The criteria determining the existence of copyright in databases.
\r\n\tDespite all efforts to find the cause of fever, around 15% FUO cases still remain without a clear diagnose. Such cases will also be looked upon in the book, along with a discussion about the likely causes, approaches and treatment management.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:null,priceUsd:null,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8ae318ffcea4989e6b0a1827cecd8316",bookSignature:"Dr. Arun Agarwal",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7951.jpg",keywords:"Definition, Pathogenesis, Patient Approach, Tropic Fever, Rash, Cytopenia, Fever In ICU, Infectious Causes, Non-infectious Causes, FUO Type, Patterns, Fever Management",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 13th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 6th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 5th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 24th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 22nd 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"250176",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",middleName:null,surname:"Agarwal",slug:"arun-agarwal",fullName:"Arun Agarwal",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250176/images/system/250176.jpg",biography:"Dr. Agrawal graduated in 1989 from SMS Medical College, Jaipur and did his senior\nresidency at Sir Ganga Ram Hospital, New Delhi and Hindu Rao Hospital, Delhi. He is\npresently working as Director of Department of Internal Medicine at Fortis Escorts\nHospital, Jaipur (FEHJ). He is also associated with Narayana Multispecialty Hospital\n(NMHJ) l and Bhagwan Mahaveer Cancer Hospital and Research Centre (BMCHRC),\nJaipur. Major part of his work is focused on critical patients. He has been an executive member of ISCCM Jaipur for the past 6 years and presently he is vice president of the ISCCM Jaipur. He published a lot of articles including original research articles in national and international peer reviewed journals. He is also a peer reviewer in various national and international journals. \nHe was recently awarded Dr. J.C. Patel and Dr. B.C. Mehta Best Paper Award in 2016 by\nAPI for his original article. His areas of interest are tropical fever, Dengue fever, FUO, AOSD, sepsis and hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis.",institutionString:"Fortis Escorts Hospital",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"177731",firstName:"Dajana",lastName:"Pemac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/177731/images/4726_n.jpg",email:"dajana@intechopen.com",biography:"As a Commissioning Editor at IntechOpen, I work closely with our collaborators in the selection of book topics for the yearly publishing plan and in preparing new book catalogues for each season. This requires extensive analysis of developing trends in scientific research in order to offer our readers relevant content. Creating the book catalogue is also based on keeping track of the most read, downloaded and highly cited chapters and books and relaunching similar topics. I am also responsible for consulting with our Scientific Advisors on which book topics to add to our catalogue and sending possible book proposal topics to them for evaluation. Once the catalogue is complete, I contact leading researchers in their respective fields and ask them to become possible Academic Editors for each book project. Once an editor is appointed, I prepare all necessary information required for them to begin their work, as well as guide them through the editorship process. I also assist editors in inviting suitable authors to contribute to a specific book project and each year, I identify and invite exceptional editors to join IntechOpen as Scientific Advisors. I am responsible for developing and maintaining strong relationships with all collaborators to ensure an effective and efficient publishing process and support other departments in developing and maintaining such relationships."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"71064",title:"Legal Issues Arising in Open Scientific Data",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91713",slug:"legal-issues-arising-in-open-scientific-data",body:'\nThis chapter aims to answer the question: what are the legal impediments to providing open access to, and the reuse of, research data that is publicly funded?
\nMore specifically, this chapter aims to ascertain the boundaries for the release and reuse of data and/or databases, considering the current and recently proposed legal and policy frameworks and exceptions to copyright infringement.
\nThe chapter consists of the following parts:
\n1. Copyright in research data
\n2. Ownership of research data
\n3. Licencing models for open scientific data
\n4. Different types of data reuse
\n5. Privacy and confidentiality issues in research data reuse
The preceding chapters examined the many barriers to open data—with the lack of understanding of the concept of data, change of research practices and culture, attendant change management, research data management and funding issues being identified as the most prominent barriers to facilitating open access. There are, however, several legal issues associated with open research data in general and databases in particular. This chapter discusses these issues arising at two critical stages—namely, data release and data reuse. These issues are investigated in two parts.
\nThe first part examines the legal issues arising in data release. The focus is on intellectual property rights, especially copyright in data and databases. There is also the uncertainty around data ownership, which is identified as the root cause of subsequent problems affecting data licencing, the lack of interoperability and clarity around the conditions governing data reuse. The chapter goes on to examine some relevant licencing models.
\nThe second part concentrates on practical matters around data reuse—the need to regard intellectual property rights, where relevant, and the need of governments to facilitate text and data mining. It examines different types of data reuses and whether these can infringe different kinds of rights. Finally, the second part considers the specific issue of the privacy of research subjects and the tensions researchers face between the duty of confidentiality and the requirements to share data.
\nData and databases play central roles in facilitating open access to scientific results. Legal protection of them does, therefore, strongly affect how scientists and researchers use data. The question of whether research data falls under intellectual property protection is a complex subject that is dependent on the nature of the data and the conditions under which the data is created, structured, and used. The legal basis for the protection is the existence of international legal frameworks, especially copyright frameworks, which also cover data and collections of data.1 The international copyright framework is explored in the following sections. This is followed by an analysis of copyright law as it applies to data and data collections in several jurisdictions—Australia, the United States, and the European Union.
\nThe scope of copyright protection and associated rights and the extent of the exclusive rights enjoyed by copyright owners are governed by several international treaties. Out of these, the Berne Convention, signed in 1886, is the oldest.2 The Convention had the objective of providing a solution to the absence of international recognition for the copyright protection regimes of individual countries.
\nOver time, the Convention has evolved to establish the standards for the minimum level of copyright protection that all parties to it should implement. Those standards have been modified periodically as the notion of property has become more prominent. The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) of 1994 [382] and the WIPO Copyright Treaty (WCT) of 1996 [383] have built on the Berne framework to accommodate advances in technology3—including software, databases, and the protection measures that new technologies both enable and require. Consequently, all parties to the Berne Convention—including Australia, the United States, and all member states of the European Union4—have used the framework set by the above-mentioned international treaties to develop national copyright law.
\nThe scope of copyright protection in the Berne Convention is defined in Article 2, which includes quite a detailed listing of protected works, including:
The expression of ‘literary and artistic works’ shall include every production in the literary, scientific and artistic domain, whatever may be the mode or form of its expression, such as books, pamphlets and other writings; lectures, addresses, sermons and other works of the same nature; … photographic works to which are assimilated works expressed by a process analogous to photography; … illustrations, maps, plans …5
Applying this definition to scientific outputs, it follows that scientific publications, regardless of their formats, are subject to copyright protection. However, the situation is not straightforward when it comes to research data that is often just a collection of facts, typically collated using automated or semiautomated instruments or scientific equipment. But, in addition, seemingly uncreative collections of data, such as phone directories, have in recent years sparked litigation and have stimulated policy debates about the extent to which copyright applies (or should apply) to the data.
\nThere are two reasons behind the lack of clarity around the existence of copyright in research data.
\nThe first is that the scope of ‘research data’ is extremely broad—data can be anything that researchers consider to be the evidence supporting their findings, as discussed in Chapter 4. It can be unstructured data, or it can be a vast dataset, or it can be a figure, a table, or a photograph embedded in these objects. Some of these data elements may be subject to copyright, while others are not.
\nThe second reason is that the application of copyright to data and compilations of data raises many issues. This is largely because the concept of ‘data’ is a new concept, created in the computer age, while copyright law emerged at the time of printed publications.
\nAt first sight, it may appear that copyright regimes do not apply to data and datasets. Simple facts and ideas do not qualify for copyright protection, whereas the original expression of ideas, classified as ‘works’, may qualify [384]. Research data in its own right is unlikely to meet the originality standards and, therefore, is unlikely to qualify as a protectable subject matter.
\nHowever, copyright can apply to original compilations of data and thus to databases. As discussed in more detail below, courts have confirmed this distinction. Different jurisdictions have assessed the way in which the balance between the ‘works’ and ideas has been achieved (in the selection and/or arrangement of data) as the test of originality that applies to collections of data, tables, and compilations. The test varies from country to country, as summarised in Table 5.6
\nThe criteria determining the existence of copyright in databases.
The position in Australia on the copyright in compilations and databases was settled by the High Court in IceTV Pty Ltd v Nine Network Australia Pty Ltd [385] and subsequently by the Full Federal Court in Telstra Corporation Limited v Phone Directories Company Pty Ltd [386].
\nHistorically, the common law measure was that originality could be demonstrated by the application of ‘skill’, ‘effort’ or ‘judgement’ (the doctrine of ‘sweat of the brow’), as Sackville summarised:
The course of authority in the United Kingdom and Australia recognises that originality in a factual compilation may lie in the labour and expense involved in collecting the information recorded in the work, as distinct from the ‘creative’ exercise of skill or judgement, or the application of intellectual effort [387].
Earlier Australian cases were considered in Desktop Marketing Systems Pty Ltd v Telstra Corporation Ltd.7 This centred on Telstra’s White Pages and Yellow Pages—compilations of names, addresses, and telephone numbers—and the ‘headings book’, produced by Telstra for use in classifying listings, and whether they constituted original literary works. In its judgement, the court found that this was indeed the case. Specifically, the court found that compilations of facts could qualify as original literary works if skill, judgement, and knowledge were exercised in compiling or arranging the facts or if substantial effort and expense were incurred during that process [388]. Therefore, it was recognised that the originality test was satisfied by this limited form of intellectual input.
\nIn IceTV, the High Court considered copyright in programming guides, the Weekly Schedules, produced by the television broadcaster Nine Network Australia. The question of originality was considered in terms of whether taking the time and title data was taking a substantial part of the copyright work.
\nAt first instance, Bennett held that the ‘slivers’ of information taken were not of a sufficiently substantial quality to be considered a substantial part. Specifically, she held that only the labour and skill involved in putting together the guide (the expression of the information) were relevant, and not the labour and skill involved in the programming decisions (the creation of the information). However, the Full Federal Court took a wider view—it found that data with the time and title was the ‘centrepiece’ of the guides, and so it concluded that the taking of time and title data amounted to taking a substantial part of the copyright work [385].
\nIn the High Court [389], Gummow, Hayne, and Heydon found that the originality of the weekly programming schedules was in the selection and presentation of the information on times and titles and then packaged with additional program information and program synopses to make up a composite whole. However, the preparatory work involved in producing the time and title information was not relevant to substantiality, and there was left only ‘the extremely modest skill and labour’. They also cautioned against reliance on the Desktop Marketing emphasis on appropriation of skill and labour, suggesting that the reasoning was out of line with the understanding of copyright law over many years [385].
\nOne year later, in 2010, the Full Federal Court applied these principles in Telstra Corporation Ltd v Phone Directories Co Pty Ltd [390, 391]. In this case, Telstra claimed copyright in the content, form, and arrangement for each listing and enhancement in the White Pages and the Yellow Pages; in the overall structure of the listings in both directories; and in the headings, the presentation of the listings under headings, and the cross-referencing in the Yellow Pages. Both the Federal Court at first instance and the Full Federal Court on appeal found that the directories were not original works. A unanimous Full Federal Court affirmed that copyright did not apply to the White Pages and Yellow Pages as compilations because the works lacked ‘human authors’ who exercised ‘independent intellectual effort’ to create the form of the directories.8
\nJustice Keane and Justice Perram agreed that it was not necessary to name each author; the only requirement was to demonstrate that authors existed. If individuals had reduced the directories to material form through manual effort or had controlled a computer program in fashioning the form of the work, then the directories would have been original works. On this occasion, however, the task of transforming the information into a form ready for publication was carried out by software alone. Perram held that although humans were ultimately in control of the software, their control was over an automated process, and they did not directly form the material themselves. Therefore, there was no author of the directories and copyright did not exist in them [391].9
\nTo summarise, as the consequence of the IceTV and Phone Directories cases, for a database to be eligible for copyright protection, it must meet the triple requirement that:
\n1. The data compilation must not be copied.
\n2. A human author must be involved in reducing or converting the database to a material form.
\n3. There must be some independent intellectual effort directed to expressing the work in the material form.10
\nBased on these criteria, it appears unlikely that research data created and arranged in databases in Australia would fall under the scope of copyright protection.11
\nFurthermore, copyright owners in Australia also have certain related rights, specifically moral rights—the right of integrity of authorship, the right of attribution of authorship, and the right against false attribution of ownership where copyright exceptions allow certain uses of copyrighted material without the authorisation of rights holders. Australia’s copyright system includes an exception for ‘fair dealing’ for research or study ([392], p. 484). However, since it is unlikely that ‘data’ and ‘databases’ produced in Australia are subject to copyright, there is no need to apply the exemption to research data.
\nA database is protected by the United States Copyright Act of 1976 [393] as a compilation, defined as:
… a work formed by the collection and assembling of pre-existing materials or of data that are selected, coordinated, or arranged in such a way that the resulting work as a whole constitutes an original work of authorship.12
The concept of originality was further defined by the Supreme Court in Feist Publications, Inc. v. Rural Telephone Service Company, Inc. The Supreme Court held that:
Although a compilation of facts may possess the requisite originality because the author typically chooses which facts to include, in what order to place them, and how to arrange the data so that readers may use them effectively, copyright protection extends only to those components of the work that are original to the author, not to the facts themselves… As a constitutional matter, copyright protects only those elements of a work that possess more than de minimis quantum of creativity. Rural’s white pages, limited to basic subscriber information and arranged alphabetically, fall short of the mark. As a statutory matter, 17 U.S.C. Section 101 does not afford protection from copying to a collection of facts that are selected, coordinated, and arranged in a way that utterly lacks originality [394].
The Copyright Act is specific in stating that the copyright in a compilation applies only to the compilation itself, and not to the source data ([393], Par. 103(b)). The decision in Feist confirmed that ‘raw facts’ have no protection under copyright law. Compilations of those facts require the application of a ‘modicum’ of creativity to be protected by copyright.
