. The λ and η factors are both linearly dependent on the characteristic strength fck in accordance with the following Equations [13]:
with 50 ≤ fck ≤ 90 MPa and λ = 0.8,η = 1.0 for fck ≤ 50 MPa.
Fc and Fs denote the resultants of internal forces in the HSC section and reinforcing steel, respectively.
The design yield strength of steel reinforcement is fyd = fyk/γs where fyk is the characteristic elastic limit of steel and γs is the partial safety factor. In addition, the steel strain is considered unlimited in accordance with the Eurocode2 provisions. In this chapter, for an optimal use of steel, the strain must always be greater or equal to elastic limit strain, εyd = fyd/Es where Es represents the elasticity modulus for steel.
The design variables selected for the optimization are presented in Table 1.
Design variables | Defined variables |
---|---|
b | Effective width of compressive flange |
bw | Web width |
h | Total depth |
d | Effective depth |
hf | Flange depth |
As | Area of tension reinforcement |
α | Relative depth of compressive concrete zone |
Definition of design variables.
The objective function to be minimized in the optimization problems is the total cost of construction material per unit length of the beam. This function can be defined as:
Thus, the cost function to be minimized can be written as follows:
The values of the cost ratios Cs/Cc and Cf/Cc vary from one country to another and may eventually vary from one region to another for certain countries [14, 15].
The weight function to be minimized can be written as follows:
where
ρ is the density of the reinforced concrete T-beams and W is the unit weight per unit length of the reinforced concrete T- beams.
Behavior constraints:
(external moment ≤ resisting moment of the cross-section)
(internal force equilibrium)
(minimum steel percentage)
(maximum steel percentage)
In Eqs. (7) and (8) above, it is assumed that the neutral axis position is under the beam flange which ensures that the section behaves as the T-beam section shown in Figure 1a.
Conditions on strain compatibility in steel:
(In the case of Pivot B, optimal use of steel requires that strains in steel must be limited to plastic region at the ultimate limit state (ULS).)
(Compression reinforcement is not required.)
b.Shear strength constraint:
(external shear force ≤ resisting shear force)
c.Deflection constraint:
d.Geometric design variable constraints including rules of current practice:
where:
μlimit is the limit value of the reduced moment.
θ is the angle between concrete compression struts and the main chord
ν1 is a nondimensional coefficient, ν1 = 0.60(1-fck/250);
z is the lever arm, z = 0.9d;
hfmin is the minimum depth of flange.
The optimum cost design of reinforced concrete T-beams under the limit state can be stated as follows:
For given material properties, loading data and constant parameters, find the design variables defined in Table 1 that minimize the cost function defined in Eq. (4) subjected to the design constraints given in Eq. (6) through Eq. (23).
Find the design variables that minimize total weight per unit length defined in Eq. (5), subjected to the design constraints given in Eq. (6) through Eq. (23).
The objective function Eq. (4), the objective function Eq. (5) and the constraints equations, Eq.(6) through Eq.(23), together form a nonlinear optimization problem. The reasons for the nonlinearity of this optimization problem are essentially due to the expressions of the cross-sectional area, bending moment capacity and other constraints equations. Both the objective function and the constraint functions are nonlinear in terms of the design variables. In order to solve this nonlinear optimization problem, the generalized reduced gradient (GRG) algorithm is used. This algorithm was first developed in late 1960 by Jean Abadie [16] as an extension of the reduced gradient method and then since has been refined by several other researchers [17, 18]. GRG nonlinear should be selected if any of the equations involving decision variables or constraints is nonlinear.
Microsoft Excel, beginning with version 3.0 in 1991, incorporates an NLP solver that operates on values and formulas of a spreadsheet model. Version 4.0 and later include LP solver and mixed-integer programming (MIP) capability for both linear and nonlinear problems. The Microsoft Office Excel Solver tool uses several algorithms to find optimal solutions. The GRG nonlinear solving method for nonlinear optimization uses the Generalized Reduced Gradient code. The Simplex LP solving method for linear programming uses the Simplex and dual Simplex method. The Evolutionary solving method for non-smooth optimization uses a variety of genetic algorithm and local search methods. The user specifies a set of cell addresses to be independently adjusted (the decision variables), a set of formulae cells whose values are to be constrained (the constraints) and a formula cell designated as the optimization objective. The solver uses the spreadsheet interpreter to evaluate the constraint and objective functions and approximates derivatives, using finite differences. The NLP solution engine for the Excel Solver is GRG.
The generalized reduced gradient method is applied as it has the following advantages: (i) the GRG method is widely recognized as an efficient method for solving a relatively wide class of nonlinear optimization problems; (ii) the program can handle up to 200 constraints, which is suitable for reinforced ordinary and HSC beam design optimization problems; and (iii) GRG transforms inequality constraints into equality constraints by introducing slack variables. Hence all the constraints are of equality form. A more detailed description of the GRG method can be found in [19].
The numerical example A corresponds to a high-strength concrete T-beam belonging to a bridge deck, simply supported at its ends and predesigned in accordance with provisions of EC-2 design code.
The corresponding preassigned parameters are defined as follows:
L = 25 m; MEd = 1.35 MG + 1.5 MQ = 9 MNm; VEd = 1.35 VG + 1.5 VQ = 3.1 MN.
w = 0.60MN/ml (the total distribution load (dead load + live load)), δlim = L/250 = 0.100 m.
Input data for HSC characteristics:
C70/85; fck = 70 MPa; γc = 1.5; fcd = 46.67 MPa; ρ = 0.025 MN/m3; Ecm = 40,743 MPa;
λ = 0.75; η = 0.90; εcu3(‰) = 2.7; εc3(‰) = 2.4; hfmin = 0.10 m; fctm = 4.6 MPa;
μlimit = 0.329; αlimit = 0.554 for S500 and C70/85.
Input data for steel characteristics:
S500; fyk = 500 MPa; γs = 1.15; fyd = fyk/γs = 435 MPa; n = 15;
S400; fyk = 400 MPa; γs = 1.15; fyd = fyk/γs = 348 MPa; fyd/fcd = 9.32 for classes (S500, C70/85);
fyd/fcd = 7.46 for classes (S400, C70/85); μlimit = 0.352; αlimit = 0.6081 for S400 and C70/85;
Es = 2 × 105 MPa; pmin = 0.26 fctm/fyk = 0.002392; pmax = 4%.
Input data for units cost ratios of construction materials:
Cs/Cc = 40 for HSC concrete;
Cf/Cc = 0.01 for wood formwork;
Cf/Cc = 0.10 for metal formwork;
Cf/Cc = 0.00 in the case of the cost of the formwork is negligible.
The vector of design variables including the geometric dimensions of the T-beam cross-section and the area of tension reinforcement as obtained from the standard design approach solution and the optimal cost design solution using the proposed approach is shown in Table 2.
Design variables vector. | Initial design | Optimal solution with minimum cost (S500, C70/85), Cs/Cc = 40, Cf/Cc = 0.01 wood formwork | Optimal solution with minimum weight |
---|---|---|---|
b(m) | 1.20 | 0.86 | 0.52 |
bw(m) | 0.40 | 0.28 | 0.28 |
h(m) | 1.40 | 1.58 | 1.56 |
d(m) | 1.26 | 1.42 | 1.40 |
hf(m) | 0.15 | 0.11 | 0.10 |
AS(m2) | 185x10−4 | 161x10−4 | 181 x10−4 |
α | 0.554 | 0.342 | 0.554 |
Gain | 22% | 47% |
Comparison of the optimal solutions with minimum weight and minimum cost design for HSC.
The optimal solutions using the minimum cost design and the minimum weight design are shown in Table 2.
It is shown from Table 2 that the gain and optimum values for minimum cost design and for minimum weight design are different.
From the above results, it is clearly shown that significant cost saving of the order of 47% can be obtained using the proposed minimum weight design formulation and 22% through the use of minimum cost-design approach.
In this section, the optimal solution is obtained according to practical consideration: (i) the total depth is imposed, h = himposed; (ii) the effective width of compressive flange is imposed, b = bimposed; (iii) the reinforcing steel is imposed, As = Asimposed; and (4i) the flange depth is imposed, hf = hfimposed.
The gain depends on the type of formwork used. We distinguish the wood formwork: Cf/Cc = 0.01 and the steel formwork Cf/Cc = 0.10.
Further practical requirements can also be implemented, such as esthetic, architectural and limited authorized templates. The optimal solutions obtained using the particular conditions imposed are shown in Table 3.
Optimal solution with. | Gain (%) |
---|---|
Classes(S500, C70/85); Cs/Cc = 40; Cf/Cc = 0.01wood formwork | 22 |
Classes(S500, C70/85); Cs/Cc = 40; Cf/Cc = 0.10 steel formwork | 19 |
Classes(S500,C70/85) and Cf/Cc = 0 the cost of the formwork is negligible | 23 |
Classes(S400,C70/85); Cs/Cc = 40; Cf/Cc = 0.01wood formwork | 08 |
Imposed height h = 1.70 m; S500 and C70/85 | 21 |
Imposed width b = 1.00 m; S500 and C70/85 | 22 |
Imposed reinforcement As ≤ 0.0150 m2; S500 and C70/85 | 22 |
Imposed flange depth hf = 0.10 m; S500 andC70/85 | 22 |
The variation of relative gain with particular conditions imposed such as the HSC T-beam dimensions and reinforcing steel.