\nThe originality requirement does not appear to be particularly stringent:
Original requires only that the author make the selection or arrangement independently … and that it display some minimal level of creativity. Presumably, the vast majority of compilations will pass the test.13
However, the selection in the rural telephone directory did not pass the test, for lack of the ‘modicum’ of creativity.
\nThe criteria for ‘modicum’ are established as ‘those constituent elements of a work that possess more than a de minimis quantum of creativity’.14 Even a slight amount of creativity will suffice—‘some creative spark, no matter how crude, humble, or obvious it might be’.15 Furthermore, the modicum of creativity must be ‘independently created by the author’.16 The absence of creativity is manifested in an ‘entirely typical’ or ‘garden-variety’ end product constructed by processes which correspond to ‘an automatic mechanical procedure’17 or to a so … routine process.18
\nBased on this reasoning, copyright law in the United States does not, in theory, appear to prevent the extraction of unprotected data from an otherwise protectable database. However, ‘original’ compilations of research data are likely to be subject to copyright protection which has repercussions for data licencing and may limit the possibilities for the sharing and reuse of data structured in databases. Only copyright holders can licence the data, and, in some cases, there would be multiple owners of copyright in one dataset resulting in copyright co-authorship of the work. That can create problems with data licencing unless all authors agree to the same licence conditions or waive their copyright. Furthermore, the distinction between raw facts (not covered by the protection) and a compilation of raw facts (to which copyright protection extends) is also not clearly delineated, especially in the cases of subsequent copies and derivatives of databases involving the original raw facts.
\nCopyright law in the European Union has developed using the framework established by international treaties, such as the Berne Convention signed by all European Union member states, or by treaties to which the European Union is a signatory member in its own right, such as the WCT and TRIPS. These treaties are implemented through several European Union Directives—namely, the Directive on the legal protection of computer programs (Software Directive) [395], the Directive on rental and lending rights [396], the Directive on satellite broadcasting and cable retransmission [397], the Directive on the term of protection [398], the Directive on the legal protection of databases (Database Directive) [399], the Directive on the harmonisation of copyright and related rights in the information society [400], the Directive on the resale right [401], the Directive on certain permitted uses of orphan works [402], and the recently adopted Directive on collective rights management [403].
\nThe European Union provides the strongest, double layer of protection of databases facilitated by the copyright laws and the Database Directive, which introduced a sui generis database right. As such, databases are, in the first instance, protected by copyright when the selection or the arrangement of the database represents its author’s own intellectual creation. This layer of protection covers only the database structure, not its content, as is the position in the United States. The second layer of protection is the sui generis database right, which protects the content of the database—in the cases where there has been a substantial investment in the obtaining, presentation, or verification of the data—from acts of extraction (copying) and reutilisation (redistribution, communication to the public, etc.) of the whole or a substantial part of the contents of the database [404]. If the database meets the requirements for protection under both copyright law and the sui generis database rights, then the two types of protection are cumulative.19
\nWith reference to the first layer, the test for originality has been harmonised across the European Union with regard to software20 and databases21 and photographic works22 in the two relevant Directives mentioned previously. The European Court of Justice in Infopaq International A/S v Danske Dagblades Forening clarified the requirement of originality as the ‘author’s own intellectual creation’ and established that the originality of a work must be assessed through its ‘elements’:
Regarding the elements of such works covered by the protection, it should be observed that they consist of words which, considered in isolation, are not as such an intellectual creation of the author who employs them. It is only through the choice, sequence and combination of those words that the author may express his creativity in an original manner and achieve a result which is an intellectual creation.23
In Football Dataco Ltd et al. v Yahoo! UK Ltd, the European Court clarified the position with regard to the threshold of originality in databases as follows:
… the fact that the setting up of the database required, irrespective of the creation of the data which it contains, significant labour and skill of its author … cannot as such justify the protection of it by copyright under Directive 96/9, if that labour and that skill do not express any originality in the selection or arrangement of that data [405].
Furthermore, the Directive does not provide for database right protection to apply to every aggregation of data. For example, databases that arise as a by-product of doing business do not attract database right protection. The sui generis database right of protection applies only if the creators have invested sufficient time, money, and skill into developing their database. The substantial investment must be either in the obtaining, verification, or presentation of the database contents.24 This requirement was first tested in the British Horseracing Board Ltd v William Hill Organisation Ltd [406], in which the European Court of Justice found that ‘obtaining’ excludes the costs incurred in the creation of new data from being considered relevant to satisfy the requirement of the substantial investment:
… the expression investment in … the obtaining … of the contents of a database must … be understood to refer to the resources used to seek out existing independent materials and collect them in the database, and not to the resources used for the creation as such of independent materials. The purpose of the protection by the sui generis right provided for by the directive is to promote the establishment of storage and processing systems for existing information and not the creation of materials capable of being collected subsequently in a database.25
As such, the costs incurred in creating data for a database cannot be considered ‘substantial investment’. However, the costs necessary for the verification of the accuracy of the data and for the presentation of such data to third parties do count in the assessment of whether the investment was substantial. This differentiation can also be used to extend the term of the protection granted under the sui generis right. The moment the database is completed or disclosed to the public, this right arises automatically, without any formal requirement. Protection under the database right is limited to 15 years, in theory. However, in practice, it has the potential to be perpetual. If the database is periodically updated, and such updating includes a substantial investment in reconfirming the accuracy of the information contained in it, then the period of protection can be continually renewed.26 This is because the creator will have a new right to the altered database or its substantial part.
\nFrom the above, it is apparent that the scope of the sui generis database right goes well beyond the scope of copyright protection. The owner of the protected database has the exclusive right to prevent the extraction and/or reutilisation of the whole or of a substantial part, whether evaluated qualitatively and/or quantitatively, of the contents of that database.27 Yet enforcing those rights and demonstrating that database rights apply has been a high bar to satisfy before the courts. The above-mentioned Football Dataco case to enforce database rights failed. So did the British Horseracing Board case.
\nHowever, the situation may be changing in the wake of the 2013 decision by the Court of Justice in Innoweb BV v Wegener ICT Media BV and Wegener Mediaventions BV [408]. In this case the court held that, in the European Union, the operators of aggregator websites that allow users to search for content on external databases, and provide the same search functionality as those source sites, and then display the found content on the aggregator sites may breach the database rights of the owners of the original content. In other words, in this situation the reutilisation of dataset content offends the protection for sui generis rights of the database creator that is provided under Article 7(1) and (5) [409].
\nThis case is interesting in that it further prevents copying and reusing database content, even though it is questionable whether the original database at issue would have met the substantial investment criteria. The above judgement strengthens the position of database right owners. At the same time, it signals that others, for example, researchers or public libraries, must take care when designing their own search technologies that interrogate the databases created by other parties and then present that information within their own websites.
\nThe broad scope of the sui generis database right and its interpretation by the courts are not a welcome development for open data. In many respects, the sui generis database right in Europe provides database rights holders more protection than the creators of original works can enjoy under copyright law.
\nTherefore, using somebody else’s data produced in the European Union carries an inherent risk of IP infringement, especially as the exceptions to the sui generis database right are extremely limited. The main exception provided by the Database Directive is for the material extracted to illustrate teaching or for scientific research, with due acknowledgement of the source and a limit to the extent that extraction is justified by the non-commercial purpose.28 Furthermore, there is no right of reutilisation for these purposes—it cannot be redistributed. An additional complication is the uncertainty of its reference to scientific research and whether this signifies ‘illustration for scientific research’, rather than simply ‘scientific research’. Finally, the meaning of ‘non-commercial purpose’ in a teaching or research environment is also complicated. Finally, this exception is not mandatory, and some European Union countries—including Ireland, France, and Italy—do not have it in national legislation [407].
\nTherefore, the data created by European research organisations may need different treatment from data produced in other parts of the world. The strong protection of databases in the European Union appears to be at odds with the commitment to develop a Digital Single Market and data-driven economy—of which open scientific data, particularly via the Open Science Data Cloud, is an important component. Some committees of the European Parliament have called on the European Commission to abolish the Database Directive.29 The committees have said they believed the Directive was ‘an impediment to the development of a European data-driven economy’.30 The European Commission appears to be aware of the limitations presented by the sui generis database right and has recently reaffirmed its commitment to develop the right environment and conditions for digital networks and services to flourish by providing, among other things, the right regulatory conditions [410]. Over 3 months in 2017, the Commission held public consultations on the application and impact of the Database Directive with the report following in 2018 [411].
\nAs the discussion above shows, all three jurisdictions considered in this study have now adopted a test that requires a level of creativity to determine the existence of copyright in selecting the contents for or arranging a database. With such a test, data produced by researchers, at least in its unstructured or semi-structured form, will most likely fail to qualify for copyright protection. The one difference is in the European Union, where most databases are likely to fall under the provision for sui generis database protection, provided substantial investments in the databases are made. In early stages of the open data process, some international funders have suggested that where research data is protected by copyright law, it is not a proper subject for open access ([412], p. 18). Over time, however, legal mechanisms have evolved that enable the IP issues to be appropriately managed.
\nSo how does the existence of copyright affect open scientific data and how can these issues be managed?
\nIn broad terms, research organisations are familiar with copyright and related rights as they apply to publications, and they are making open research data available on the assumption that copyright also applies to open scientific data. The adopted approach is that the IP issues can be managed through appropriate licencing mechanisms, which would allow research organisations to waive their rights in data and enable others to reuse the content without any restrictions. However, there are issues with this approach.
\nThe first is that the clearance of data rights is far more complex than clearing copyright and related rights in publications. There are two key reasons for this. One is that data owners must be identified in order to waive the rights and, unlike the initial rights in publications, the owners of research data may not be obvious. The second reason is that open data may include embedded objects and composite copyright that may be governed by multiple IP rights and multiple legal regimes. These concerns need to be managed and need to be managed early in the process.
\nI canvas these matters in the following sections—firstly, discussing data ownership, and then looking evolving licencing mechanisms for open scientific data.
\nAnecdotal evidence says that researchers, academics, students, and even academic researchers often believe that they own the data they collect in the course of their research. This position stems from their understanding that data and databases can be subject to copyright and, therefore, researchers are the legitimate owners because they have ‘created’ it. This view is incorrect. While they are employed to perform research, the data that researchers produce typically belongs to other parties. In most cases of researchers who are employees of a university or a research organisation, the rights to the data they produce is owned by their employers, pursuant to the operation of law31 or contractual assignment. In sponsored research, the research organisation typically owns the data but leaves the role of data steward to the principal investigator. In industry-funded research, the data typically belongs to the sponsor; however, the right to publish it can also be extended to the investigator. The position with regard to the ownership of research data in the three jurisdictions under investigation is detailed below.
\nThe ownership of research data in Australia is primarily determined by the organisation where the researchers work. It is currently the policy of the Australian Government to assert its ownership over intellectual property developed with public funding [392, 413]. This extends to apparently copyrighted data. The ownership of intellectual property in publicly funded research organisations is legislated, while most universities in Australia have in place internal procedures and employment contracts with their staff. Such contracts explicitly address the ownership of intellectual property, which also includes data.
\nMany universities have revised their internal IP ownership arrangements after the landmark decision in University of Western Australia vs Gray [414]. In this case, the university initiated legal proceedings against an employee to argue that the intellectual property, namely, patents, developed in the course of his employment belonged to the university. Dr. Bruce Gray was appointed as Professor of Surgery at the university in 1985. He carried out research, both before joining the university and after, on the use of microspheres to deliver anticancer agents to the sites of tumours. Dr. Gray filed various patent applications in relation to this work on behalf of a company, Sirtex Medical Ltd., of which he was a director. Subsequently, the company acquired the intellectual property from Dr. Gray. However, the university considered it had some rights to the intellectual property as a consequence of its employment of Dr. Gray to carry out research.
\nA decision by Justice French was delivered on 17 April 2008. The judgement effectively held that Dr. Gray’s employment contract, which included a duty to carry out research, did not include a duty to invent, and accordingly the IP in the inventions Dr. Gray developed was not owned by the university. Justice French also found that the IP regulations of the university, which purported to invest the intellectual property rights of academic staff in the university, were invalid.32 The university filed an appeal to the Full Bench of the Federal Court, which in its judgement on 3 September 2009 dismissed the appeal and confirmed the earlier decision of Justice French.
\nSeveral issues highlighted in the case can, by extrapolation, also be applied to the ownership of research data. Universities in Australia do not routinely rely on the operation of common law to assert their rights to academic IP. Instead, they make express provision for university ownership, typically by incorporating into academic employment contracts the terms of a university statute or policy to that effect. In the case of UWA, French J held that the IP regulations had not been validly passed or incorporated, and therefore the common law applied [415]. Since the decision, universities have amended their policies, and it is therefore unlikely that the common law further applies.
\nThe judgement highlighted the public function of universities. It specifically acknowledged that universities serve the public purpose by offering education, by supporting research facilities, and by awarding degrees. It found, also, that commercial activities performed by universities had not displaced its traditional functions to the extent that it became ‘limited to that of engaging academic staff for its own commercial purposes’ ([416], p. 184). French further held that academics are to set and pursue research priorities and to publish or share research results. He also said that these freedoms collide fatally with a duty to maintain the secrecy that employer patent ownership inevitably requires. As such, an implied term favouring university ownership would be ‘unsupported by a duty of confidence’,33 as in that case it would oddly mean that the academic ‘would have been free to destroy the potential patentability of an invention by progressively putting research results into the public domain’ ([416], p. 192). Alternatively, this view would be supported by an obligation of confidentiality, which is something so manifestly in opposition with traditional academic freedoms and practices that it cannot be maintained.34 This judgement explicitly states that the public function of universities comes first and any commercial considerations follow. As such, this position supports the case for open research data.
\nWith regard to the ownership of data produced in publicly funded research organisations, such as the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Section 54 of the Science and Industry Research Act 195435 provides that ‘discoveries, inventions, or improvements’ made by CSIRO officers in the course of their ‘official duties’ are owned by CSIRO, an Australian Government identity. The organisation also takes express assignments of IP in its employment agreements. As a result of the statutory provisions and these assignments, CSIRO controls, under Commonwealth executive approval, all research outputs created in the organisation—whether as data, publications, inventions, or other types of intellectual creations.