From the above results, it is clearly seen that a significant cost saving between 08% and 23% can be obtained by using this parametric study.
The relative gains can be determined for various values of unit-cost ratios: Cs/Cc = 10; 20; 30; 40; 50; 60; 70; 80; 90; 100 for a given unit cost ratio Cf/Cc = 0.01
The corresponding results are reported in Table 4 and represented in Figure 2.
(S500; C70/85) Cf/Cc = 0.01 | Gain (%) |
---|---|
10 | 33 |
20 | 27 |
30 | 24 |
40 | 22 |
50 | 22 |
60 | 22 |
70 | 23 |
80 | 24 |
90 | 26 |
100 | 27 |
Variation of relative gain in percentage (%) versus unit cost ratio Cs/Cc for a given cost ratio Cf/Cc = 0.01.
Variation of relative gain in percentage (%) versus unit cost ratio Cs/Cc for a given cost ratio Cf/Cc = 0.01.
It is shown in Table 4 and Figure 2 that the relative gain decreases for increasing values of the unit cost ratio Cs/Cc, stabilizes around an average value for 40 ≤ Cs/Cc ≤ 60 and then increases significantly beyond this average value for a given cost ratio Cf/Cc = 0.01.
The relative gains can be determined for various values of unit cost ratios: Cf/Cc = 0.01; 0.02; 0.03; 0.04; 0.05; 0.06; 0.07; 0.08; 0.08; 0.09; 0.10 for a given unit cost ratio Cs/Cc = 40.
The corresponding results are reported in Table 5 and presented in Figure 3.
(S500; C70/85) Cs/Cc = 40 Cf/Cc | Gain (%) |
---|---|
0.01 | 22 |
0.02 | 21 |
0.03 | 21 |
0.04 | 20 |
0.05 | 20 |
0.06 | 19 |
0.07 | 19 |
0.08 | 19 |
0.09 | 19 |
0.10 | 18 |
Variation of relative gain in percentage (%) versus unit cost ratio Cf/Cc for a given cost ratio Cs/Cc = 40.
Variation of relative gain in percentage (%) versus unit cost ratio Cf/Cc for a given cost ratio Cs/Cc = 40.
From Table 5 and Figure 3, the gain decreases monotonically with the increase of unit cost ratio Cf/Cc for a given cost ratio Cs/Cc = 40.
The numerical example B corresponds to a concrete T-beam belonging to a pedestrian deck, simply supported at its ends and predesigned in accordance with the provisions of EC-2 design code.
The preassigned parameters are defined as follows:
L = 20 m; MEd = 5MNm; VEd = 1.1MN; w = 0.043MN/ml; δlim = L/250 = 0.080 m.
Input data for ordinary concrete characteristics:
C20/25; fck = 20 MPa; γc = 1.5;fcd = 11.33 MPa; ρ = 0.025MN/m3; Ecm = 30,000 MPa;
λ = 0.80; η =1.00; εcu3(‰) = 2; εc3(‰) = 3.5; hfmin = 0.15 m; fctm = 2.20 MPa; n = 15;
μlimit = 0.372; αlimit = 0.6167 for S500 and C20/25.
μlimit = 0.392; αlimit = 0.6680 for S400; and C20/25.
Input data for steel characteristics:
S400; fyk = 400 MPa; γs = 1.15; fyd = fyk/γs = 348 MPa;
Es = 2 × 105 MPa; pmin = 0.26 fctm/fyk = 0.00143; pmax = 4%;
fyd/fcd = 30.71 for classes (S400, C20/25);
fyd/fcd = 38.39 for classes (S500, C20/25).
Input data for units cost ratios of construction materials:
Cs/Cc = 30 for ordinary concrete.
Cf/Cc = 0.10 for metal formwork.
Cf/Cc = 0.01 for wood formwork.
The optimal solutions using the minimum weight design and the minimum cost design are shown in Table 6.
Design variables vector | Initial design, C20/25 & S400 | Optimal solution with minimum weight, C20/25 & S400 | Optimal solution with minimum cost, C20/25 & S400 |
---|---|---|---|
b(m) | 1.20 | 1.30 | 1.25 |
bw(m) | 0.40 | 0.28 | 0.29 |
h(m) | 1.60 | 1.57 | 1.60 |
d(m) | 1.44 | 1.41 | 1.44 |
hf(m) | 0.14 | 0.17 | 0.16 |
AS(m2) | 125 × 10−4 | 123 × 10−4 | 122 × 10−4 |
α | 0.668 | 0.668 | 0.668 |
C | 1.171 | 1.0281 | |
Gain | 23% | 14% |
Comparison of the optimal solutions with minimum weight and minimum cost design.
It is shown in Table 6 that the gain and the optimum values for minimum weight design and for minimum cost design are different.
From the above results, it is clearly shown that a significant cost saving of the order of 23% can be obtained using the proposed minimum weight design formulation and 14% through the use of the minimum cost design approach.
In this section, the optimal solution is obtained through the considerations: (i) one of the dimensions of HSC T-section is imposed, h = 1.50 m; (ii) the imposed reinforcing steel As = 120 × 10−4 m2; (iii) imposed web width bW = 0.30 m; and (iv) imposed relative depth of compressive concrete zone α = 0.6000
Further practical requirements can also be implemented, such as esthetic, architectural and limited authorized template.
The optimal solutions obtained using the particular conditions imposed are shown in Table 7.
Optimal solution with | Gain (%) |
---|---|
fyd/fcd = 30.71; Cs/Cc = 30; Cf/Cc = 0.01 wood formwork, C20/25 & S400 | 14 |
fyd/fcd = 38.39; Cs/Cc = 30; Cf/Cc = 0.01wood formwork, C20/25 & S500 | 09 |
fyd/fcd = 30.71; Cs/Cc = 30; Cf/Cc = 0.00; C20/25 & S400 | 15 |
Imposed web with bw = 0.30 m; fyd/fcd = 30.71; Cs/Cc = 30; Cf/Cc = 0.01; C20/25 & S400 | 13 |
Imposed reinforcementAs ≤ 0.0120 m2; fyd/fcd = 30.71; Cs/Cc = 30; Cf/Cc = 0.01; C20/25 & S400 | 14 |
Imposed height h = 1.50 m; fyd/fcd = 30.71; Cs/Cc = 30; Cf/Cc = 0.01; C20/25 & S400 | 11 |
Imposed relative depthα = 0.600; fyd/fcd = 30.71; Cs/Cc = 30; Cf/Cc = 0.01; C20/25 & S400 | 14 |
Variation of relative gain with particular conditions imposed such as the T-beam dimensions, reinforcing steel and weight.
From the above results, it is clearly seen that a significant cost saving between 09 and 15% can be obtained by using this parametric study.
The relative gains can be determined for various values of the unit cost ratios: Cs/Cc = 10; 20; 30; 40; 50; 60; 70; 80; 90; 100 for a given unit cost ratio Cf/Cc = 0.01
The corresponding results are reported in Table 8 and presented graphically in Figure 4.
(S400; C20/25) Cf/Cc = 0.01 | Gain (%) |
---|---|
10 | 18 |
20 | 16 |
30 | 14 |
40 | 13 |
50 | 12 |
60 | 12 |
70 | 12 |
80 | 11 |
90 | 11 |
100 | 11 |
Variation of relative gain in percentage (%) versus unit cost ratio Cs/Cc for a given cost ratio Cf/Cc = 0.01.
Variation of relative gain in percentage (%) versus unit cost ratio Cs/Cc for a given cost ratio Cf/Cc = 0.01.
It is shown in Table 8 and Figure 4 that the relative gain decreases for increasing values of the unit cost ratio Cs/Cc for a given value of Cf/Cc = 0.01.
The relative gains can be determined for various values of the unit cost ratios: Cf/Cc = 0.01; 0.02; 0.03; 0.04; 0.05; 0.06; 0.07; 0.08; 0.08; 0.09; 0.10 for a given unit cost ratio Cs/Cc = 30.
The corresponding results are reported in Table 9 and illustrated graphically in Figure 5.
(S400; C20/25) Cs/Cc = 30 Cf/Cc | Gain (%) |
---|---|
0.01 | 14 |
0.02 | 14 |
0.03 | 13 |
0.04 | 13 |
0.05 | 13 |
0.06 | 12 |
0.07 | 12 |
0.08 | 12 |
0.09 | 12 |
0.1 | 12 |
Variation of relative gain in percentage (%) versus unit cost ratio Cf/Cc for Cs/Cc = 30.
Variation of relative gain in percentage (%) versus unit cost ratio Cf/Cc for a given cost ratio Cs/Cc = 30.
From Table 9 and Figure 5, the gain decreases monotonically with the increase of unit cost ratio Cf/Cc for a given value of Cs/Cc = 30.
The following important conclusions are drawn on the basis of this chapter:
The problem formulation of the optimal cost design of reinforced concrete T-beams can be cast into a nonlinear programming problem; the numerical solution is efficiently determined using the GRG method in a space of only a few variables representing the concrete cross-section dimensions.
The space of feasible design solutions and the optimal solutions can be obtained from a reduced number of independent design variables.