\nHowever, the CSIRO has not been at the forefront of research data sharing. Some of the data it produces is made publicly available by the organisation on its website, or in other publications, or via researchers (with CSIRO approval). However, only a few data sharing initiatives have emerged from the organisation—with the Atlas of Living, a free, online national biodiversity database being perhaps the best known.36
\nAt the same time, the organisation is strongly committed to research commercialisation. In recent years it has had a strict internal policy of confidentiality, and it appears that many researchers fear being criticised for giving away data that could potentially be used to generate revenue for the organisation. The position for confidentiality was supported by reasoning that the industry funds around 30% of CSIRO research. However, the remaining part is publicly funded, and the Australian Government increasingly expects greater returns from its investments in research.37
\nIn March 2017, the Productivity Commission, in its report on an inquiry into data availability, proposed that ‘the research community to put its house in order when it comes to data sharing’ [392]. It specifically recommended that the data of publicly funded research be available beyond the initial researchers.38 CSIRO is the largest and the most significant Australian publicly funded research organisation. Its organisational approaches to open research data therefore may need to change as the result of such recent reviews.
\nRather than focusing on data ownership, the Productivity Commission preferred to stress the need for greater access. The default position in Australia is that all data created with public money should be publicly accessible within a reasonable time unless there is a compelling reason not to make it available.39 The Australian Government announced in August 2017 that national, state, and territory governments should provide free and open access arrangements for all publicly funded research within 12 months of publication. This widens the Australian Government policy that presently governs grants from both the Australian Research Council and National Health and Medical Research Council.40 The Productivity Commission report covers some of this territory, even though the examination is not specific. The report offers innovative approaches to releasing medical data and addresses the issue of the privacy of research subjects, discussed in Section 7 of this chapter.
\nThe ownership of research data in the United States is typically determined by the employer of the researcher, similar to the position in Australia. As employees, researchers are hired by the university—which, in most cases, retains the rights to the data and other forms of expression. This principle is not open to debate as a legal matter [417]. A natural extension of this principle is that all the data created in the course of employment or with institutional support belongs to the employer. In federally sponsored research governed by the Bayh-Dole Act,41 the research organisation also owns the data but permits the principal investigator on the grant to control the data [418]. However, the investigator is just a caretaker, not the owner of the collected data. He/she has charge of the collection, recording, storage, retention, and disposal of data.42 More recently, the wording of research grants and contracts, and of the informed consent forms signed by participants in clinical trials, is also likely to delineate data ownership or disposition. The National Institutes of Health and the National Academies of Science include the requirements for data sharing among the terms and conditions of research grants, as discussed in Chapter 3.
\nUnlike the established practice in which academic institutions have often waived copyright in the literary and scholarly works of their researchers, universities and research organisations generally do not have an established tradition of abandoning ownership rights to data generated in the course of research by their employees. When faculty members leave an institution, they often negotiate with it to keep their grants and data. In industry-funded research, data typically belong to the sponsor, although in some instances the right to publish the data may be extended to the investigator.43
\nThe key focus in the United States has been on consideration of who may access the data developed in the course of scientific research. This was partially driven by the United States patent law, which, until 2014, was based on the ‘first to invent’ principle. Laboratory notebooks and other evidence developed in the course of academic research were often used as evidence of the inventiveness principle, and academic researchers often appeared as expert witnesses in courts.
\nThe focus on data access is still more dominant than discussion around data ownership. It is generally assumed that research organisations own the data of their researchers. However, the owner of the data does not always have control over it, as is the case in other types of intellectual property to which IP protection can apply. When it comes to research data, other parties may have legal access to it under prescribed conditions and for prescribed purposes. Moreover, data may be taken for public use without the need to seek the consent of the owner—subject to constitutional requirements for due process and fair compensation [419]. Ultimately, in the United States, the question of who owns the data appears to be less of a concern than the matter of the rights and responsibilities of data holders.
\nRecent years have seen increased calls from patients in the United States to claim rights in data they produce in the course of clinical trials, as previously outlined in Chapter 5. One controversial issue concerning data ownership concerns cell lines and DNA sequences, which can represent ‘data’ in clinical trials. Controversies have arisen concerning whether research subjects and patients actually own their own tissue or DNA.
\nSuch challenges are not new. A case brought by John Moore against the University of California in the late 1980s raised issues about whether a patient has ownership of his tissue that was used in research to develop a cell line that had commercial interests. In 1976 Moore had gone to the UCLA Medical Center seeking treatment for hairy cell leukaemia. The research performed on cells from his spleen led to the development of a patent 6 years later. Moore sued the University of California Regent as well as the company where his doctor was working, stating that the altered tissue was his own property and that he wanted to recover damages. The claimant also said that he had not been informed about the potential use of his tissue by the researcher. The California Supreme Court held that Moore had a right to sue the doctor for failing to inform Moore of what he intended to do with his cells [420]. However, Moore did not win the right of ownership of his cells nor any entitlement to the data and subsequent financial proceeds that might be generated from the research done using the cells. The court said that if all subjects had the right to their own tissue, it could hinder biomedical research.
\nThe court reasoned that before a body part is removed, it is the patient who possesses the right to determine the use of that part.44 However, the court construed that the removal of a body part with informed consent was an ‘abandonment’ of that part.45
\nThe judge did not say what rights (if any) others may have in the abandoned body part or whether such ‘data’ can be used for research purposes and shared subsequently. This issue is of utmost importance and has been brought back to the spotlight in relation to collecting newborn blood samples by some state governments, especially California. While collecting the samples to screen babies for genetic diseases requires the informed consent of the parents,46 the established practice was to store de-identified samples in a state database and to use them for federal research. In 2017, the Department of Health and Human Services and 15 other federal agencies jointly issued a ‘final rule’ that:
strengthens protections for people who volunteer to participate in research, while ensuring that the oversight system does not add inappropriate administrative burdens [422].
The effect of this rule is that researchers do not need consent to use de-identified blood spots and, in some cases, can even use identified blood spots without consent.47 Parents can, however, opt to destroy the blood samples after the newborn test is performed.
\nDraft legislation currently being considered by the European Union would specifically regulate ownership in data in general and research data in particular. In the context of the European Commission free flow of data initiative, the agency stated that:
… the barriers to the free flow of data are caused by the legal uncertainty surrounding the emerging issues on ‘data ownership’ or control, (re)usability and access to/transfer of data and liability arising from the use of data [423].
Data ownership in the European Union was recently considered by a private law firm [424], which found that European Union case law does not explicitly recognise an ownership right in data. However, the European Court of Justice opened the door for a discussion on ownership in intangible assets in its UsedSoft judgement issued on 3 July 2012 [425]. In this ruling, the court held that the commercial distribution of software via a download on the Internet involves the transfer of ownership [426]. Specifically, the CJEU held that the copyright holder’s exclusive distribution right in a computer program is exhausted upon the first sale of the program, including in a program downloaded over the Internet under a user licence agreement. The court held that such licencing involves the transfer of ownership. Therefore, the owner of copyright in software is unable to prevent a perpetual ‘licensee’ from reselling the ‘used software licences’.
\nFor data to be released in the public domain as open access, it must meet certain conditions. The Berlin Declaration defines such conditions as:
The author(s) and right holder(s) of the data grant(s) to all users a free, irrevocable, worldwide, right of access to, and a license to copy, use, distribute, transmit and display the work publicly and to make and distribute derivative works, in any digital medium for any responsible purpose, subject to proper attribution of authorship (community standards will continue to provide the mechanism for enforcement of proper attribution and responsible use of the published work, as they do now), as well as the right to make small numbers of printed copies for their personal use [63].
For research data to be open, specifically where exclusive ownership rights exist, it needs to be released (published) in the public domain under an open licence. Several licences have evolved over time to meet the specified conditions for ‘open scientific data’.
\nUnlike the other six licences developed by the Creative Commons, CC Zero (sometimes presented as CC0) is not a licence but rather a waiver, to the fullest extent permitted by law, of copyright and the full scope of related (or neighbouring) rights. The waiver was developed with an intention to facilitate the sharing of research data. Specifically, the person waiving their rights (the affirmer):
… overtly, fully, permanently, irrevocably and unconditionally waives, abandons, and surrenders all of Affirmer’s Copyright and Related Rights and associated claims and causes of action, whether now known or unknown (including existing as well as future claims and causes of action), in the Work (i) in all territories worldwide, (ii) for the maximum duration provided by applicable law or treaty (including future time extensions), (iii) in any current or future medium and for any number of copies, and (iv) for any purpose whatsoever, including without limitation commercial, advertising or promotional purposes [427].
Consequently, the waiver enables users of the data to copy, modify, distribute, and perform the work, even for commercial purposes and to do so without asking permission.
\nAn important point to mention is that, unlike the first three versions of the Creative Commons licences, the waiver covers both copyright and sui generis database rights. Further, CC Zero avoids problems with attribution stacking48 by removing the legal requirement to give attribution while acknowledging that the scientific community has a well-established culture and norms that encourage the recognition of sources. As such, CC Zero is the recommended tool for releasing research data into the public domain.
\nCreative Commons 4.0 is a suite of standard, globally applicable terms that allow anyone to openly licence all forms of creative works and datasets. These public licences are exceptionally user-friendly and enable copyright owners to licence their works on the Internet and elsewhere. Unless directed otherwise (by research funders, scientific organisations, or other owners of copyright in research data), owners can choose the conditions for the future reuse of the works. These may include Attribution (BY), Non-Commercial Use (NC), No-Derivatives (ND), and Share Alike (SA). A tool on the Creative Commons website can generate text, taking into account the conditions selected, by which the copyright owner may grant a worldwide, non-exclusive, perpetual licence to any user to reproduce, display, perform, communicate, and distribute copies of that work.49 The same licence permits any future reuse of the work according to the stipulated conditions and without the need to contact the copyright owner. The licence applies to all media and formats, whether known now or subsequently devised. All Creative Commons 4.0 licences are irrevocable, meaning that once the licenced work is distributed on the Internet, the author can no longer change the type of licence or withdraw it.
\nThe Creative Commons 4.0 licences are widely used in the context of scholarly publication and the dissemination of research results. The current (fourth) iteration of the licences is recommended, as it also provides for the sui generis rights in the European Union and includes mechanisms to avoid attribution stacking (in the case attribution is selected).50
\nThe development of the Creative Commons 4.0 licences has eliminated the need to apply other licences to scientific contents. One such example is the Public Domain Dedication and Licence previously developed by the Open Knowledge Foundation and used in some European Union countries. This strongly resembled the CC Zero waiver; however, it was designed to enable licencing of databases and its contents in the European Union, paying particular attention to the European sui generis database right. With the adoption of the fourth iteration of the Creative Commons licences, many European organisations now recommend solely one suite of licences, namely, the CC Zero waiver and 4.0 licences.
\nGiven that copyright is unlikely to apply to data itself, but instead applies to original compilations of the data, it follows that much data is arguably not subject to copyright protection. This is, for example, the current position in Australia with regard to computer-generated data. Another example that would seem to be exempted from copyright protection is unstructured data developed in the course of a research project or harnessed by other means from scientific equipment. The lack of copyright protection in data is the general position with regard to data generated in the United States.
\nThis raises interesting questions about whether any property rights can be claimed in such ‘data without author’ and what the legal basis for such a claim might be. Arguably, data that is not subject to copyright protection can still constitute ‘confidential information’ or other forms of ‘intellectual property’ especially if the data is governed by contractual arrangements with industry or other research collaborations. In these cases, any property rights in such ‘data without author’ would be most likely determined in the contracts. However, since the data is not subject to copyright protection, and thus does not have an author, issues arise with regard to how to release the data in the public domain. In such cases, when no rights are attached to research data, then there is no ground for licencing the data. Standard copyright licences, such as the Creative Commons licences, are not appropriate.51
\nThere are two ways institutions have chosen to release research data to which copyright does not apply. Some organisations in the United States release their data in the public domain without a licence. This was the early approach taken by the Harvard-MIT Data Center. Secondly, some organisations in the United States release data under the CC Zero waiver, and this seems to be the recommended practice for sharing research data and databases [180]. Such an approach is preferred because it signals to future data users that the data is without any legal restrictions on reuse.
\nCreative Commons has also developed the Public Domain Mark (PDM) with a view to enabling marking of materials, including data, which belong to the public domain. Unlike the CC Zero waiver, which can only be used by copyright holders, PDM can be used by anyone.
\nPDM is not a legal tool in any respect. It was developed with a view to acting as a label, marking material that is free of known copyright restrictions [428]. However, Creative Commons currently does not recommend the PDM for materials for which the copyright status differs from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, even though the tools for marking and tagging such works are currently under development. In the absence of these marking tools, there is a concern that the PDM tool might be used to overwrite the rights of lawful copyright owners. Therefore, using PDM to release research data is not recommended, and the CC Zero waiver has become an established norm around the world.
\nThe previous section described the challenges associated with data release. I now move to describe the challenges arising in data reuse.
\nThis study has identified three such issues: firstly, the inability of data users to perform automated analysis and mining of digital data; secondly, ensuring the ethical use of data and limiting the risks of inaccurate interpretation; and lastly, ensuring the privacy and confidentiality of research subjects involved in clinical trials. These challenges are examined below.
\nLegal uncertainty remains with regard to certain data uses and reuses in the digital environment. Typically, linking and mining of data and text are necessary to extract value and insights from datasets or other forms of data. However, such uses may constitute copyright infringement.
\nThis uncertainty stems from several factors. Firstly, databases and some forms of data may be protected by copyright, as discussed above. Secondly, such data may be available in the public domain, but is not open, meaning that a prospective user can access the data but may not be able to reuse it or is unaware of the terms under which the data may be reused. Thirdly, new types of data uses, such as linking and mining, may cover several data sources and span several jurisdictions. Making temporary copies of the data is usually necessary to perform large-scale data analyses. Yet the act of copying is not clearly covered in the scope of exceptions and limitations to copyright infringement. Moreover, the scope of these exceptions varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, and this may hinder data interoperability and reusability.