The optimal values of the design variables are only affected by the relative cost values of the objective function and not by the absolute cost values.
The optimal solutions are found to be insensitive to changes in the shear constraint. Shear constraint is not usually critical in the optimal design of reinforced concrete T-beams under bending and thus can be excluded from problem formulation.
The observations of optimal solution results reveal that the use of optimization based on the optimum cost design concept may lead to substantial savings in the amount of construction materials to be used in comparison to classical design solutions of reinforced concrete T-beams.
The objective function and the constraints considered in this chapter are illustrative in nature. This approach based on nonlinear mathematical programming can be easily extended to other sections commonly used in structural design. More sophisticated objectives and considerations can be readily accommodated by suitable modifications of the optimal cost design model.
In this chapter, we have included the additional cost of formwork which makes a significant contribution to the total costs. This integration is important for an economical approach to design and manufacture.
The suggested methodology for optimum cost design is effective and more economical compared to the classical methods. The results of the analysis show that the optimization process presented herein is effective and its application appears feasible.
The comparison of optimal solutions for minimum cost and minimum weight shows that the construction cost affects significantly the optimal sizes. Not only do we use the mass but the cost as objective function as well which contains the material and construction provision costs. The difference is caused by construction details costs.
C20/25 | Class of ordinary concrete |
C70/85 | Class of HSC |
S400 | Grade of steel |
S500 | Grade of steel |
fck | Characteristic compressive cylinder strength of ordinary or HSC at 28 days |
fctm | Tensile strength of concrete |
fcd | Design value of concrete compressive strength |
γc | Partial safety factor for concrete |
η | Design strength factor |
λ | Compressive zone depth factor |
εc3 | Strain at the maximum stress for the rectangular stress distribution compressive concrete |
εcu3 | Ultimate strain for the rectangular stress distribution compressive concrete design stress–strain relation |
fyk | Characteristic elastic limit for steel reinforcement |
γs | Partial safety factor for steel |
fyd | Design yield strength of steel reinforcement |
εyd | Elastic limit strain |
Es | Young’s elastic modulus of steel |
Ecm | Modulus of elasticity of concrete |
pmin | Minimum steel percentage |
pmax | Maximum steel percentage |
αlimit | Limit value of relative depth of compressive concrete zone |
μlimit | Limit value of reduced moment |
L | Beam span |
w | The total distribution load (dead load+ live load) |
VG | Maximum design shears under dead loads |
VQ | Maximum design shears under live loads |
VRd,max | Maximum resistant shear force |
VEd | Ultimate shear force |
MRd, max | Maximum resisting moment |
MEd | Ultimate bending moment |
MG | Maximum design moments under dead loads |
MQ | Maximum design moments under live loads |
Fs | Resultant tensile internal force for steel |
Fc | Resultant compressive internal force for HSC |
n | Ratio of the modulus of elasticity of steel to that of concrete |
b | Effective width of compressive flange |
bw | Web width |
h | Total depth |
hf | Flange depth |
d | Effective depth |
ds | Effective cover of reinforcement |
As | Area of reinforcing steel |
hfmin | Minimum depth of flange |
δw | The mid-span deflection of simply supported beam under distribution load w |
δlim | Limit deflection |
θ | Angle between concrete compression struts and the main chord |
ν1 | A nondimensional coefficient; ν1 = 0.60(1-fck/250) |
z | Lever arm, z = 0.9d |
ρ | Density of the reinforced concrete T-beams |
W | Unit weight per unit length of the reinforced concrete T- beams |
C0/L | Total cost per unit length of T-beam |
Cs | Unit cost of reinforcing steel |
Cc | Unit cost of concrete |
Cf | Unit cost of formwork |
There are many conventional zinc oxide (ZnO) nanostructure synthesis routes employing the chemical and physical methods, which require particular set-up, high cost, high temperature-pressure conditions, and nonecological chemicals [1]. However, high-energy consumption of these routes and released toxic chemicals after the process can be hazardous to the environment and human health. In recent years, the green synthesis approach has been gaining attention, which eliminates the use of toxic chemicals and applies environmentally friendly routes. These strategies handle the use of plant-extracts, microorganisms, biomolecules, and ionic liquids by applying hydrothermal, microwave-assisted, sonochemical, and low-temperature processes (Figure 1).
\nGreen synthesis strategies of ZnO nanostructures with various morphologies.
The aim of these developments is to allow the use of toxic chemicals and reduce energy consumption by using simple, rapid, and safe routes. Green synthesis strategies for the ZnO nanostructures could be summarized as biosynthesis (natural extract-based, microorganism-based, and biomolecule-based) and nontoxic chemical synthesis (water-based, calcination, solvent-free, and ionic liquid).
\nNatural extracts (mainly phytochemicals) obtained from plants, leaves, fruit peels, flowers, and seeds have been utilized for the green synthesis of metal oxide nanoparticles for years. After the plants are collected from different sources, they are washed with water and basic extraction procedures are applied to obtain plant extracts in which leaves are ground and immersed in water by stirring at room temperature for a while. Then, the solutions are filtered and the eluted extract solution is separated for further use in ZnO synthesis (Figure 2). The eluent solution could be used directly for ZnO synthesis or could be dried for the concentration of solid extracts. Afterward, zinc precursors and plant extracts are reacted under various pH and temperature conditions [2]. If the extract is used as an aqueous solution, the zinc precursors are added into the solution. Otherwise, the zinc precursor and powder form of leaf extract are mixed in distilled water. The key mechanism is the oxidation and reduction of metal ion ‘zinc’ by phytochemicals, which are found in natural extracts. The leaf extracts behave as reducing and capping agents. Under favor of plant extracts, the synthesis procedure can be accomplished without using any chemical stabilizers. Finally, the obtained powders are washed with methanol or ethanol and annealed at high temperatures to attain purity [3].
\nSynthesis route of ZnO nanostructures from leaf extracts.
The green synthesized ZnO nanoparticles have been used in various fields such as biomedical application due to their significant antibacterial activities, photocatalysis, and metal ion adsorption purposes [4]. Moreover, nanoparticles synthesized by the green route exhibit better antibacterial performances due to the functional groups on their surfaces that come from phytochemicals. Here, we will describe the main applications of natural extract-based green synthesized ZnO nanoparticles.
\nThe advantage of using natural extracts for the synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles is that coating of nanoparticles with various pharmacologically active biomolecules on the metal oxide surface allows the conjugation of nanoparticles with receptors of the bacterial membrane. These molecules might be flavones, aldehydes, amides, polysaccharides, etc. and the green synthesized nanoparticles exhibit better biomedical activity than the chemically synthesized ones [1]. Inorganic metal oxides have widely emerged as antibacterial, antioxidant, antifungal, and anticancer agents in the last decades. Moreover, because of their specific targeting and nominal toxicity, the metal oxide nanoparticles could be used in personalized medicine applications. In the area of nanoscaled metal oxides, ZnO has shown promising activity in the biomedical field due to its unique electronic, optical, and medicinal properties. The ZnO nanoparticles show antibacterial activity against a broad spectrum of pathogenic bacteria, and these nanoparticles adopt various mechanisms such as reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, cell membrane integrity disruption, biofilm formation, or enzyme inhibition [5]. Under UV irradiation, ROS such as superoxide ions, hydroxyl ions, singlet oxygen species, and peroxide molecules are formed. The formed peroxide ions could easily penetrate through the cell membrane and result in cell death. Figure 3 shows the possible ROS generation mechanism and its effect on the bacterial cell wall.
\nROS mechanism of ZnO nanoparticles [6].
Cell membrane integrity disruption is another significant mechanism for the antibacterial effect of ZnO nanoparticles. Penetration of ZnO nanoparticles results in cell death by the loss of phospholipid bilayer integrity and leakage of intracellular components of the cell. While the Gram-positive bacteria have a thick layer of peptidoglycan, teichoic acid, and lipoteichoic acid in their cell membrane, Gram-negative bacteria have a triple layer of peptidoglycan. The different structure of cell membranes of these two types of bacteria results in a different mechanism of nanoparticle penetration through the cell membranes. In this part, we focused on the biomedical activity of ZnO nanoparticles, and in Table 1, the used plant extracts, zinc precursors, biomedical applications and related biomolecules are summarized.