\nText and data mining generally involves automatically collecting information and extracting data and insights from digital data by means of software. Citing various legal and literature sources, the European Parliament has defined the process of text and data mining in these terms:
\nTDM works by:
\n1. Identifying input materials to be analysed, such as works, or data individually collected or organised in a pre-existing database
\n2. Copying substantial quantities of materials which encompasses:
Pre-processing materials by turning them into a machine-readable format compatible with the technology to be deployed for the TDM so that structured data can be extracted
Possibly, but not necessarily, uploading the pre-processed materials on a platform, depending on the TDM technique to be deployed
3. Extracting the data
\n4. Recombining it to identify patterns into the final output ([429], p. 5)
\nThe nub of the problem with text and data mining is the requirement to create a temporary copy of the data. While data itself is not protected by copyright and/or the sui generis right, a database might be, especially if substantial parts of the original database are extracted for purposes other than research or learning.
\nPublishers have typically taken a sceptical approach to allowing text mining, even for research purposes, and instead have promoted obtaining a licence on a case-by-case basis. This is time-consuming and involves high transaction costs. Some academic journal publishers, such as Elsevier and Oxford University Press, allow text and data mining for non-commercial use [430]. This permission overrides the need to seek permission from the publishers to reuse the content. However, permissions that specifically address data mining are uncommon at this time.
\nThere are two principal ways to ensure that text and data mining does not infringe copyright law. The first is the fair use doctrine enshrined in the United States copyright law; the second is the system of exceptions and limitations embedded in Australian and European Union law. The United States system is considered more favourable to text and data mining due to its inherent flexibility. Many scholars and policymakers have argued that Europe lags behind the United States in unlocking the value of data because of its inflexible copyright laws.52
\nThe fair use doctrine is stipulated in Paragraph 107 of the United States Copyright Act [393]. The application of the doctrine requires consideration of several factors to determine whether a certain use of copyrighted works indeed constitutes ‘fair use’. These include factors such as:
… the purpose and character of the use, including whether such use is of a commercial nature or is for non-profit educational purposes; the nature of the copyrighted work; the amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to the copyrighted work as a whole; and the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work [431].
The factors are weighed as a whole, and so the claimant need not win on every factor for a court to rule in favour of fair use.
\nMore recently, the use of text and data mining was considered in the cases involving the Google Books Library Project, especially in the Authors Guild, Inc. et al. v. HathiTrust [432]. In this matter, Google had created digital copies of books held in university libraries and then provided digital copies to HathiTrust Inc., which developed a searchable database for use by researchers and scholars. The search results included ‘snippets’ of text. Judge Chin held that the digitisation of books by Google was ‘highly transformative’ as it adds value, serves several important educational purposes, and may enhance the sale of books to the benefit of copyright owners. In this reasoning, the judge explicitly referred to ‘text and data mining’ as a new area and method of research.53 A similar judgement by the district court for the Southern District of New York explicitly referenced the benefit of Google Books to TDM, noting that it ‘transformed the book text into data for the purpose of substantive research, including data mining and text mining in new areas’ [433]. While the consideration of fair use varies from case to case, the previous judgements indicate that text and data mining is likely to be considered ‘fair use’, especially if undertaken in the course of research.
\nAs it stands, Australian copyright law does not currently allow text and data mining of large datasets. Australia does not have a text and data mining exemption but has, on several occasions,54 considered introducing a fair use system similar to that of the United States in place of the current ‘fair dealing’ system. However, the response of the Australian Government to these reviews is lacking. The current ‘fair dealing’ system allows certain limited exceptions for use of copyrighted works for criticism and review, research and study, reporting the news, use in judicial proceedings, and parody and satire.
\nThe 2014 review by the Australian Law Reform Commission specifically considered the effects of text and data mining in the context of copyright law. In that review, it was concluded that where the text or data mining involves the copying, digitisation, or reformatting of copyright material without permission of the copyright owners, it may give rise to copyright infringement [434], especially if the whole dataset needs to be copied and converted into a suitable format (such as XML format). In such cases, the copying would exceed a ‘reasonable portion’ of the work and so fall under the scope of infringement. The inquiry also said that it ‘seemed unlikely’ that text and data mining might fall under the temporary reproduction of work exception. The recommendation was to introduce the ‘fair use’ system based on the United States system. However, this recommendation has not been adopted by the government, which—in the words of the then Attorney General—‘was still to be persuaded that the adoption of fair use was the best direction for Australia law’.55 This position has not changed under the current Australian Government, and, as a result, copyright law poses challenges to data reuse. The recommendation of this study in this regard is provided in Chapter 8.
\nThe threshold for copyright protection in data, even raw data, is relatively low in the European Union. In Infopaq,56 the Court of Justice held that even a short sequence of 11 words may be subject to copyright if it reflects a sufficient level of creative choices leading to an ‘own intellectual creation’.57 Multiple extractions of text from the same source, such as the systematic mining of a blog, further increase the risk of infringement. It seems clear that, as a general principle, relatively small takings of data can raise copyright issues.
\nHowever, the European Union is currently considering broad and ambitious reform to the European Copyright Directive that was adopted in 2001 and is now considered outdated. The current package of proposals58 has been developed over several years and includes a new copyright exception for text and data mining. Such an exception is necessary to ensure harmonisation of laws across the European Union. Some member states have, however, recently proceeded to introduce national text and data mining exemptions.
\nThe first country to do so was the United Kingdom, following the recommendations of the Hargreaves Review ([435], p. 47) and so adopting a text and data mining exemption on 19 May 2014.59 The exception only applies to non-commercial research. According to the amended legislation ([436], Par. 29A):
… the making of a copy of a work by a person who has lawful access to that work does not infringe copyright if it is made so that that person can carry out a computational analysis of anything included in that work for non-commercial research purposes.60
France, Estonia and Germany have also introduced text and data mining exceptions. The French exemption is extremely narrow and covers only reproduction from ‘lawful sources’ made available with the consent of the rights holders, as well as the storage and communication of files created in the course of performing text and data mining activities.61 The scope of the exemption adopted in Estonia is similar to the United Kingdom’s law and is limited to text and data mining performed by any person but only for non-commercial purposes.62 Germany is the latest European country to introduce the text and data mining exception, in March 2018. It covers the act of reproduction necessary to undertake text and data mining for non-commercial purposes.63
\nThe package proposed for the entire European Union is currently being considered by the European Parliament and includes various changes to the scope of the proposed exception. Of particular interest is the enabling of researchers and businesses to harness the benefits of data mining. A specific case was put forward for including start-ups in the scope of the exemption. It was argued that the exception would allow start-ups to increase the European Union competitiveness and knowledge leadership in the field of big data analytics, as desired by the Commission [437]. Another reason put forward for including non-commercial use in the exemption was reasoning that nearly all research today includes multi-parties—public, private, and not-for-profit, among others. As such, limiting the scope of the exemption to non-commercial research may not cover any data uses by parties other than researchers working in publicly funded research organisations.64
\nProtecting data, including research data, is an increasingly important topic for research and regulatory agencies, especially those involved in clinical trials. People participating in clinical trials have a right to expect that their personal data and the information shared with their doctors will remain confidential. Health services depend on trust, and trust depends on confidentiality [438].
\nAt the same time, sharing patient information for research purposes is an important prerequisite for advancing public science and the well-being of all citizens. Therefore, the practice of research requires a careful balancing of the respective interests in both data protection and data sharing. For these reasons, stakeholders who advocate the sharing of scientific data refer to it as ‘responsible sharing’.65 In this context, the tasks of maintaining confidentiality and safeguarding the privacy of research subjects are viewed as the requirements of research conduct, rather than barriers to data sharing. This is an important distinction and one that implies that sharing clinical trial data without compromising the privacy or confidentiality of research subjects is not only desirable but is also possible and can be achieved through transparent and open data sharing practices championed by institutions such as the EMA.
\nResearchers and research investigators have the primary responsibility for maintaining confidentiality and safeguarding the privacy of people participating in their research.66 They are also responsible for collecting informed consent and informing participants about data use and how confidentiality will be maintained. Obligations of confidence stem from diverse sources of law and have been extended to various areas—including privacy, confidentiality, trade secrets, data protection, labour law, and professional and research ethics, among others. This section considers the key effects of these laws on the release of open data and the latest practice guiding the responsible sharing of clinical trial data.
\nIn Australia, the obligations of confidentiality generally arise under the common law system, as:
Implied by operation of our common law through the equitable doctrine of confidence
Expressed through a contractual obligation
Imposed through operation of legislation (e.g. disclosure of sensitive information)
The first doctrine is commonly implied through a relationship between the party disclosing information and the person to whom it is disclosed—for example, through a doctor-patient relationship or employer-employee relationship. In this regard, the employee has a duty of fidelity to the employer, who can prevent disclosure of information acquired in the course of employment ([439], pp. 860, 867).
\nSecondly, an obligation of confidentiality may arise from various contracts that govern the disclosure of confidential information—such as trade secrets, confidential agreements, or non-disclosure agreements. In the public research setting, such arrangements are typical in contracts with industry research sponsors who explicitly or implicitly require that confidentiality. Release of research data that contains confidential information is effectively prohibited unless the industry partner provides explicit permission.
\nLastly, the obligation to maintain confidentiality can stem from statutes such as the Privacy Act 1888 (Australia), the General Data Protection Regulation (European Union),67 and the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (United States) [440] or from various professional code of conduct principles enshrined in legislation. Under such legislation, and due to the recent changes to the global regulatory framework for the sharing of clinical trial data introduced by the European Medicines Agency (EMA) in 2014 [441], the practice of clinical data sharing has transformed quite dramatically in recent years. Legislative and policy changes require drug regulatory agencies to redact the records and/or data they share to de-identify personal details and to remove commercial confidential information. Given the global reach of research based in, or funded, by the European Union, the developments occurring on the continent are likely to influence the global practice of sharing clinical trial data as open data, with efforts mounted to drive the adoption of the interoperability of standards.
\nThere have been significant recent developments in the European Union data protection law that will have an impact on research data sharing. The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) took effect on 25 May 2018.68 For the first time, the Regulation is directly enforceable across the European Union and replaces transposition of the Directive at the national level, as was the case with the previous Directive.69 However, the European Union member states are permitted minor differences in interpretation, with the European Court of Justice as the ultimate arbiter.
\nThe principal tenets of the Regulation with regard to the processing and sharing of sensitive data in scientific research are as follows:
A risk-based and context-specific approach to data processing, aimed at ensuring that appropriate data protection measures are employed in data processing.70
A highly decentralised approach to data handling and processing, vesting responsibilities for data processing in data controllers71 and providing for decentralised accountability.72 Data controllers need to adopt a proactive approach to data protection and are responsible for the assessment, implementation, and verification of the measures to ensure compliance with the Directive.
The Directive specifically enables the processing of sensitive data for scientific research in the ‘public interest’,73 requiring organisational and technical measures such as ‘pseudonymisation’74 and the designation of a data protection officer in the cases of large-scale and systematic processing of sensitive data.75
Maintaining the broad notion of informed consent required to process data for future uses, which may not have been known at the time of obtaining informed consent.
The term ‘scientific research’ is not defined in the Regulation, yet a recent report of the GDPR Working Group76 clarified that it means ‘a research project set up in accordance with relevant sector-related methodological and ethical standards’.77 Moreover, the processing of personal data for scientific research purposes ‘should be interpreted in a broad manner’.78 Recital 33 states:
It is often not possible to fully identify the purpose of personal data processing for scientific research purposes at the time of data collection. Therefore, data subjects should be allowed to give their consent to certain areas of scientific research when in keeping with recognised ethical standards for scientific research. Data subjects should have the opportunity to give their consent only to certain areas of research or parts of research projects to the extent allowed by the intended purpose.79
The Working Group further clarified that scientific research projects can only include personal data on the basis of consent if they have a well-described purpose80 and if processing of the data is compatible with the initial purposes for which personal data was originally collected.81 If purposes are unclear at the start of a scientific research program, controllers will have difficulty pursuing the program in compliance with the Directive, which has introduced criteria for compatibility assessment. These aim to determine, on a case-by-case basis, whether further processing of personal data would meet the requirement of compatibility.
\nThe Working Group also mentioned that transparency is an additional safeguard when the circumstances of the research do not allow for specific consent. A lack of purpose specification may be offset by controllers providing regular information on the development of the purpose as the research project progresses so that, over time, the consent will be as specific as possible. In that context, the data subject should have at least a basic understanding of the state of play, allowing that person to assess whether or not to use, for example, the right to withdraw consent pursuant to Article 7(3) of the Directive.
\nThe processing of sensitive research data should be subject to appropriate safeguards for the rights and freedoms of the data subject, and so the Directive mentions techniques such as data minimisation, anonymisation, and data security.82 Anonymisation is the preferred solution, provided that the purpose of the research can be achieved without the processing of personal data.
\nSimilar decentralised approaches to data de-identification are currently being pursued in the United States. Policy 45 CFR part 46, known as the ‘Common Rule’ [442], requires de-identification of data prior to release for further research.
\nThe HIPAA Privacy Rule83 defines the direct personal identifiers (see Table 6)84 and outlines two approaches commonly applied—firstly, expert determination, and secondly, safe harbour.
\nEnsuring privacy—HIPAA 18 direct identifiers.
The first approach requires a statistical expert to apply statistical methods to render data not individually identifiable. This method often results in excessive information loss that can wipe out the analytical utility of the dataset [443].
\nThe safe harbour approach is consistent with the de-identification approach pursued in Europe and requires masking of both direct and indirect identifiers. This process can be automated to a large degree.
\nAn important aspect of the de-identification process is not only to safeguard the privacy of the research subject but also to enable publishing of the de-identified results online so as to enable the transparency of pharmaceutical research, particularly for regulatory approvals. Championed by the EMA, this approach to open access—in addition to safeguarding the privacy of research subjects—requires the redaction of confidential commercial information.
\nThe requirement by the EMA for the public release of clinical summary reports submitted to it for gaining marketing authorisation or additional market exclusivity has met the resistance of pharmaceutical companies. A number of them have objected to the disclosure of the documents and initiated legal proceedings against the EMA. In February 2018, the General Court delivered judgements in the cases brought by Pari Pharma [444], PTC Therapeutics International [445], and MSD Animal Health Innovation [446]. The court dismissed all three cases as it considered that the companies had failed to provide any concrete evidence of how the disclosure of the contested documents would undermine their commercial interests.
\nThese cases tested, for the first time, the application of the EMA policy on access to documents [346] in the context of the European Union Transparency Regulation [447]. That policy enabled the release of documents that the companies considered were submitted on a confidential basis, and these cases were the first to challenge the legality of the transparency of the EMA approach. Specifically, the EMA submitted that the balance between the commercial interests of the companies and the interests of the general public and public health should lead to disclosure as a default position, except in the cases where the company would clearly demonstrate that such disclosure would undermine its commercial interest.
\nTo implement the policy, the EMA had developed a robust document redaction process and consulted the companies whose documents it sought to release. However, the EMA resisted the claim that the entire documents should be protected from disclosure. The arguments put forward by the EMA included that some of the contents were available in the public domain. The companies counterargued that their compilation of public and non-public data might enable competitors to gain a market advantage.
\nThe Pari Pharma case was the first considered, and the resulting judgement framed the results in the other two. Specifically, the court dismissed the claim that the published documents were presumed confidential. It said that the documents could be subject to a presumption of confidentiality if there existed ongoing judicial or administrative proceedings, but in this case there were none. With regard to the substance of commercially sensitive information, the court said that these could include ‘considerations relating to an inventive strategy’85 or a ‘new scientific conclusions’.86 However, Pari Pharma failed to make the case that any individual pieces of information included in the report should be protected from disclosure.
\nIn particular, the court held that Pari Pharma failed to ‘describe in specific terms the professional and commercial importance of the information’87 along with ‘the utility of that information for other undertakings which are liable to examine and use it subsequently’88 and that the company had failed ‘to show specifically and actually how, once the documents have been disclosed, competitors would be able to enter the market’.89
\nPari Pharma then tried to argue that there was no overriding public interest in disclosure as it was already served in another report. But the court said that, having concluded that the contested information was not commercially confidential, the EMA did not need to determine whether there was or was not an overriding public interest in disclosure. So the claims failed on all accounts.
\nIn the meantime, the EMA continues to disclose reports submitted as part of the regulatory process. In light of this practice, companies continue to argue for maximum redaction and have refined their approach to submitting evidence presented to the EMA. However, last year the EMA rejected 76% of the requests by pharmaceutical companies to redact what they claimed was confidential information [448] and published over 1.3 million pages in 2017 alone.
\nThe current Australian Government has taken an active role in developing an integrated data system across the economy and has, at the time of finalisation of this book, introduced a roadmap towards a new data regulatory mechanism with a view to improving Australia’s ability to capture the social and economic benefits from the existing data [449].
\nThe proposed mechanisms aim to improve access to and derive value from public data by introducing a new data regulatory mechanism. The key elements of the proposed framework relevant to the sharing of research data include:
Taking a risk-based approach to releasing available publicly funded datasets.
Streamlining and standardising data sharing arrangements.
Accredited Data Authorities will engage with data custodians and users on matters relating to data availability and use. The authorities will make decisions on the data to be shared openly and that which requires restricted sharing. The authorities would also certify ‘trusted users’.
Data sharing agreements between data custodians, Accredited Data Authorities, and data users will be a key part of the governance framework.
Development of National Interest Datasets across and between sectors, including public, private, not-for-profit, and academia.
Introducing a Data Sharing and Release Act, which will set clear rules and expectations for data sharing and release, including making clear when data can be shared and embedding strong safeguards for sensitive data and effective risk management practices.90
While the objectives of the Australian Government are laudable, there are, however, significant problems with the proposed approach of ‘balancing data sharing with secrecy’ and adopting centralised and ‘standardised’ approaches to data sharing. A particular issue explored in detail in this book is that standardised approaches to data sharing have not been effective drivers of increased data availability and reuse. Similarly, developing closed and rigid communities of ‘trusted users’ is unlikely to achieve the desired spillover of data and knowledge to enable harnessing of the economic benefits of data. The proposed approach fails to recognise that privacy and security concerns only apply to highly sensitive datasets, which represent only a small subset of national datasets. Most data can be shared freely without any restrictions. However, as the proposal stands now, it appears that the Australian Government has adopted screening approaches across the whole board.
\nOne of the defining features of our time is that the Internet and communication technologies have led to the reconfiguration of power structures and have promoted the rise of distributed social and research networks. In this environment, balancing data sharing with secrecy cannot be a zero-sum game. Any attempts to centrally regulate and restrict data release and use will be met with resistance from Australian citizens and researchers who currently control data and use it on a daily basis to extend the boundaries of science. These are important considerations for the Australian Government to incorporate into the proposed governance structures.
\nThis chapter outlined the legal issues arising in stages of data release and data reuse, focusing on the recent developments and legislative proposals aimed at enabling researchers to share and reuse data while also respecting the emergent rules for responsible data sharing.
\nThe examination found that copyright law poses serious challenges to data release and reuse in all three jurisdictions under examination—the United States, Australia and the European Union. The problems arise due to uncertainty surrounding the scope of copyright protection as it applies to the various forms of data, especially databases. The situation is even more complicated in the European Union which provides a double layer of sui generis and copyright protection. Therefore, using the data created by European research organisations carries an inherent risk of IP infringement. Another source of legal uncertainty is the ownership of data and the inability of users to identify data owners, which poses challenges to data licencing and subsequent reuse due to lack of clarity around the conditions governing data reuse.
\nVarious mechanisms have emerged to deal with the challenges. A particular focus has been placed on enabling greater access to data produced by publicly funded research organisations. The question of data ownership appears to be less of a concern to researchers than the matter of the rights and responsibilities of data holders.
\nThis is particularly the case with clinical trials, which collect vast amounts of data from patients and other research subjects. The sharing of the data requires informed consent, and recent years have seen patients demanding a greater say over the use of the data generated in clinical trials. The prevalent view in all jurisdictions is that privacy rights need to be balanced with the benefits accrued from public research and that in the cases where patient consent for future data reuse cannot be foreseen, the data may be used for research purposes in the public interest. This is the position taken by the General Data Protection Regulation.
\nThe European Medicines Authority has championed a novel approach to publicly releasing data after redacting confidential information, and recent judgements have affirmed such sharing of clinical trial data and summary reports in the public interest.
\nThe centralised data-screening approach proposed by the Australian Government seems to go in the opposite direction, despite the fact that [450] was largely modelled around the European approaches to data protection valid at the time. Centralised approaches to data sharing and vetting of prospective data users will be costly and are unlikely to bring about the desired benefits of increased data availability and reuse. An approach with restricted data sharing, too many review boards, too many arguments to be made for gaining access to data, and too many conditions placed on data reuse cannot lead to increased innovation and data uptake.
\nIn this study, it has been shown that decentralised governance mechanisms have been central to the rise and uptake of open data and its reuse by stakeholders. For example, this has been the prevalent approach shaping European science policy, especially biomedicine and medical research, which have advanced as a result of the concerted efforts of heterogeneous stakeholders directly involved in the research conduct. Experiences with open data from CERN and from the EMA confirm that the benefits of open data can be best harnessed by allowing research and regulatory agencies themselves to set the rules for data sharing.
\nFurthermore, the European data system has primarily relied on trust among stakeholders and on soft-rule instruments, such as codes of professional conduct and research ethics, rather than on more rigid forms of legislative interventions. These three key elements—decentralisation, trust in data holders, and reliance on soft instruments—have been integrated into the new General Data Protection Regulation, which is arguably the most stringent piece of privacy legislation in the world. And yet, the approach adopted in Europe to data sharing is highly decentralised and open.
\nNowadays, organizations are facing a lot of challenges when competing in various sectors of the global market such as economics, technology, and labor. One of the crucial strategies for an organization to gain competitive advantage is exploitation of training. In particular, training is an important function for an organization to cultivate employees’ explicit and implicit knowledge, skills, and abilities and transfer employees into the valuable resources of an organization. This function is not only linked to improvement of business performance but also an effective determinant in shaping employee attitudes, which are critical variables to influence job performance [1]. According to the literature, job satisfaction is defined as “a pleasurable emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experiences” ([2], p. 94). It is one of the major job attitudes to affect employees’ behaviors and shows a strong relationship with other affective outcomes such as learning motivation, turnover rate, and firm performance [3].
\nSince training and job satisfaction are two important variables which individually produces impacts on firm performance, this chapter aims to elaborate training in organization toward job satisfaction. This chapter is organized in four sections. The first section describes how to plan and carry out an effective training program. It begins by discussing the definition of training and the meaning of learning. Next, a training effectiveness model is constructed to present a whole picture about the factors which influence the training outcomes. Elucidation will be provided for each part of the model which includes individual characteristics, organizational characteristics, and task characteristics, followed by needs assessment, training design, and training evaluation. The second section focuses on job satisfaction in which the fundamental concepts are introduced. This is followed by discussion of the impacts of job satisfaction on job performance. The third section describes job training satisfaction and how it contributes to job satisfaction, job performance, and other work-related attitudes. The final section is Conclusions.
\nWhat is training? Training refers to “a planned effort by a company to facilitate employees’ learning of job-related competencies” ([4], p. 5). It is also defined as “a planned and systematic effort to modify or develop knowledge, skills and attitudes through learning experiences to achieve effective performance in an activity or a range of activities” ([5], p. 41). Training is the major means to be used by organizations to cultivate employee competence to reach the appropriate required levels. It is also an important business strategy for organizations to cope with a variety of forces affecting the workplace [6, 7]. It is stated that training is organized and used by an organization as a business strategy to help employees develop and acquire competence, which includes knowledge, skills, behaviors, and attitudes that are critical for successful job performance. Typically, training can be distinguished by two basic types of locations where it is conducted, i.e., off-the-job and on-the-job. Off-the-job training provides learning opportunities on a variety of topics at a site other than where the work is actually done, whereas on-the-job training (OJT) occurs in the work setting itself [6]. With the assistance of modern technology, online training can be realized as well [8]. No matter which sites or ways the training is conducted, the key to effective training is to activate learning to occur.
\nIn most of the textbooks, learning is defined as an effect of experience on behavior [9]. It is related to a process of change in behavior that is due to experience. Actually, all learning involves two processes: one is an external interaction process between the learner and his or her social, cultural, and material environment, and the other is an internal psychological process of elaboration and acquisition in which new impulses are connected with the results of prior learning [10]. However, if the outputs of learning process (either through external or internal) only produce change in people’s behavior, such a definition cannot be satisfied by many researchers [9]. Therefore, learning has also been defined as “a relatively permanent change in human capabilities that is not a result of growth processes” ([4], p. 140). Based on this definition, learning can bring out three different outcomes. The first one is the content dimension, which refers to knowledge, understanding, skills, abilities, and attitudes. The second one is the incentive dimension which includes emotion, feelings, motivation, and volition. The final one is the social dimension, which involves interaction, communication, and cooperation [10]. Learning, thus, can be further referred to as a process that is “seen” through changes in knowledge, skills, attitudes, behaviors, emotion managing ability, communication style, and more during training and generalization to the transfer context.
\nTraditionally, in the workplace, learning occurs through formal training and development. All formal learning activities are designed with specific learning objectives to cultivate employees in lifelong processes for ongoing development and acquisition of competencies to meet the challenges that the organization faces from its internal and external environment [8]. Typically, such learning is activated through direct instruction, which engage learners in lectures, discussions, simulations, role-plays, and other structured activities [11]. With technological advancement and intense competition, training scholars have claimed that employees must extend their learning outside the formal classroom or work settings to ensure competencies are maximized [12]. Thus, informal learning becomes important because it represents the most part of learning occurring in organizations. Watkins and Marsick characterized informal learning as a process “based on learning from experience, embedded in the organizational context, oriented to a focus on action; governed by non-routine conditions; concerned with tacit dimensions that must be made explicit; delimited by the nature of the task, the way in which the problems are framed, and the work capacity of the individual underlying the task; and enhanced by proactivity, critical reflectivity, and creativity” ([13], p. 287). It is unstructured and occurs outside a learning institution [11].
\n\nFigure 1 shows the relationships between training and learning. Training, either off-the-job, on-the-job, or online, involves transferring expertise and knowledge from experts who have it to novices who need it [14]. Both training and learning activities consist of a process of knowledge sharing, which is an element of reciprocity and is a giving-taking exchange process of information or assistance to others [15]. Knowledge sharing between employees and across teams allows an organization to exploit existing knowledge-based resources and has been identified as a positive force in creating innovative organizations [15–17].
\nThe relationships between training and learning.
In a competitive environment, while employee training and learning have become an increasingly important strategic issue for organizations [8], the core concern is how to help the company and trainees receive benefits from the training activities? The related questions include “what kind of factors that may affect the success and effectiveness of training” and “what/how trainers can do to make training program effective?” Training effectiveness, according to Noe ([4], p. 216), refers to “the benefits that the company and trainees receive from training.” It focuses on understanding the whole learning system to determine why learners learn or do not. It also explains why the learning results happen and assists training designers to make troubleshooting to improve training [18]. Thus, theoretically, training effectiveness is the study of the individual, training, and organizational characteristics that influence the training process before, during, and after training [18]. Training effectiveness differs from the training evaluation. Training effectiveness is a theoretical approach to understand learning outcomes, whereas training evaluation is a methodological approach to measure these learning outcomes [18]. A summarized model of training effectiveness is presented in Figure 2 [19]. Figure 2 shows the factors that impact the training outcomes and job performance and the relationships between them. Three major topics will be discussed, that is, needs assessment before training (shaded with gray color), program design and delivery during training (shaded with orange color), and training evaluation after training (shaded with pink color).