\nPlant type | \nZinc precursor type | \nSize of ZnO (nm) | \nTreated biomolecule | \nBiomedical field | \nRef. | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Momordica charantia | \nNitrate | \n21 | \nR. microplus, P. humanus capitis, An. stephensi, and Cx. Quinquefasciatus | \nAntiparasitic | \n[30] | \n
Rosa canina | \nNitrate | \n11 | \nS. typhimurium, S. aureus, L. monocytogenes, and E. coli | \nAntibacterial | \n[31] | \n
Ulva fasciata | \nChloride | \n16 | \nB. cereus, S. aureus, S. thermophilus, E. coli, and P. aeruginosa | \nAntibacterial | \n[32] | \n
Eclipta alba | \nAcetate | \n6 | \nE. coli | \nAntibacterial | \n[33] | \n
Terminalia arjuna | \nAcetate | \n21 | \nE. coli and S. aureus | \nAntibacterial | \n[34] | \n
Stevia | \nAcetate | \n10–90 | \nE. coli and S. aureus | \nAntibacterial Antiparasitic | \n[35] | \n
Glycosmis pentaphylla | \nAcetate | \n32–36 | \nB. cereus, S. aureus, S. paratyphi, S. dysenteriae, C. albicans, and A. niger | \nAntibacterial | \n[36] | \n
L. leschenaultiana | \nAcetate | \n— | \nL. sericata | \nAntiparasitic | \n[37] | \n
Adhatoda vasica | \nAcetate | \n10–12 | \nS. epidermidis, E. coli, P. aeruginosa, T. rubrum, and M. audouinii | \nAntimicrobial | \n[38] | \n
Vitex negundo | \nNitrate | \n38 | \nHuman Serum Albumin | \nProtein binding | \n[39] | \n
Anchusa italica | \nAcetate | \n8–14 | \nB. megaterium, S. aureus, E. coli, S. typhimurium | \nAntimicrobial | \n[40] | \n
Jacaranda mimosifolia | \nGluconate | \n2–4 | \nE. faecium and E. coli | \nAntibacterial | \n[41] | \n
Heritiera fomes and Sonneratia apetala | \nChloride | \n40–50 | \nS. aureus, S. flexneri, V. cholera, S. epidermidis, B. subtilis, and E. coli | \nAntibacterial Anti-inflammatory | \n[42] | \n
Nyctanthes arbor-tristis | \nAcetate | \n12–32 | \nA. alternata, A. niger, B. cinerea, F. oxysporum, and P. expansum | \nAntifungal | \n[43] | \n
Nocardiopsis sp | \nNitrate | \n500 | \nE. coli and P. mirabilis | \nAntibacterial | \n[44] | \n
Ceropegia candelabrum | \nNitrate | \n12–35 | \nS. aureus, B. subtilis, E. coli, and S. typhi | \nAntibacterial | \n[45] | \n
Pongamia pinnata | \nAcetate | \n21 | \nC. maculatus | \nAnti-pesticide | \n[46] | \n
Capsicum annuum | \nNitrate | \n30–40 | \nE. coli and S. aureus | \nAntibacterial | \n[47] | \n
Euphorbia petiolata | \nNitrate | \n— | \nE. coli | \nAntibacterial | \n[48] | \n
Tradescantia pallida | \nAcetate | \n25 | \nHeLa cervical cancer cell | \nAnticancer | \n[49] | \n
Punica granatum | \nNitrate | \n5 | \nP. vulgaris, E. coli, and S. aureus | \nAntibacterial | \n[50] | \n
Swertia chirayita | \nNitrate | \n5 | \nS. enterica, E. coli, and S. aureus | \nAntibacterial | \n[51] | \n
Vitex negundo | \nNitrate | \n38 | \nE. coli and S. aureus | \nAntibacterial | \n[52] | \n
Aegle marmelos | \nNitrate | \n20 | \nP. aeruginosa, E. coli, S. aureus, A. niger, and F. solani | \nAntimicrobial | \n[53] | \n
Azadirachta indica | \nAcetate | \n9–25 | \nS. pyogenes, E. coli, and S. aureus | \nAntibacterial | \n[54] | \n
Vaccinium arctostaphylos | \nNitrate | \n15 | \nLipid, insulin, and fasting blood sugar | \nAntidiabetic | \n[55] | \n
Coffee powder | \nAcetate | \n25–30 | \nProteinase K | \nEnzymatic | \n[56] | \n
Ziziphus nummularia | \nNitrate | \n17 | \nHeLa cancer cell and Candida spp. | \nAnticancer Antifungal | \n[57] | \n
Chelidonium majus | \nNitrate | \n10 | \nP. aeruginosa, E. coli, S. aureus, C. albicans, A. niger, and T. rubrum | \nAntibacterial | \n[58] | \n
Prunus yedoensis Matsumura | \nNitrate | \n10–40 | \nB. linens and S. epidermidis | \nAntibacterial | \n[59] | \n
Sechium edule | \nAcetate | \n36 | \nB. subtilis and K. pneumoniae | \nAntibacterial | \n[60] | \n
Catharanthus roseus | \nAcetate | \n50–90 | \nS. aureus, S. pyogenes, B. cereus, P. aeruginosa, P. mirabilis, and E. coli | \nAntibacterial | \n[61] | \n
Albizia saman | \nNitrate | \n15–80 | \nD. indica | \nGenotoxicity | \n[62] | \n
Parthenium hysterophorus | \nNitrate | \n16–45 | \nB. subtilis, S. aureus, K. pneumonia, E. coli, and Enterobacteraerogens | \nAntibacterial | \n[63] | \n
Sarcopoterium spinosum | \nAcetate | \n26–115 | \nE. coli, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, S. pneumoniae, B. subtilis, E. faecalis, C. glabrata, and C. albicans | \nAntibacterial | \n[64] | \n
Ruta graveolens | \nNitrate | \n28 | \nK. aerogenes, P. aeruginosa, E. coli, and S. aureus | \nAntibacterial | \n[65] | \n
Pichia kudriavzevii | \nAcetate | \n10–61 | \nB. subtilis, S. epidermidis, S. aureus, E. coli, and S. marcescens | \nAntibacterial | \n[66] | \n
Azadirachta indica | \nSulfate | \n84 | \nXanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae | \nAntibacterial | \n[67] | \n
Coptidis Rhizoma | \nNitrate | \n3–25 | \nB. megaterium, B. cereus, E. coli, and B. pumilus | \nAntibacterial | \n[68] | \n
Polygala tenuifolia | \nNitrate | \n33–73 | \nRAW 264.7 cells | \nAntibacterial | \n[69] | \n
Sargassum muticum | \nAcetate | \n10–15 | \nWEHI-3 cell | \nAnticancer | \n[70] | \n
Scadoxus multiflorus | \nAcetate | \n31 | \nAedes aegypti, A. niger, and A. flavus | \nAntifungal | \n[71] | \n
Eclipta prostrata | \nNitrate | \n29 | \nHep-G2 cell | \nAnticancer | \n[72] | \n
Azadirachta indica | \nNitrate | \n30–60 | \nE. coli and S. aureus | \nAntibacterial | \n[73] | \n
Calotropis gigantea | \nAcetate | \n25 | \nDNA | \nAnticancer | \n[74] | \n
Andrographis paniculata | \nNitrate | \n57 | \nα-Amylase and BSA | \nAntioxidant | \n[75] | \n
Tamarindus indica, Moringa oleifera | \nNitrate | \n27–54 | \nα-Amylase and α-glucosidase | \nAntidiabetic Antioxidant | \n[76] | \n
Bauhinia tomentosa | \nSulfate | \n22–94 | \nB. subtilis, S. aureus, E. coli, and P. aeruginosa | \nAntibacterial | \n[77] | \n
Egg albumen | \nAcetate | \n16 | \nC. albicans | \nAnticandidal | \n[78] | \n
Moringa oleifera | \nAcetate | \n40–45 | \nA. saloni, S. rolfii, S. aureus, and E. coli | \nAntibacterial | \n[79] | \n
Cassia fistula | \nNitrate | \n5–15 | \nK. aerogenes, E. coli, P. desmolyticum, and S. aureus | \nAntibacterial | \n[80] | \n
Biomedical activities of plant extract-based synthesized ZnO nanoparticles.
Sathishkumar et al. synthesized ZnO nanoflakes using Couroupita guianensis Aubl leaf extract and demonstrated the bactericidal activity against various types of bacteria. They reported that the main constituent of the extract, phenol, reduced the zinc acetate precursor into ZnO nanostructures. In history, Aloe (Aloe barbadensis Miller) extract has been used in therapeutic applications due to its antifungal, antidiabetic, anticancer, and antibacterial properties. Ali et al. also synthesized small-sized ZnO nanoparticles using Aloe vera extract and showed their antibacterial activity and cell damage of Escherichia coli and MRSA cells before and after ZnO nanoparticle treatment [7]. On the other hand, Gunalan et al. synthesized ZnO nanoparticles with Aloe vera extract and compared their results with the chemically synthesized ZnO nanoparticles. The results proved the enhanced antibacterial activity against various pathogens, and variation in the particle size is responsible for the significant bactericidal activity [8]. The effect of Aloe vera extract on the synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles and their antibacterial activity was investigated. Moreover, the antioxidant activity of the particles was evaluated by using five different free radical scavenging assays and the anticancer activity was tested against three cancerous cell lines [9].
\nIn a very recent work, Zare et al. presented the effect of Cuminum cyminum leaf extract on the synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles by using zinc nitrate precursors. The resulting nanoparticle diameter is around 7 nm, and the nanoparticles show high sensitivity to Gram-negative bacteria [10]. The nanoparticle formation of zinc nitrate precursors has been investigated by using several types of plant extracts such as Limonia acidissima [11, 12], Cochlospermum religiosum [13], Tabernaemontana divaricata [14], Conyza Canadensis, Citrus maxima [15], Aristolochia indica [16], Echinacea [17], Mentha [18, 19], Salvadora oleoides [20], Boswellia ovalifoliolata [21], and Costus pictus [22]. The synthesized ZnO nanostructures have shown an enhanced antibacterial effect for a broad spectrum of bacterial cultures (see Table 1). Zinc acetate precursor is another choice for the plant-based ZnO nanoparticle synthesis, and Santoshkumar et al. synthesized ZnO nanoparticles using Passiflora caerulea extract against urinary tract infection pathogens. The ZnO nanostructures have a particle size of around 37 nm and show good zone of inhibition to various pathogens [23]. Hibiscus sabdariffa [24] and Acalypha indica leaves [25] were used in ZnO nanoparticle synthesis, and the nanoparticles showed an enhanced antibacterial activity against E. coli and S. aureus.