\nThe comprehensive model of training effectiveness.
Effective training practices involving the use of a training design process begin with a needs assessment [4, 8, 18]. A need is a measureable gap between two conditions—what currently is and what should be [20]. In order to define the gap of need in training, a complete assessment process should be conducted to figure out problem areas, issues, or difficulties that should be resolved [20]. Thus, a training needs assessment refers to the process used to determine whether training is necessary and why specific training activities are required [4, 8]. In most contexts, a needs assessment focuses on gaps rather than solutions [20]. Theoretically, it involves three levels of analysis: organizational analysis, person analysis, and task analysis. Organizational characteristics, individual characteristics, and task characteristics are factors to be considered for three levels of analysis in the beginning of training design. The purpose of these levels of analysis is to realize the gaps in current training programs and further to collect information for program design and problem-solving [4, 8].
\nIn Figure 2, the first factor is organizational characteristics. Organizational characteristics include organizational structure, business strategies, support of managers for training activities, training resources, organizational procedures, reward systems, culture, and climate [4, 8, 18, 21]. Each variable plays a very critical role to impact training effectiveness. For example, Facteau et al. [22] found that intrinsic and compliance incentives, organizational commitment, and social support for training are able to predict trainees’ pretraining motivation. Motivation is the key determinant of the choices individuals make to engage in, attend to, and persist in learning activities, which will affect learning performance [3]. Because organizational analysis is concerned with identifying whether (1) training fits the company’s strategic objectives; (2) training supports the company’s culture, climate, and policies; and (3) the company has the budget, time, and expertise to carry out training, this analysis is usually conducted in the first place [4]. Several major questions will be assessed in this analysis: “How does the training relate to business objectives?” “How does training support business strategy?” “What are the threats to the talent base?” “How does the training impact day-to-day workplace dynamics?” “What are the costs and expected benefits of the training?” [4, 8].
\nAnother factor, individual characteristics, includes cognitive ability, attitudes, locus of control, personality, anxiety, age, self-efficacy, expectations, job involvement, pretraining motivation, need for achievement, independence, and more [18, 19, 23]. A large number of studies have been demonstrating how individual differences influence transfer of learning and learning performance, which further impacts on training effectiveness [7, 24]. For example, Noe showed that individuals with an internal locus of control had more positive attitudes toward training since they viewed training as a means to help them receive tangible benefits [25]. Mathieu et al. proposed that trainees with high achievement motivation were more motivated to learn and perform well in the training program [26]. Klein et al. found that the learners with high learning goal orientation (LGO) would be significantly related to the factor of motivation to learn [27]. Macey and Schneider claimed that four individual characteristics like positive affectivity, proactive personality, conscientiousness, and autotelic personality were more likely to have greater psychological availability to learn and also perceived learning activities being more meaningful such that they are likely to participate actively in the training activities [28]. In addition, many researches have suggested that learning is negatively related to aging [24]. Also, three of the big five factors—conscientiousness, neuroticism (emotional stability), and openness to experience—significantly impact learning, training, and transfer outcomes [29]. Since employees’ individual characteristics make huge impacts on learning performance, personal analysis helps to identify employees’ characteristics and readiness for training and recognize who needs training and who will perform well in the training program.
\nThe third factor, task characteristics, consists of the knowledge, skills, and abilities required to complete the tasks, the equipment, and environment that the employee works in, time constraints for a task, safety considerations, or performance standards [4]. Thus, for task-level assessment, it involves checking specific duties and responsibilities assigned to various jobs and the types of skills and knowledge needed to perform each task [8]. In other words, the major purpose of task analysis is to collect job-related information to identify the task and the training that employees will require in terms knowledge, skills, and abilities. This analysis should be conducted only after the organizational analysis because it is a time-consuming process to gather and summarize data from persons in different layers of the company [4]. Several questions will be addressed in this analysis. For example, what kinds of responsibilities are to be assigned to the job? What are the skills or knowledge needed for successful performance? What are the implications of mistakes? What tasks should employees be trained [4, 8]?
\nAfter identifying the gaps and training objectives through the needs assessment, the next step is the design and delivery of the training itself [8]. Program design is rooted in learning theories and refers to “the organization and coordination of the training program” ([4], p. 172). More specifically, “it is a process for helping to create effective training in an efficient manner. It is a system that helps designers ask the right questions, make the right decision, and produce a useful and useable product as the situation requires and allows” [30]. Thus, the purpose of a program design is to make learning occur and training effective. Research has indicated that each element of training design process is related to the quality of training. Researchers such as Baldwin et al. and Klein et al. presented that training design with organizational characteristics and individual characteristics together influences trainees’ motivation to learn and, motivation to transfer, and real training transfer [27, 31]. Latif presented a model of training effectiveness which points out that training satisfaction comes from trainees’ feeling of satisfaction with training session, training content, trainers, and learning transfer [1]. Noe et al. also showed that technology-based and face-to-face learning methods and contextual factors such as organizational climate, interpersonal dynamics, and individual differences are able to promote psychological engagement in learning, which is a crucial factor to enhance the effectiveness of training, development, and related learning activities [7].
\nTraining methodology was also found to be an important factor in the equation of job training satisfaction [32]. Compared to other training methods, on-the-job training is one of the oldest, most widely used training methods in the workplace. It can be useful for training newly hired employees, orienting promoted or transferred employees to the new job positions, upgrading employees’ competencies when new technology is used, and delivering cross-culture training to employees who are assigned to work overseas [4]. Since OJT occurs at or near the workplace using actual equipment and tools, most of the time, trainees are highly motivated to learn and can be customized to the experiences and abilities [4]. Although there are many advantages, OJT is informal or unstructured in nature and has received serious criticism such as incomplete and unpredictable [33]. Thus, structured on-the-job training (S-OJT) was proposed by Jacobs and McGiffin [34]. In contrast to informal and unstructured OJT, structured OJT adopts a planned approach to train and develop employees’ competencies [33]. Many research results indicated that S-OJT is superior to unstructured on-the-job training in terms of having lower training cost, enhancing skills acquisition, and removing learning anxieties [6].
\nIn the past, a large portion of the research in program design has paid great attention to traditional instructional design (ISD) model, which includes conducting a needs assessment, setting the objectives of training, identifying evaluation criteria, selecting appropriate trainers and training methods, making meaningful materials, and properly coordinating and arranging training delivery. In addition, it involves ensuring training transfer, offering a good training site, and providing opportunities for practice and feedback [4, 7]. Although the traditional instructional design brings a lot of benefits to enhance training effectiveness, it is more instructor-oriented where lecture proceeds with adding sophisticated elements and feedback loop with interaction and communication [35]. Some scholars have recently claimed that instructor-oriented design is deemed to be disadvantageous for effective learning. They argued that the learners in instructor-centered program may be passive in learning activities and seldom grasp the significance or realize the intricacies of the model from the instructors during the training [16, 35]. Thus, it has been claimed that the instructional design model needs to be modified or adapted to better fit the learner-centered learning, particularly technology-based learning [16, 36].
\nWhat is learner-centered learning? Learner-centered learning involves the balance between instructor and learner shifting the roles, so that the learners take on the responsibility to learn and the instructor becomes more of a facilitator [37, 38]. In this learning paradigm, instead of transferring factual knowledge to the learners, the instructor focuses more on creating a learning environment and providing learning opportunities that empower learners to construct knowledge for themselves [39]. Attention, in this paradigm, is given not only to what the learners learn but also to how they learn and whether they are able to retain and apply the knowledge or not [36]. More specifically, the instructor with the role of facilitator utilizes multiple teaching methods beyond traditional lecturing to help the learners actively participate in learning [35].
\nThus, several tips for delivering the training with the learner-centered approach are described as follows [36]. First, at the beginning of the training, the trainer involves learners into decision-making process for choosing the course textbook. Second, after choosing the textbooks, the trainer invites learners to pick up the topics which they are interested in and also fit personal needs. In this way, the learners would take responsibility for learning by themselves. Third, the class will be run like a discussion session. The trainer gives training materials before the class and asks them to read in advance. Following the Shor’s suggestion that the trainer controls his/her “authoritative academic voice” [40], the trainer says as little as necessary and focuses on determining what they are interested in, what they have troubles with and what they want to talk about. The trainer offers questions, comments, structures, and academic knowledge while patiently listening to trainees’ thoughts and ideas. The trainer and the learners learn from each other through interaction. Fourth, Weimer suggested that the careful design of assignments which help students effectively use the power they are given is the key component of sharing power to the learners [41]. Thus, the trainer needs to structure the assignments well and allows the trainees to make choices about the ways to complete the projects, for example, by conducting interview or submitting a real lesson activity.
\nThree critical issues must be considered in the designing and delivering stage [8]. The first one is interference. Interference occurs “when prior training, learning, or established habits act as block or obstacle in the learning process” ([8], p. 391). That is, someone who has more experience in behaving in a certain way will have more difficulties in changing the way he/she responds when encountering a situation. Therefore, when designing the training, the trainers need to be aware of this issue. The second one is transfer design [8]. Transfer refers to whether the trainee or learner can actually perform the new skills or use the new knowledge on the job [4]. Transfer design, thus, is defined as the ability to transfer learning to the job and to which the training instruction matches the job requirements [42]. In order to ensure that the organizations are able to receive benefit from training, Lim and Johnson suggested that training design, content, and instructional strategies must be related to the objective of transfer, whether near or far transfer [43]. In other words, transfer mechanisms such as climate for transfer, management and peer support, opportunity to perform, training awareness, and using self-management strategies need to be included in the design of a training program for maximizing transfer [4, 21, 44]. The third one is the needs of adult learners. It is said that the ways of children’s learning are different from those of adults. Several assumptions were proposed by Malcolm Knowles [45]: (1) adults have the need to know why they learn, (2) adults have the need to be self-managed, (3) adults bring more work-related experiences into the learning context than children or teenagers, (4) adults learn with a problem-centered approach, and (5) adults are motivated to learn by getting both extrinsic and intrinsic motivators. Since most of the job-related training is targeted for employees whose age is over 18, the training program must meet the needs of these adult learners in order to enhance training effectiveness.
\nEvaluation is an integral part and the final stage of most instructional design (ID) models [46]. Theoretically, it is a systematic process of collecting data in an effort to measure and determine success or failure of a training program with regard to content and design [18, 47]. Two questions intend to be answered in the evaluation process, that is, whether (1) training objectives are achieved in the learning process and (2) accomplishment of those objectives results in enhanced job performance [48]. Thus, evaluation can be divided into two categories, formative evaluation and summative evaluation [46, 49, 50]. Formative evaluation is an evaluation with the purpose to improve design and development to enhance learning, whereas summative evaluation is intended to determine whether the training program is worthy or effective [51, 52]. Besides, Campbell stressed that the most important and fundamental thing is whether trainees have learned the materials covered in training or not [53].
\nTraditionally, Kirkpatrick’s model was one of the first efforts to create a framework for training evaluation. It is also the simplest method to understand training effectiveness [18, 54]. According to Kirkpatrick, training can be evaluated at four levels. Level 1 is the “reactions” criteria, which evaluates trainees’ affective and attitudinal perceptions to a training program, including facilities, trainers, and content. For the “reactions” criteria, evaluation is performed via a questionnaire completed by trainees or self-reported regarding perceived learning gains [55]. Level 2 is the “learning” criteria, which evaluates the extent to which trainees have learned the training materials covered in training and acquired knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behavior from a training program. Learning outcomes are typically measured by using various forms of knowledge tests such as pencil-and-paper test or by immediate post-training measures of performance and skill demonstration in the training context [56]. Level 3 is the “behavior” criteria. It refers to as transfer criteria and evaluates the extent to which trainees have applied the learned competencies on the job. For behavioral criteria, evaluation is assessed by self-ratings, supervisor ratings, or objective performance indicators [56–58]. Level 4 is the “results” criteria, which evaluates the extent to which the training program has improved business outcomes and to increase organizational-level profits [47]. Although this kind of assessment is the most difficult to be obtained, it is highly desirable for the organizations. Most of the time, “results” are operationalized by productivity gains, reduced costs related to employee turnover, increased customer satisfaction, enhancing employee commitment, or increase in profitability [57, 58].
\nAlthough Kirkpatrick’s framework is the most accepted approach for training evaluation, it has been criticized by many scholars. One of the criticisms is that the criteria used for evaluation in Kirkpatrick’s framework do not relate to the training needs, the learning objectives, and strategic goals of the organizations [4]. The second one is the lack of relationship between reaction, learning, behavior, and results’ criteria [55]. As a result, both training practitioners and academic researchers have developed a more comprehensive model for training criteria. For example, Kraiger et al. attempted to expand the original Kirkpatrick model by linking the learning outcomes with training evaluation [48]. Based on Kraiger et al.’s proposition, three categories of learning outcomes, that is, cognitive, skill-based, and affective outcomes, should be included in evaluation [48, 59]. Specifically, cognitive outcomes are used to determine the degree to which trainees are familiar with principles, facts, techniques, procedures, or processes emphasized in the training program. It includes verbal knowledge, knowledge organization, and cognitive strategies. Skill-based outcomes, including skill learning and skill transfer, are used to assess the level of technical or motor skills and behaviors. Affective outcomes include both attitudinal and motivational change, which also involves disposition, motivation to learn, self-efficacy, tolerance for diversity, safety attitudes, customer service orientation, and goal setting [4, 48].