\nZnO nanoparticles are currently under investigation due to their utilization in cancer treatment and diagnostic applications [26]. Since the treatment of cancer by chemotherapy is limited because of the adverse effect of tumor drugs and drug resistance by cancer cells, natural plant-based drug researches have focused on overcoming these limitations. Vijayakumar et al. investigated the anticancer activity of ZnO nanoparticles, which were synthesized by Laurus nobilis extract-mediated synthesis. The nanoparticles showed anti-lung cancer activity against human A549 lung cancer cells [27]. Toxicity is an important parameter for the in-vivo and in-vitro activity of nanoparticles because some nanoparticles can generate free radicals even under dark conditions. Anacardium occidentale extract was used in the synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles, and the resulting nanostructures exhibited concentration-dependent cytotoxicity against pancreatic cancer cells [28]. Yuvakkumar et al. utilized the Rambutan peels (Nephelium lappaceum) for the synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles and explored the effect of these particles on HepG2 liver cancer cells [29].
\nOn the other hand, zinc acts as an actuator for several enzymes, and blood sugar regulation is significantly affected in the presence of zinc element. Thus, the enzymatic and anti-diabetic activity of ZnO nanoparticles must be mentioned in their biomedical applications. Bayrami et al. synthesized ZnO nanoparticles by using Vaccinium arctostaphylos extract via a microwave-assisted method. The biosynthesized ZnO nanoparticles showed an enhanced efficiency for the treatment of diabetic problems and reduced the fasting blood glucose level effectively [55]. Rehana et al. demonstrated the antidiabetic activity of ZnO nanoparticles by using several types of plant extracts. The results showed that Tamarindus indica extract-based ZnO nanoparticles exhibited enhanced activity for α-amylase and α-glucosidase due to the presence of amino acids in the plant extract [76]. As an environmentally benign material, coffee powder extract was utilized in the biosynthesis of ZnO nanoparticles. Koupaei et al. studied the reduced effect of ZnO nanoparticles on proteinase K activity [56].
\nPhotocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants is a promising approach for the removal of dyes in wastewaters. ZnO nanoparticles have been involved in photocatalytic applications due to their optical and electronic properties (Table 2). When the ZnO nanoparticles are irradiated with UV light, valence band electrons are excited to the conduction band, which leaves holes behind. Then the generated holes create hydroxyl radicals by oxidizing \n
Plant type | \nZinc precursor type | \nSize of ZnO (nm) | \nTreated analyte | \nEfficiency (%) − time (min) | \nRef. | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lycopersicon esculentum | \nNitrate | \n9–20 | \nMB | \n97 − 180 | \n[86] | \n
Monsonia burkeana | \nChloride | \n20 | \nMB | \n48 − 45 | \n[87] | \n
Ulva lactuca | \nAcetate | \n10–50 | \nMB | \n90 − 120 | \n[88] | \n
Conyza canadensis | \nNitrate | \n— | \nMO MB | \n94 − 45 85 − 20 | \n[89] | \n
Allium sativum | \nNitrate | \n14–70 | \nMB | \n100 − 180 | \n[90] | \n
Garcinia mangostana | \nNitrate | \n21 | \nMB | \n99 − 180 | \n[91] | \n
Plectranthus amboinicus | \nNitrate | \n50–180 | \nMR | \n92 − 180 | \n[92] | \n
Calotropis procera | \nNitrate | \n15–25 | \nMO | \n81 − 100 | \n[93] | \n
Citrus paradisi | \nSulfate | \n12–72 | \nMB | \n56 − 360 | \n[94] | \n
Lantana camara | \nAcetate | \n340–520 | \nMB RhB | \n92 − 25 75 − 40 | \n[95] | \n
Chlamydomonas reinhardtii | \nAcetate | \n13 | \nMO | \n92 − 120 | \n[96] | \n
Lycopersicon esculentum | \nNitrate | \n7–20 | \nMB | \n97 − 150 | \n[97] | \n
Corymbia citriodora | \nNitrate | \n64 | \nMB | \n83 − 90 | \n[98] | \n
Catharanthus roseus | \nAcetate | \n38 | \nPR | \n100 − 480 | \n[99] | \n
Photocatalytic activities of plant-extract based synthesized ZnO nanoparticles (MB = methylene blue, MO = methyl orange, MR = methyl red, RhB = Rhodamine B, and PR = phenol red).
Schematic diagram of dye degradation by ZnO nanostructures.
Nava et al. addressed the effect of different amounts of Camellia sinensis extract on the synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles. The synthesized nanoparticles were studied in photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue (MB) dye where the nanoparticles presented MB degradation over 84% in 120 min [81]. In another study, Parkia roxburghii extracts have been used for the synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles, and they were found to be efficient in degradation with nearly 98% efficiency in 8 min for both MB and Rhodamine B (RhB) dyes [82]. The degradation of Congo Red dye has also been studied for the ZnO photocatalysis applications. Prasad et al. and Vidya et al. studied the degradation of Congo Red in aqueous solutions by ZnO nanoparticles. The dye was degraded with 90% efficiency in 35 and 60 min by using lemon juice [83] and Artocarpus heterophyllus [84] extracts in the nanoparticle synthesis, respectively. The aqueous leaf extract of Coriandrum sativum was used for the nanoparticle synthesis and the resulting materials have been used for the photocatalytic degradation of anthracene with 96% efficiency in 240 min [85].
\nHeavy metal ion pollutants in wastewaters create a problem worldwide because of their serious effects on both human health and environment. ZnO nanostructures have also been used as an adsorbent material due to their low toxicity and became more effective than the other adsorbent materials [100]. The plant-based synthesis of ZnO nanostructures enhances metal ion adsorption capacity due to the chemical interactions between ions and functional groups of plant extracts. Fazlzadeh et al. synthesized ZnO nanoparticle-loaded activated carbon by using Peganum harmala for the removal of chromium from aqueous systems. Peganum harmala acted as a stabilizing agent and enhanced the chromium uptake up to 68.48 mg g−1 [101]. The lead ion removal was studied by Azizi et al. using Zerumbone extract-mediated ZnO nanoparticles. They reported that the lead ion adsorption capacity reached up to 19.65 mg g−1 [100]. Sensing application of ZnO nanostructures is another field where the glucose sensing mechanism of ZnO nanostructures was studied by Muthuchamy et al. They fabricated a glucose sensor using ZnO nanoparticles and peach juice as a carbon source. The fabricated ZnO sensor showed high sensitivity (231.7 μA mM−1 cm−2) and low detection limit (6.3 μM) [102]. Sharma et al. also studied silymarin detection capability of ZnO nanostructures by using Carica papaya extract. The results showed that ZnO-modified sensors have 2-fold greater electrochemical signals than the neat ones [103].
\nSynthesis of ZnO nanostructures by using microorganisms has gained considerable interest, and numerous microorganisms can be utilized for their synthesis. Bacteria, fungus, and algae are the possible microorganisms in a green synthesis of ZnO nanostructures. Because of their easy genetic manipulation and easy handling, bacteria are preferred microorganisms [104]. Jayaseelan et al. used Aeromonas hydrophila bacteria as green capping agent, and the synthesized ZnO nanoparticles showed antibacterial activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Aspergillus flavus [104]. In another study, Pseudomonas aeruginosa was used as a capping agent in ZnO nanoparticle synthesis, and the resulting particles demonstrated antioxidant activity [105]. Kundu et al. used Rhodococcus pyridinivorans as metabolically versatile Actinobacteria in the fabrication of self-cleaning, UV-blocking, and antibacterial textile fabrics with ZnO nanoparticles. Besides, the ZnO nanoparticles showed photocatalytic activity against malachite green and anticancer activity against HT-29 cancerous cells [106]. Tripathi et al. synthesized ZnO nanoflowers by using Bacillus licheniformis and assessed their photocatalytic activity against methylene blue [107]. However, bacterial utilization in ZnO green synthesis could be somewhat problematic because of the uncontrolled growth of bacteria and unavoidable contaminations [108].
\nFungus-based green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles is generally preferred over the bacteria based synthesis because of their large-scale production and better tolerance property [109]. Raliya et al. synthesized ZnO nanoparticles via an environmental method by using Aspergillus fumigatus as a stabilizing agent and investigated the effect of ZnO nanoparticles on phosphorus mobilizing enzymes in rhizosphere and gum contents in clusterbean grains [110]. In another study, ureolytic bacterium (Serratia ureilytica)-mediated green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles was reported. The cotton fabrics were coated with the synthesized nanoparticles and their killing efficiency against S. aureus and E. coli bacteria was revealed [111].