\nAmong three categories of learning outcomes, affective outcomes have attracted a lot of attentions in different research areas such as education, psychology, and organizational behavior. The scholars are particularly interested in the issue regarding whether self-efficacy or motivation to learn can be changed through training and how different training methods impact self-efficacy and motivation to learn. For example, Gist found that a training method comprising cognitive modeling with practice and reinforcement generated significantly higher participant self-efficacy than a method involving only lecture and practice [60]. Torkzadeh and Dyke suggested that training significantly improved Internet self-efficacy for trainees, both males and females [61]. Combs and Luthans stated that the diversity training enhanced trainees’ diversity self-efficacy [62]. Huang and Jacobs claimed that structured on-the-job training could generate higher self-efficacy to achieve training outcomes than classroom training with lecture only, especially for trainees with lower general self-efficacy (GSE) [63]. Huang and Jao reported that structured on-the-job training could generate higher trainees’ motivation to learn than classroom training [64].
\nAmong thousands of attitudes, job satisfaction is one of important work-related attitudes in the work environment [3]. Specifically, job satisfaction refers to the degree to which the feeling of satisfaction is derived from the employees’ perceptions toward different facets of their tasks or jobs [65, 66]. In other words, job satisfaction is a pleasurable or positive emotional state emerging as the result of appraising one’s job or job experiences and as the fulfillment or gratification of certain needs that are associated with one’s work [3, 67, 68]. Simply put, job satisfaction is the combination of feelings, beliefs, and behavioral intentions that workers hold a relation to their current jobs [3, 69]. The employees’ job satisfaction is measurable and can be changed [3]. A popular way to explain job satisfaction has been the person-environment fit paradigm, which suggests that the more a person’s work environment is fulfilling one’s needs, personality, values, or personal characteristics, the greater the degree of job satisfaction is [70].
\nWhile tackling the issue of job satisfaction, some typical questions were raised by researchers. For example, why are some employees more satisfied than others? What kinds of work tasks are especially satisfying? How to design a task to make employees feel satisfied? Colquitt et al. claimed that values play a key role in explaining job satisfaction [2]. What is value? Values are “the things that people consciously or unconsciously want to seek or attain” ([2], p. 94). Thus, value-percept theory argues that “job satisfaction depends on whether the employee perceives that his or her job supplies the things that he or she values” ([2], p. 94). Based on the value-percept theory, the dissatisfaction of employees can be expressed as follows:
\nwhere Vwant refers to how much of a value an employee wants, Vhave is the value the job supplies, and Vimportance reflects the importance of the value to the employee. It can be seen that, although the difference between Vwant and Vhave causes the dissatisfaction, it is the importance of the value that will either magnify or minimize the dissatisfaction [2]. In the value-percept theory, five specific facets of satisfaction, i.e., pay satisfaction, promotion satisfaction, supervision satisfaction, coworker satisfaction, and satisfaction with the work itself, must be met in order to achieve overall job satisfaction.
\nWhile explaining job satisfaction from the perspective of value-percept theory, personal characteristics make the issue of “the things that each employee wants to pursue and feels important in the workplace” complicated. Personal characteristics include personality disposition, attitudes, self-efficacy, self-esteem, motivation, gender, communication style, emotions, and more [3, 71]. Since each employee is independent and unique, the value of things an employee wants and their importance differ from one to another. Such differences cause the variance in dissatisfaction. Personal characteristics offer the explanation to the question of why some employees are more satisfied than others. Take personality as an example. If the employees’ score is high on the neuroticism scale in a personality measurement, they are likely to carry a rather negative view toward the world. This makes them more likely be nervous, anxious, depressed, and insecure in general, especially in the workplace. Conversely, the employees who have higher scores on the conscientiousness and extraversion scales tend to be responsible, organized, gregarious, and sociable, and it is more likely they will be satisfied with their work [3]. Hence, personality traits of neuroticism, extraversion, and conscientiousness displayed appreciable correlations with the employees’ job satisfaction [72].
\nBesides personal characteristics, situational characteristics also influence job satisfaction, which can explain what kinds of work tasks are especially satisfying. The situational factors include pay, opportunities for promotion, administration style, coworker, and working conditions [73]. For employees, a job is not “just a job.” Instead, it is a collection of tasks, relationships, and rewards. Any job-related conditions happened in the workplace may influence their emotion, which further impacts how they judge and perceive toward their job [3]. Therefore, in order for employees to have job satisfaction, the situational factors need to be carefully considered. For example, is the pay commensurate with the job duties? Is the pay secure? Are the promotions frequent, fair, and based on ability? Is the supervisor competent, polite, and a good communicator? Are the coworkers responsible, helpful, and interesting? Is the work challenging, interesting, respected? If it is yes to all the above questions, then it is highly possible that employees would be satisfied with their job [2].
\nThe needs of employees toward the work itself can be further realized through job characteristic theory. In other words, this theory helps to answer the question of how to design a task to make employees feel satisfied. Job characteristic theory suggested that job dimensions such as task identify, task significance, skill variety, autonomy, and feedback impact employees’ satisfaction with the work itself [3, 74]. Among these dimensions, skill variety, task identities, and task significance together produce a sense of meaningfulness of work, which reflects the extent the work tasks fit in the employees’ value and beliefs. The dimension of autonomy allows employees to experience the responsibility for outcomes of the work. Responsibility for outcomes refers to the extent the employees feel that they are responsible for the quality of the work. Providing either positive or negative feedback to employees make them have the opportunities to know the actual results of the work activities. Knowledge of results means that employees know how well or poorly they are doing. Thus, research suggests that the higher the three psychological states, the higher the working motivation, which leads to higher job satisfaction. An employee who has a high level of job satisfaction holds positive feelings toward his or her job, while he/she may hold negative feelings if he/she has a low level of job satisfaction [3].
\nThe next question to be answered is “does job satisfaction really matter?” This question can be answered through elaborating the relationship between job satisfaction and job performance, job commitment, organizational citizenship behavior (OCB), absenteeism, and turnover.
\nFirst, a number of researchers have been curious about the relationships between job satisfaction and job performance. For this question, many people may intuitively believe that job satisfaction is an important factor to impact job performance. Their presumption is that happy workers are more likely to be productive workers. However, at the early stage, the results indicated that job satisfaction was not meaningfully associated with job performance [75]. Till recently, studies showed that job satisfaction was moderately correlated with task performance. In other words, job satisfaction did predict job performance [2]. The satisfied employees who held positive feelings toward their work did a better job to fulfill the duties [76], to increase creativity in job [77], to enhance decision-making and problem-solving ability [78], and furthermore, to strengthen the memory and recall ability [79].
\nSecond, job satisfaction is interrelated to job commitment. Commitment is defined as that an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals and wishes to remain as a member [3]. Commitment can be divided into three types, i.e., affective commitment, continuance commitment, and normative commitment, which are emotional-based, cost-based, and obligation-based, respectively [2]. Research found that job satisfaction was strongly correlated with affective and normative commitment but not correlated with continuance commitment [80]. Thus, the employees who have positively affective reaction to their jobs will be committed to their job and feel an obligation to remain in the organization [80–84].
\nThird, job satisfaction is moderately positive related to organizational citizenship behavior [2, 85]. OCB has been defined as “individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization” ([86, 87], p. 4). Williams and Anderson found that the cognitive component of job satisfaction predicted the emergence of OCB [88], which was also supported by Moorman’s study [89]. Therefore, the satisfied employees would like to engage in more work-related behaviors to offer help to coworkers and increase desire to interact with others. OCB is extremely important for the employees to contact with the customers since it leads to improved customer evaluation of service quality [90].
\nFinally, job satisfaction reduces job turnover and absenteeism [91, 92]. Turnover refers to “…the voluntary and involuntary permanent withdrawal from an organization” ([93], p. 72). Since actual turnover behavior is difficult to measure, Lingard suggested using turnover intention as a predictor of actual turnover behavior [94]. Karatepe et al. found that job satisfaction was a negative association with turnover intention [95]. As to absenteeism, it refers to “unscheduled employee absences from the workplace” ([96], p. 144). Vroom found that low levels of job satisfaction contributed to higher absenteeism rates [97], and such a finding was confirmed by Clegg [98]. In addition, Drago and Wooden conducted a survey of 601 workers from Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and the USA and found that absenteeism was lower while employees’ job satisfaction was high [99]. The relationship between job satisfaction and turnover was stronger than between satisfaction and absenteeism [3].
\nThe concept of job training satisfaction was proposed by Schmidt [32]. He combined the definitions of job training and job satisfaction into one of the affective outcomes, called job training satisfaction (JTS). As mentioned above, training involves employees acquiring knowledge and learning skills that they will be able to apply on the job immediately [8]. Job satisfaction involves how an employee feels and what he/she thinks about the job [2]. Job training satisfaction, thus, is defined as “…how people feel about aspects of the job training they receive. Job training satisfaction is the extent to which people like or dislike the set of planned activities or dislike the set of planned activities organized to develop the knowledge, skills, and attitudes required to effectively a given tasks or job” ([32], p. 483). According to Schmidt, the definition of job training satisfaction has several key components [100]. First, the focus of evaluation is on-the-job training as a whole, rather than on a single part of training activities such as a training course, trainers, facilities, or training content. Second, it refers to a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from each element and the whole process before and after the job training, such as fulfillment of needs, enhancing motivation to learn, or satisfied with the transferring the learned competencies to the job. Third, the subjects of evaluation target on the trainees where formal or planned training activities are offered by the organization rather than the informal learning effort endeavors by the employees themselves. When measuring job training satisfaction, not only the employees’ feelings about the job training are measured but also the training activities offered by the organization are examined [32, 101].
\nIn the past, the impact of training on job satisfaction was not emphasized until it was found that job satisfaction tended to be higher where workplace training was held in organizations [102]. In order to explore the relationships between these two variables, Schmidt conducted a survey of job training and satisfaction for employees in customer and technical service department in nine major organizations in the USA and Canada to address how job training satisfaction impacts on job satisfaction [32]. According to his findings, job training satisfaction was not only highly correlated with job satisfaction but also significantly related to the time spent in training, training methodology, and content. However, it was not related to age, gender, and race/ethnicity. Extended researches have been carried out to explore the impact of job training satisfaction on other work attitudes. Huang and Su found that there is a negative relationship between job training satisfaction and turnover intentions [103]. It is stated that, when employees are satisfied with job training, they are more likely to stay in the organization and have lower turnover intentions. The research results have also indicated that the relationship between job training satisfaction and turnover intentions can be mediated by job satisfaction. Mansour et al. showed that there is a positive relation between job training satisfaction and normative commitment [100]. Moreover, job training satisfaction was found to be positively related to organizational citizenship behavior [104, 105], organizational commitment (OC), and job involvement (JI) [105]. The relationship between JTS and OCB can also be partially mediated by OC and JI [105]. From these research results, job training satisfaction is found to be able to enhance employees’ work attitudes such as job satisfaction, commitment, job involvement, and organizational citizenship behavior, which leads to the increase of job performance.
\nBased on the above discussion, a revised comprehensive model of training effectiveness is proposed and shown in Figure 3. According to Schmidt’s definition, job training satisfaction measures the employees’ feelings about the whole job training activities such as identifying the training needs, designing the training program, delivering training contents, activating learning occurring, and assessing training evaluation. Thus, different from the original model shown in Figure 2, the variable of job training satisfaction was inserted after the variable of training transfer to influence job satisfaction and job performance. That is, if the learners are able to perceive positively toward training program, to learn the job required knowledge, skill, abilities, and attitudes through training, and to succeed in transferring the learned competencies to real workplace, their satisfaction level toward training program must be high. For instance, on-the-job training, especially structured OJT, has been perceived as an effective training approach to achieve transfer of training owing to its occurrence at or near the workplace using actual facilities, enhancing skills acquisition, and removing learning anxieties [6, 33]. This allows the employees to be able to perform the job well and, in turn, feel satisfied with the training. Such high satisfaction toward job training leads to high level of job satisfaction and further results in high job performance but low turnover intention. These findings are interesting and valuable. Jones et al. ever mentioned that training can have an indirect effect on performance if it increases job satisfaction by making it easier for employees to perform the job or feel more valued [96]. From a series of studies, the impact of training on job satisfaction, job performance, and turnover intention has been confirmed. The variable of job training satisfaction can serve as a predictor to the employees’ job satisfaction, job performance, and turnover intentions.
\nThe revised comprehensive model of training effectiveness with insertion of job training satisfaction and job satisfaction.
The central thesis of this chapter is to present how job training plays a role in influencing the employees’ job training satisfaction, which then impacts job satisfaction and subsequently affects job performance and turnover intentions. Although training is a critical strategy to help organizations gain competitive advantages and its purpose is to help employees learn job-related competencies, job training satisfaction cannot be achieved without a well-prepared and designed training program. That is, at the beginning of the training program design, it is necessary to carry out a needs assessment to make the learning occur, which consists of organizational analysis, person analysis, and task analysis. While conducting training design and delivery during training, the learner-centered learning paradigm which has been emphasized recently may be considered as a preferred approach owing to its increasing learners’ learning motivation and learning engagement. After training, the training effectiveness is evaluated by assessing not only learning performance of knowledge, skills, and job-related behaviors but also affective outcomes such as self-efficacy, attitude, and motivation. Research has indicated that possessing a pleasurable or positive emotional state with the whole job training program, employees will have higher job satisfaction and job performance. Other job attitudes such as organizational citizenship behavior, affective commitment, and normative commitment will increase, while turnover intention and absenteeism will decrease. In this chapter, the comprehensive model of training effectiveness was modified by inserting the job training satisfaction after training transfer. This not only better elaborate the relationship among training, job satisfaction, and job performance but also serves as a reminder for the human resource practitioners who should always bear in mind how to make the trainees satisfied with the training when designing and delivering a training program.
\nAs this section deals with legal issues pertaining to the rights of individual Authors and IntechOpen, for the avoidance of doubt, each category of publication is dealt with separately. Consequently, much of the information, for example definition of terms used, is repeated to ensure that there can be no misunderstanding of the policies that apply to each category.
",metaTitle:"Copyright Policy",metaDescription:"Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish and distribute publications.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/copyright-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
\\n\\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
\\n\\nHOW COPYRIGHT WORKS WITH OPEN ACCESS LICENSES?