\nAlgae are the members of a diverse group of aquatic photosynthetic organisms and they have been utilized sometimes in the synthesis of ZnO nanostructures. Sargassum muticum extract, which is a brown marine macroalga, was used in the biosynthesis of ZnO nanoparticles [112]. Nagajaran et al. used the seaweed extracts of green Caulerpa peltata, red Hypnea Valencia and brown Sargassum myriocystum in the synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles. The results revealed that among three seaweeds, only S. myriocystum could stabilize and reduce ZnO nanoparticles of size 36 nm. Also, the nanoparticles showed antimicrobial activity against a wide spectrum of bacterial cultures [109].
\nSynthesis of ZnO nanoparticles with controlled morphologies and using environmentally friendly chemicals could be possible in biomolecule-based synthesis routes, and utilization of amino acids, polysaccharides, gums, and enzymes is highly preferable. Gharagozlou et al. synthesized ZnO nanoparticles by using alanine amino acid, and a Schiff base complex was obtained at the end of the study [113]. Bovine skin gelatin has also been used in the synthesis of ZnO nanostructures, and Alnarabiji et al. demonstrated the environmentally friendly synthesis route for ZnO nanoparticles [114]. Arabic gum and gum tragacanth-based green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles have been demonstrated by Fardood et al. [115] and Daraoudi et al. [116], respectively. Thus, they demonstrated an alternative method for the synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles instead of conventional ZnO reduction methods by using hazardous polymers or surfactants [115, 116]. Casein is another biomolecule that can be used as a capping and reducing agent in the ZnO nanoparticle synthesis. Somu et al. synthesized ZnO nanoparticles, which show heavy metal ion adsorption, dye adsorption, and antibacterial activity in wastewater treatment at the same time [117]. The resulting nanoparticles effectively remove Cd(III), Pd(II), and Co(II) ions, methylene blue, and Congo red dye from the wastewaters. Also, they demonstrated high antibacterial activity against E. coli cultures. Subramanian et al. synthesized ZnO nanoflowers, which comprise nanorods and ellipsoids as subunits, by using
Combating the major drawbacks of common ZnO nanostructure synthesis methods, mainly identified as the generation of pollutants, toxic materials, and side products during reactions, green chemical techniques using only nontoxic and biologically compatible materials were developed. Gharagozlou et al. [113] reported a novel method to synthesize ZnO nanoparticles without any pollutant or combustible side product in the process. Water was used as a solvent with a biologically compatible nitrogen source, amino acid instead of toxic amines, alanine and sodium salicylaldehyde-5-sulfonate, and zinc acetate to prepare the zinc Schiff-base complex and then subsequently heated to obtain ZnO nanoparticles. This work showed that the solid-state decomposition process applied at moderate temperatures has yielded nanoparticles ranging from 5 to 110 nm with fewer defects yet interestingly high crystallinity.
\nBiomimetic and bioinspired synthesis has also been regarded among the most attractive strategies in fabricating novel functional materials, and biological materials like eggshell membrane, oyster shells, nacre, diatoms, cuttlefish bone, DNA chains, and sea urchin spines have been actually employed as templates or bioreactive substrates. Silk fibroin fibers (SFFs) extracted from silkworm Bombyx mori cocoons were used for their capping and directing functions to control the morphology of ZnO crystals. Acting at the same time, zinc ions are anchored on the SFF and in-situ react with \n
Extrusion dripping is another novel technique using environmentally friendly, cost-effective, degradable, and renewable biomass materials. Generally, the process yields monodispersed spherical particles by controlled dripping of working solution into a biopolymer solution after extruding it through a narrow tube, thanks to the effect of viscous-surface tension forces and impact-drag forces that help to preserve the spherical shape of the drop [122]. Goes et al. have reported that spherical uniform sized ZnO nanoparticles were obtained by dropwise addition of alginate solution to zinc nitrate solution under a long slow magnetic stirring to ensure the ion-exchange to happen and stabilize ZnO nanoparticles; the heated ZnO outcome was used to fabricate a polymeric nanocrystalline microfilm, exhibiting interesting photodegradation results, as ZnO on the surface is likely to accept photons and generate holes promoting the oxidative decomposition of the dye [123].
\nChemical bath deposition and soft-template sol-gel methods are two wet organic solvent-free routes studied by a group led by Leone et al [124]. to obtain a nanostructured ZnO employed as a reservoir of clotrimazole for pharmaceutical purposes. Identifying the synthesis of carriers and active pharmaceutical ingredient loading as the main steps in which the waste of organic solvents occur, ZnO nanostructures have been introduced as green alternative carriers for their intrinsic biological properties, low toxicity, and high biocompatibility [125]. For the chemical bath deposition approach, a nanosheet-like zinc carbonate hydroxide hydrate was transformed into ZnO using solutions containing urea and different zinc salts [126]. As for the sol-gel method, pluronic F127 was used as a soft template forming an opalescent solution with zinc acetate in water, and then dried and calcined at 500°C to sacrifice the template and obtain the ZnO nanostructure [124].
\nIn our previous work, we successfully enhanced the antibacterial activity of ZnO nanowires by modifying the cooling route. Zinc acetate was calcined in a muffle oven, followed by a rapid cooling; the three resulting samples were compared to a free cooled batch synthesized under the same conditions, revealing noticeable effects on ZnO nanowire morphology in addition to the improvement of surface area due to the limiting time for crystallite growth [127].
\nIonic liquids (ILs) are an area of chemistry, which has received important attention in both academia and industry, because of the cost effectiveness coupled with being environmentally friendly [128]. ILs usually act as solvents and reactants as well as templates for inorganic nanomaterial synthesis and scavenging agents [129]. As a subdivision, room temperature ionic liquids (RTILs) are particularly doted of special considerations as nontoxic solvents with a wide liquid temperature range, remarkable chemical stability, negligible vapor pressures, and high fire resistance [130]. ILs have been great templates for the synthesis of nanomaterials as it was shown that only by modifying the structure of their cations or anions, it is possible to alter their properties in order to control the size, morphology, and thus the properties of nanomaterials [131]. Sabbaghan et al. have synthesized different morphologies of ZnO nanostructures using zinc acetate as the metal source in a basic media to react with different symmetrical imidazolium-based ILs, yielding nanoparticles, nanoparticle-like, spherical-like, nanosheet in different sizes ranging from 16 to 30 nm and different band gaps between 2.98 and 3.17 eV, demonstrating through this work the relation morphology-IL [128].
\nZnO nanostructures with nanosheet morphology have been successfully fabricated in another work by refluxing the mixture of zinc acetate and the ionic liquid in water according to Menshutkin reaction [132]. A comparative study has shown that when zinc is used with ILs as a template, ZnO nanoparticles with smaller crystallite size were formed compared to the yield without ILs. This work revealed as well that the template and the pH control the direction of growth of ZnO crystals and the shape of nanomaterials obtained. The final band gap values of ZnO with different morphology ranged around 2.88–3.16 eV [133]. Alammar et al. have studied the effect of five different ILs on ZnO morphologies, and claimed that the habitus and morphology come as the system naturally tends to reduce the total surface energy during formation; it is to note that the anion of the IL is proposed to be interacting with the ZnO surface during the growth [134]. Yet, the best performance was for ZnO nanoparticles that are obtained by use of IL with a long alkyl chain, reaching 95% in 9 h for methyl orange decomposition, proposing that along with high surface area, oxygen vacancies and polar plans that act like electron traps are the main factors for such interesting photocatalytic activity [135, 136]. It was also reported by Amde et al. [137] that common techniques for the determination of fungicide concentration in water are usually non-environmentally friendly, organic solvent, and time consuming; the group has prepared ZnO nanofluids by a green two-step method, dispersing the as-synthesized sol-gel ZnO nanoparticles in 1-hexyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate, hand shaking it to attain a homogeneous distribution, then sonicating it to break NPs clusters. The as-prepared ZnO nanofluids are applied in a modified, simple, versatile, and inexpensive liquid-liquid microextraction technique; this technique, called single drop microextraction not only reduces the amount of extraction solvent radically but also offers other functionalities such as high enrichment factor, different extraction modes, and full automation of the process [138]. It is proclaimed that the preferences of ZnO-based nanofluids for the investigation were driven from the fact that ZnO dotes on surface charges that enable to form stable suspensions, unlike many metallic nanofluids, and without the need of any additional stabilizer intervention.
\nZnO nanostructures can be synthesized by following different approaches, and each has its own distinctive advantages and downsides. In this section, we report some interesting methods and findings having the common main aim to avoid drawbacks like the use of toxic reagents, promoter, and stabilizer organic additives, lowering the reaction time, as well as high temperature and pressure. These methods have plenty of scopes to provide both qualitative and quantitative support for nanosized ZnO synthesis along with being simple, fast, efficient, and convenient.
\nHydrothermal method has gained particular interest as an efficient method for high quality and mass production of ZnO nanostructures [139]; it is indeed environmentally friendly as there is no need to control pH and subsequently no release of unwanted by-products. A work led by Guo et al. [140] reported a controllable hydrothermal synthesis of ZnO nanorods reacting with zinc carbonate hydroxide hydrate powder and H2O2 at various temperatures for different periods of time. The group claims that the formation mechanism of ZnO starts by the formation of ZnO2 when subjecting it to hydrothermal treatment at 170°C for more time (3–6 h), and then the thermally unstable ZnO2 would decompose into ZnO and O2. ZnO nanorods exhibited an optical band gap of 3.3 eV [140].
\nIt has also been reported that flower shaped ZnO nanoparticles were synthesized by hydrothermal method, where zinc nitrate and hexamethylenetetramine solutions were prepared separately in double distilled water, while NaOH solution was added dropwise to adjust the pH to 10. The obtained milky solution was refluxed at 80°C for 7 h, washed, and dried. XRD asserted the formation of hexagonal crystal structure ZnO that had a flower-shape, formed by agglomeration during the hydrothermal process. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) data have affirmed the average diameter of ZnO between 600 and 800 nm. The effect of different pH values from 2 to 10 on the removal performance of ZnO has been studied and the results showed a maximum increase of 80% removal efficiency when pH reached 6; increasing the temperature of the process also improved the removal efficiency from 68 to 97%. The contact time had a sharp rise at the value of 15 min of initiation of the experiment, and higher stirring had an enhancing effect as well. Jamal Al-Sabahi and his group have treated for the first time the degradation of HPAM polymer in oil produced water with supported ZnO nanorods synthesized via a microwave-assisted hydrothermal method in an aqueous solution [141, 142, 143]. Placing a prepared microscope glass substrate (25 mm × 75 mm) on a hotplate (350°C), 10 mM zinc acetate dihydrate solution is sprayed, and then the plate is immersed in an equimolar solution of zinc nitrate hexahydrate and hexamethylenetetramine, then heated in a domestic microwave oven for 45 min, and then cooled down for 15 min; the produced ZnO nanorod-covered substrate was afterward annealed in air at 350°C for 1 h. The morphology was of a typical ZnO array and the average length was about 4 μm while the average diameter reached around 95 nm [144].
\nSingh et al. have adopted a cost-effective and environmentally friendly method to fabricate a 3D self-assembled wool ball like spherical ZnO with high porosity by combining a urea-glycerol assisted hydrothermal approach with calcination under air atmosphere [145], where hydrated zinc carbonate was synthesized hydrothermally in a Teflon-lined stainless steel autoclave reacting zinc nitrate with urea in a triplet (glycerol, ethyl alcohol, and water (7:7:10)) solvent system. After drying the outcome, the white powder intermediate product was calcined at 450°C for 3 h to get hierarchical 3D porous ZnO. The group carried out a series of experiments to investigate the effect of synthesis parameters over the morphology, while 7 h and 140°C were about the optimum duration of synthesis and temperature to get the best ZnO with W-ball like spherical morphology. This ZnO photocatalyst has shown 98% of highly toxic Rhodamine B degradation in 60 min of UV photolysis catalysts at a pH of 4.
\nA green hydrothermal method was used recently to fabricate ZnO nanorods without any organic solvent or surfactant, by starting with ZnO powder and H2O2 aqueous solution in the sealed autoclave. Then the precipitates were washed and dried. In this work, Lam et al. reported as well that the hydrothermal treatment of ZnO at 100°C promotes the slow conversion of ZnO2 to ZnO and O2 without using any toxic reactant, nor releasing any pollutant by-product. XRD indicated the high purity of the ZnO wurtzite phase [146]. This environmentally friendly method has generated highly performing ZnO nanorods that completely degrade the resorcinol in aqueous solution after 120 min. The same group has used a similar hydrothermal method to fabricate ZnO nanotubes (NTs) with a diameter of around 10 nm, a wall thickness of 3.5 nm, and average lengths of up to 200 nm by scrolling of the ZnO2 layer nanosheet, which transforms to ZnO NTs with a symmetrical layer in both shell-tube structures. XRD asserted the hexagonal phase and then confirmed the purity of ZnO NTs that showed a ferromagnetic behavior because of the grain boundaries and developed free surfaces [147]; the band gap energy was measured to be around 3.21 eV, and the degradation of methylparaben over the surface of ZnO NTs had an efficiency of 87.6% in 105 min [148].
\nMicrowave-assisted sol-gel synthesis is based on subjecting samples to frequencies ranging from 300 MHz to 300 GHz [149]; besides its high selectivity of specific morphologies, dramatic reduction of reaction time (minutes), and remarkable increase of product yield, it generates localized superheating at the reaction sites promoting metal ion reduction in the solution [150]. It presents a promising green method for metal oxide nanostructures production. Azizi et al. [151] have worked on a green microwave-assisted combustion approach to synthesize ZnO-nanoparticles, presenting combustion as a fast, low cost, homogenous and highly pure outcome, as well a distinguished surface area at low temperature. Using fruit, seed, and pulp extracts of Citrullus colocynthis (L.) as biofuels with zinc nitrate as the zinc source, an in vitro cytotoxicity study has been made showing that smaller nanoparticles were more efficient penetrating in the cells membranes, while the optical band gap increased with the rear of the particle size from 3.25 to 3.40 eV. An interesting nontoxic and eco-friendly single-step, and green synthesis method of ZnO nanoparticles with excellent reproducibility was reported using coffee powder extract as a reducing material under microwave heating at 540 W for 5 min and the precipitate was dried in a hot air oven. SEM asserted a size of 80–120 nm for the nanoparticles. Afterward, a thin nanocomposite film was prepared using the as-prepared ZnO nanoparticles with natural graphite powder. The nanocomposite film showed a remarkable photovoltaic efficiency of 3.12% [152]. ZnO sub-micrometer particles and nanowires were synthesized by microwave assisted sol-gel reaction. Zinc acetate and N,N-dimethylacetamide were stirred into a beaker, and then, the solution was cooled rapidly to 15°C. After only a couple of minutes of the microwave, a white suspension was obtained. The average diameter of the particles prepared given by DLS analyses was around 275–352 nm [153]. Salari et al. reported a microwave-assisted synthesis of biogenic nanoparticles using Lavandula vera leaf extract as a reducing agent in the presence of zinc sulfate; the method led to simple and fast formation of microstructures that exhibited high antioxidant cytotoxic activity [154]. In a separate work, vertically aligned ZnO nanorods were grown at 90°C on a Si substrate by microwave synthesis and compared with nanorods made by the traditional heated waterbath method changing the pH from 10.07 to 10.9. The microwave synthesis was performed at a power of 100 W [155]. The same group observed that the increase of ammonia led in both methods to sparser and longer nanorods with the larger diameter, as well as an increase of oxygen percentages in the samples. The microwave synthesized samples exhibit a uniform distribution of nanorods as well as a better crystalline structure with fewer defects than the heated water bath-grown samples, which can be beneficial for band-edge transition optoelectronic devices.
\nMicrowave synthesis and ultrasound sonication have proven numerous advantages and actually become amid the most frequently sought nanosized material synthesis methods [156, 157]. Zak et al. have used ultrasonication to synthesize ZnO nanostructures at room temperature without any specific conditions or organic solvents, starting from an as-prepared zinc solution where zinc acetate was dissolved in ammonia solution, and sodium hydroxide was dropped in the solution. Deionized water was wisely added till attaining a concentration of 1 M zinc. The ultrasonication performed at different durations was sufficient to stimulate the formation of nanostructures. XRD asserted the presence of hexagonal pure ZnO and the band gap energies estimated by UV-Vis spectra are 3.3, 3.22, and 3.2 eV for ZnO seeds, nanorods, and nanoflowers, respectively [158]. Ultrasound was conducted as well for the synthesis of different ZnO nanostructures without any organic solvents, surfactants, or templating agents; zinc acetate and sodium hydroxide in ionic liquids (ILs) are reported to be a green, fast, and effective, yet highly selective route to 0D, 1D, and 2D nanostructures of ZnO [134]. A facile calcination-free ultrasound assisted approach has been reported by Bhatte et al. involving zinc acetate as a metal source and 1, 3-propane diol as a solvent, base, stabilizer, and template for the growth of nanocrystalline ZnO [159]. The mixture of both materials has been sonicated under 22 kHz frequency for 2 h with a 5 s interval on-off pulse. After sonication, the formed ZnO was collected, washed and dried. XRD confirmed the successful formation of ZnO without any impurities [159].
\nFor the large-scale production of pure ZnO nanocrystallites, low thermal processes are one of the most efficient methods minimizing the generated waste yet implementing sustainable processes: simple, cheap, and nonpolluting, addressing the key issues that draw much consideration in a green solid-state synthetic method, by eliminating the use of nontoxic materials and reducing energy consumption. ZnO2 nanocrystallites were employed as the precursor for ZnO production, because of their facile preparation, the absence of unwanted by-products, and low-temperature decomposition reaction [160]. Zinc acetate and hydrogen peroxide were used first to synthesize ZnO2 nanocrystallites hydrothermally at 100°C for 12 h in an alkaline aqueous solution; the product was subjected to 180°C in air for 12 h yielding pure ZnO phase shaped nanocrystallites of 8–10 nm and blue shift at around 350 nm in the UV-Vis spectra [161].
\nZnO nanosized structures were also synthesized starting from zinc acetate and urea in a 1:1 stoichiometry, where the decomposition of urea helped the formation of ZnO. Then two different heating methods were applied: microwave hydrothermal (MH) method and waterbath heating. XRD proved the purity of the wurtzite phase for both methods, while FE-SEM showed a difference in shape regularity in favor of the MH process; thus, the MH method contributes to the production of spherical and uniform particles after a short processing time by enhancing the interface mobility and the diffusivity in the medium [162].
\nRaja et al. have reported a laboratory procedure based on sol-gel for the preparation of nano-ZnO particles. Zinc acetate solution was stirred at room temperature while adding sodium hydroxide until reaching a pH of 14 and the solution went through a microemulsion. The suspension obtained was transferred for thermal treatment at 180°C for 3 h, and then the white precipitate was collected, washed, centrifuged, and dried under vacuum to reveal well-shaped uniform ZnO nanoparticles of 35 nm on average [163].
\nAnother group has proposed a simple, eco-friendly approach to synthesize ZnO nanoparticles by using carboxylic curdlan (cc) as a reducing and stabilizing agent. A solution of zinc acetate was blended with cc aqueous solution and stirred at 70°C for 6 h, and then the outcome was freeze-dried [164]. The carboxyl group is in charge of chelating and reducing zinc ions for the sake of the formation of ZnO nanoparticles, thanks to the numerous negatively charged carboxyl groups it contains. The average diameter of cc-ZnO nanoparticles is around 58 nm exhibiting a band gap energy of 3.3 eV. Furthermore, the interaction between the as-prepared nanoparticles and bovine serum albumin (BSA) at room temperature was investigated, which suggested the formation of a certain complex revealed by a blue shift of the fluorescence peak by about 8 nm with increasing nanoparticle concentration, due to the binding of cc-ZnO nanoparticles and BSA [164].
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
\nAs an Open Access publisher, IntechOpen is dedicated to maintaining the highest ethical standards and principles in publishing. In addition, IntechOpen promotes the highest standards of integrity and ethical behavior in scientific research and peer-review. To maintain these principles IntechOpen has developed basic guidelines to facilitate the avoidance of Conflicts of Interest.
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\\n\\nA Conflict of Interest is a situation in which a person's professional judgment may be influenced by a range of factors, including financial gain, material interest, or some other personal or professional interest. For IntechOpen as a publisher, it is essential that all possible Conflicts of Interest are avoided. Each contributor, whether an Author, Editor, or Reviewer, who suspects they may have a Conflict of Interest, is obliged to declare that concern in order to make the publisher and the readership aware of any potential influence on the work being undertaken.
\\n\\nA Conflict of Interest can be identified at different phases of the publishing process.
\\n\\nIntechOpen requires:
\\n\\nCONFLICT OF INTEREST - AUTHOR
\\n\\nAll Authors are obliged to declare every existing or potential Conflict of Interest, including financial or personal factors, as well as any relationship which could influence their scientific work. Authors must declare Conflicts of Interest at the time of manuscript submission, although they may exceptionally do so at any point during manuscript review. For jointly prepared manuscripts, the corresponding Author is obliged to declare potential Conflicts of Interest of any other Authors who have contributed to the manuscript.
\\n\\nCONFLICT OF INTEREST – ACADEMIC EDITOR
\\n\\nEditors can also have Conflicts of Interest. Editors are expected to maintain the highest standards of conduct, which are outlined in our Best Practice Guidelines (templates for Best Practice Guidelines). Among other obligations, it is essential that Editors make transparent declarations of any possible Conflicts of Interest that they might have.
\\n\\nAvoidance Measures for Academic Editors of Conflicts of Interest:
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\\n\\nIf a manuscript is submitted by an Author who is a member of an Academic Editor's family or is personally or professionally related to the Academic Editor in any way, either as a friend, colleague, student or mentor, the work will be handled by a different Academic Editor who is not in any way connected to the Author.
\\n\\nCONFLICT OF INTEREST - REVIEWER
\\n\\nAll Reviewers are required to declare possible Conflicts of Interest at the beginning of the evaluation process. If a Reviewer feels he or she might have any material, financial or any other conflict of interest with regards to the manuscript being reviewed, he or she is required to declare such concern and, if necessary, request exclusion from any further involvement in the evaluation process. A Reviewer's potential Conflicts of Interest are declared in the review report and presented to the Academic Editor, who then assesses whether or not the declared potential or actual Conflicts of Interest had, or could be perceived to have had, any significant impact on the review itself.
\\n\\nEXAMPLES OF CONFLICTS OF INTEREST:
\\n\\nFINANCIAL AND MATERIAL
\\n\\nNON-FINANCIAL
\\n\\nAuthors are required to declare all potentially relevant non-financial, financial and material Conflicts of Interest that may have had an influence on their scientific work.
\\n\\nAcademic Editors and Reviewers are required to declare any non-financial, financial and material Conflicts of Interest that could influence their fair and balanced evaluation of manuscripts. If such conflict exists with regards to a submitted manuscript, Academic Editors and Reviewers should exclude themselves from handling it.
\\n\\nAll Authors, Academic Editors, and Reviewers are required to declare all possible financial and material Conflicts of Interest in the last five years, although it is advisable to declare less recent Conflicts of Interest as well.
\\n\\nEXAMPLES:
\\n\\nAuthors should declare if they were or they still are Academic Editors of the publications in which they wish to publish their work.
\\n\\nAuthors should declare if they are board members of an organization that could benefit financially or materially from the publication of their work.
\\n\\nAcademic Editors should declare if they were coauthors or they have worked on the research project with the Author who has submitted a manuscript.
\\n\\nAcademic Editors should declare if the Author of a submitted manuscript is affiliated with the same department, faculty, institute, or company as they are.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-09
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"In each instance of a possible Conflict of Interest, IntechOpen aims to disclose the situation in as transparent a way as possible in order to allow readers to judge whether a particular potential Conflict of Interest has influenced the Work of any individual Author, Editor, or Reviewer. IntechOpen takes all possible Conflicts of Interest into account during the review process and ensures maximum transparency in implementing its policies.
\n\nA Conflict of Interest is a situation in which a person's professional judgment may be influenced by a range of factors, including financial gain, material interest, or some other personal or professional interest. For IntechOpen as a publisher, it is essential that all possible Conflicts of Interest are avoided. Each contributor, whether an Author, Editor, or Reviewer, who suspects they may have a Conflict of Interest, is obliged to declare that concern in order to make the publisher and the readership aware of any potential influence on the work being undertaken.
\n\nA Conflict of Interest can be identified at different phases of the publishing process.
\n\nIntechOpen requires:
\n\nCONFLICT OF INTEREST - AUTHOR
\n\nAll Authors are obliged to declare every existing or potential Conflict of Interest, including financial or personal factors, as well as any relationship which could influence their scientific work. Authors must declare Conflicts of Interest at the time of manuscript submission, although they may exceptionally do so at any point during manuscript review. For jointly prepared manuscripts, the corresponding Author is obliged to declare potential Conflicts of Interest of any other Authors who have contributed to the manuscript.
\n\nCONFLICT OF INTEREST – ACADEMIC EDITOR
\n\nEditors can also have Conflicts of Interest. Editors are expected to maintain the highest standards of conduct, which are outlined in our Best Practice Guidelines (templates for Best Practice Guidelines). Among other obligations, it is essential that Editors make transparent declarations of any possible Conflicts of Interest that they might have.
\n\nAvoidance Measures for Academic Editors of Conflicts of Interest:
\n\nFor manuscripts submitted by the Academic Editor (or a scientific advisor), an appropriate person will be appointed to handle and evaluate the manuscript. The appointed handling Editor's identity will not be disclosed to the Author in order to maintain impartiality and anonymity of the review.
\n\nIf a manuscript is submitted by an Author who is a member of an Academic Editor's family or is personally or professionally related to the Academic Editor in any way, either as a friend, colleague, student or mentor, the work will be handled by a different Academic Editor who is not in any way connected to the Author.
\n\nCONFLICT OF INTEREST - REVIEWER
\n\nAll Reviewers are required to declare possible Conflicts of Interest at the beginning of the evaluation process. If a Reviewer feels he or she might have any material, financial or any other conflict of interest with regards to the manuscript being reviewed, he or she is required to declare such concern and, if necessary, request exclusion from any further involvement in the evaluation process. A Reviewer's potential Conflicts of Interest are declared in the review report and presented to the Academic Editor, who then assesses whether or not the declared potential or actual Conflicts of Interest had, or could be perceived to have had, any significant impact on the review itself.
\n\nEXAMPLES OF CONFLICTS OF INTEREST:
\n\nFINANCIAL AND MATERIAL
\n\nNON-FINANCIAL
\n\nAuthors are required to declare all potentially relevant non-financial, financial and material Conflicts of Interest that may have had an influence on their scientific work.
\n\nAcademic Editors and Reviewers are required to declare any non-financial, financial and material Conflicts of Interest that could influence their fair and balanced evaluation of manuscripts. If such conflict exists with regards to a submitted manuscript, Academic Editors and Reviewers should exclude themselves from handling it.
\n\nAll Authors, Academic Editors, and Reviewers are required to declare all possible financial and material Conflicts of Interest in the last five years, although it is advisable to declare less recent Conflicts of Interest as well.
\n\nEXAMPLES:
\n\nAuthors should declare if they were or they still are Academic Editors of the publications in which they wish to publish their work.
\n\nAuthors should declare if they are board members of an organization that could benefit financially or materially from the publication of their work.
\n\nAcademic Editors should declare if they were coauthors or they have worked on the research project with the Author who has submitted a manuscript.
\n\nAcademic Editors should declare if the Author of a submitted manuscript is affiliated with the same department, faculty, institute, or company as they are.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-09
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