\\n\\nAgreement samples are listed here for the convenience of prospective Authors:
\\n\\n\\n\\nDEFINITIONS
\\n\\nThe following definitions apply in this Copyright Policy:
\\n\\nAuthor - in order to be identified as an Author, three criteria must be met: (i) Substantial contribution to the conception or design of the Work, or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the Work; (ii) Participation in drafting or revising the Work; (iii) Approval of the final version of the Work to be published.
\\n\\nWork - a Chapter, including Conference Papers, and any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of or accompanying the Chapter/Conference Paper.
\\n\\nMonograph/Compacts - a full manuscript usually written by a single Author, including any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials.
\\n\\nCompilation - a collection of Works distributed in a Book that IntechOpen has selected, and for which the coordination of the preparation, arrangement and publication has been the responsibility of IntechOpen. Any Work included is accepted in its entirety in unmodified form and is published with one or more other contributions, each constituting a separate and independent Work, but which together are assembled into a collective whole.
\\n\\nIntechOpen - Registered publisher with office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ - UNITED KINGDOM
\\n\\nIntechOpen platform - IntechOpen website www.intechopen.com whose main purpose is to host Monographs in the format of Book Chapters, Long Form Monographs, Compacts, Conference Proceedings and Videos.
\\n\\nVideo Lecture – an audiovisual recording of a lecture or a speech given by a Lecturer, recorded, edited, owned and published by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nTERMS
\\n\\nAll Works published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License, a license which allows for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
\\n\\nCopyright on the individual Works belongs to the specific Author, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen. The Creative Common license is granted to all others to:
\\n\\nAnd for any purpose, provided the following conditions are met:
\\n\\nAll Works are published under the CC BY 3.0 license. However, please note that book Chapters may fall under a different CC license, depending on their publication date as indicated in the table below:
\\n\\n\\n\\n
LICENSE | \\n\\t\\t\\tUSED FROM - | \\n\\t\\t\\tUP TO - | \\n\\t\\t
\\n\\t\\t\\t Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t\\t\\n\\t\\t\\t 1 July 2005 (2005-07-01) \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t\\t\\n\\t\\t\\t 3 October 2011 (2011-10-03) \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t
Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0) | \\n\\t\\t\\t\\n\\t\\t\\t 5 October 2011 (2011-10-05) \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t\\tCurrently | \\n\\t\\t
The CC BY 3.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
\\n\\nContent reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nReposting & sharing:
\\n\\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nRepublishing – More about Attribution Policy can be found here.
\\n\\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
\\n\\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll rights to Books and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nThe copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to separate copyright from those that exist in the included Works.
\\n\\nAll Long Form Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others.
\\n\\nCopyright to the individual Works (Chapters) belongs to their specific Authors, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen and the Creative Common license granted to all others to:
\\n\\nUnder the following terms:
\\n\\nThere must be an Attribution, giving appropriate credit, provision of a link to the license, and indication if any changes were made.
\\n\\nNonCommercial - The use of the material for commercial purposes is prohibited. Commercial rights are reserved to IntechOpen or its licensees.
\\n\\nNo additional restrictions that apply legal terms or technological measures that restrict others from doing anything the license permits are allowed.
\\n\\nThe CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as it is not used for commercial purposes. The source Work must be cited and its Authors acknowledged in the following manner:
\\n\\nContent reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nReposting & sharing:
\\n\\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nAll Book cover design elements, as well as Video image graphics are subject to copyright by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nEvery reproduction of a front cover image must be accompanied by an appropriate Copyright Notice displayed adjacent to the image. The exact Copyright Notice depends on who the Author of a particular cover image is. Users wishing to reproduce cover images should contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll Video Lectures under IntechOpen's production are subject to copyright and are property of IntechOpen, unless defined otherwise, and are licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. This grants all others the right to:
\\n\\nShare — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
\\n\\nUnder the following terms:
\\n\\nUsers wishing to repost and share the Video Lectures are welcome to do so as long as they acknowledge the source in the following manner:
\\n\\n© {year} IntechOpen. Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nUsers wishing to reuse, modify, or adapt the Video Lectures in a way not permitted by the license are welcome to contact us at permissions@intechopen.com to discuss waiving particular license terms.
\\n\\nAll software used on the IntechOpen platform, any used during the publishing process, and the copyright in the code constituting such software, is the property of IntechOpen or its software suppliers. As such, it may not be downloaded or copied without permission.
\\n\\nUnless otherwise indicated, all IntechOpen websites are the property of IntechOpen.
\\n\\nAll content included on IntechOpen Websites not forming part of contributed materials (such as text, images, logos, graphics, design elements, videos, sounds, pictures, trademarks, etc.), are subject to copyright and are property of, or licensed to, IntechOpen. Any other use, including the reproduction, modification, distribution, transmission, republication, display, or performance of the content on this site is strictly prohibited.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
\n\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
\n\nHOW COPYRIGHT WORKS WITH OPEN ACCESS LICENSES?
\n\nAgreement samples are listed here for the convenience of prospective Authors:
\n\n\n\nDEFINITIONS
\n\nThe following definitions apply in this Copyright Policy:
\n\nAuthor - in order to be identified as an Author, three criteria must be met: (i) Substantial contribution to the conception or design of the Work, or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the Work; (ii) Participation in drafting or revising the Work; (iii) Approval of the final version of the Work to be published.
\n\nWork - a Chapter, including Conference Papers, and any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of or accompanying the Chapter/Conference Paper.
\n\nMonograph/Compacts - a full manuscript usually written by a single Author, including any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials.
\n\nCompilation - a collection of Works distributed in a Book that IntechOpen has selected, and for which the coordination of the preparation, arrangement and publication has been the responsibility of IntechOpen. Any Work included is accepted in its entirety in unmodified form and is published with one or more other contributions, each constituting a separate and independent Work, but which together are assembled into a collective whole.
\n\nIntechOpen - Registered publisher with office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ - UNITED KINGDOM
\n\nIntechOpen platform - IntechOpen website www.intechopen.com whose main purpose is to host Monographs in the format of Book Chapters, Long Form Monographs, Compacts, Conference Proceedings and Videos.
\n\nVideo Lecture – an audiovisual recording of a lecture or a speech given by a Lecturer, recorded, edited, owned and published by IntechOpen.
\n\nTERMS
\n\nAll Works published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License, a license which allows for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
\n\nCopyright on the individual Works belongs to the specific Author, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen. The Creative Common license is granted to all others to:
\n\nAnd for any purpose, provided the following conditions are met:
\n\nAll Works are published under the CC BY 3.0 license. However, please note that book Chapters may fall under a different CC license, depending on their publication date as indicated in the table below:
\n\n\n\n
LICENSE | \n\t\t\tUSED FROM - | \n\t\t\tUP TO - | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t 1 July 2005 (2005-07-01) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t 3 October 2011 (2011-10-03) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t 5 October 2011 (2011-10-05) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCurrently | \n\t\t
The CC BY 3.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
\n\nContent reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nReposting & sharing:
\n\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nRepublishing – More about Attribution Policy can be found here.
\n\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
\n\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll rights to Books and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
\n\nThe copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to separate copyright from those that exist in the included Works.
\n\nAll Long Form Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others.
\n\nCopyright to the individual Works (Chapters) belongs to their specific Authors, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen and the Creative Common license granted to all others to:
\n\nUnder the following terms:
\n\nThere must be an Attribution, giving appropriate credit, provision of a link to the license, and indication if any changes were made.
\n\nNonCommercial - The use of the material for commercial purposes is prohibited. Commercial rights are reserved to IntechOpen or its licensees.
\n\nNo additional restrictions that apply legal terms or technological measures that restrict others from doing anything the license permits are allowed.
\n\nThe CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as it is not used for commercial purposes. The source Work must be cited and its Authors acknowledged in the following manner:
\n\nContent reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nReposting & sharing:
\n\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nAll Book cover design elements, as well as Video image graphics are subject to copyright by IntechOpen.
\n\nEvery reproduction of a front cover image must be accompanied by an appropriate Copyright Notice displayed adjacent to the image. The exact Copyright Notice depends on who the Author of a particular cover image is. Users wishing to reproduce cover images should contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll Video Lectures under IntechOpen's production are subject to copyright and are property of IntechOpen, unless defined otherwise, and are licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. This grants all others the right to:
\n\nShare — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
\n\nUnder the following terms:
\n\nUsers wishing to repost and share the Video Lectures are welcome to do so as long as they acknowledge the source in the following manner:
\n\n© {year} IntechOpen. Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nUsers wishing to reuse, modify, or adapt the Video Lectures in a way not permitted by the license are welcome to contact us at permissions@intechopen.com to discuss waiving particular license terms.
\n\nAll software used on the IntechOpen platform, any used during the publishing process, and the copyright in the code constituting such software, is the property of IntechOpen or its software suppliers. As such, it may not be downloaded or copied without permission.
\n\nUnless otherwise indicated, all IntechOpen websites are the property of IntechOpen.
\n\nAll content included on IntechOpen Websites not forming part of contributed materials (such as text, images, logos, graphics, design elements, videos, sounds, pictures, trademarks, etc.), are subject to copyright and are property of, or licensed to, IntechOpen. Any other use, including the reproduction, modification, distribution, transmission, republication, display, or performance of the content on this site is strictly prohibited.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5774},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5240},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1721},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10411},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15812}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118381},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",topicId:"6,5"},books:[{type:"book",id:"9662",title:"Vegetation Index and Dynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0abf2a59ee63fc1ba4fb64d77c9b1be7",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Eusebio Cano Carmona, Dr. Ricardo Quinto Canas, Dr. Ana Cano Ortiz and Dr. Carmelo Maria Musarella",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9662.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"87846",title:"Dr.",name:"Eusebio",surname:"Cano Carmona",slug:"eusebio-cano-carmona",fullName:"Eusebio Cano Carmona"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9659",title:"Fibroblasts - Advances in Cancer, Autoimmunity and Inflammation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"926fa6446f6befbd363fc74971a56de2",slug:null,bookSignature:"Ph.D. Mojca Frank Bertoncelj and Ms. Katja Lakota",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9659.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"328755",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mojca",surname:"Frank Bertoncelj",slug:"mojca-frank-bertoncelj",fullName:"Mojca Frank Bertoncelj"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8977",title:"Protein Kinase - New Opportunities, Challenges and Future Perspectives",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6d200cc031706a565b554fdb1c478901",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Rajesh Kumar Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8977.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-singh",fullName:"Rajesh Singh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10557",title:"Elaeis guineensis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"79500ab1930271876b4e0575e2ed3966",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Hesam Kamyab",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10557.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"225957",title:"Dr.",name:"Hesam",surname:"Kamyab",slug:"hesam-kamyab",fullName:"Hesam Kamyab"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10218",title:"Flagellar Motility in Cells",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5fcc15570365a82d9f2c4816f4e0ee2e",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Yusuf Bozkurt",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10218.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"90846",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",surname:"Bozkurt",slug:"yusuf-bozkurt",fullName:"Yusuf Bozkurt"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10750",title:"Solanum tuberosum - a Promising Crop for Starvation Problem",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"516eb729eadf0d1a9d1d2e6bf31e8e9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Mustafa Yildiz and Dr. Yasin Ozgen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10750.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"141637",title:"Prof.",name:"Mustafa",surname:"Yildiz",slug:"mustafa-yildiz",fullName:"Mustafa Yildiz"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10797",title:"Cell Culture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2c628f4757f9639a4450728d839a7842",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Xianquan Zhan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10797.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10772",title:"Parasitic Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"31abd439b5674c91d18ad77dbc52500f",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ana Maria Gonzalez and Dr. Hector Sato",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10772.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"281854",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Maria",surname:"Gonzalez",slug:"ana-maria-gonzalez",fullName:"Ana Maria Gonzalez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10737",title:"Equus",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"258ffafc92a7c9550bb85f004d7402e7",slug:null,bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Adriana Pires Neves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10737.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"188768",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Adriana",surname:"Pires Neves",slug:"adriana-pires-neves",fullName:"Adriana Pires Neves"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10777",title:"Plant Reproductive Ecology - Recent Advances",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"3fbf391f2093649bcf3bd674f7e32189",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Balkrishna Ghimire",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10777.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"206647",title:"Dr.",name:"Balkrishna",surname:"Ghimire",slug:"balkrishna-ghimire",fullName:"Balkrishna Ghimire"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10749",title:"Legumes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"49d3123cde96adbe706adadebebc5ebb",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10749.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"33993",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Carlos",surname:"Jimenez-Lopez",slug:"jose-carlos-jimenez-lopez",fullName:"Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10751",title:"Bovine Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9e3eb325f9fce20e6cefbce1c26d647a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Muhammad Abubakar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10751.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"112070",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Abubakar",slug:"muhammad-abubakar",fullName:"Muhammad Abubakar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:19},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:21},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:25},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:24},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5252},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9669",title:"Recent Advances in Rice Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12b06cc73e89af1e104399321cc16a75",slug:"recent-advances-in-rice-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur- Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-Ur-",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-Ur- Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine",parent:{title:"Health Sciences",slug:"health-sciences"},numberOfBooks:1511,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:39573,numberOfWosCitations:21767,numberOfCrossrefCitations:11544,numberOfDimensionsCitations:29307,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"medicine",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9406",title:"Clinical Implementation of Bone Regeneration and Maintenance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"875a140c01518fa7a9bceebd688b0147",slug:"clinical-implementation-of-bone-regeneration-and-maintenance",bookSignature:"Mike Barbeck, Nahum Rosenberg, Patrick Rider, Željka Perić Kačarević and Ole Jung",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9406.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"204918",title:"Dr.",name:"Mike",middleName:null,surname:"Barbeck",slug:"mike-barbeck",fullName:"Mike Barbeck"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9122",title:"Cosmetic Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"207026ca4a4125e17038e770d00ee152",slug:"cosmetic-surgery",bookSignature:"Yueh-Bih Tang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9122.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"202122",title:"Prof.",name:"Yueh-Bih",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",slug:"yueh-bih-tang",fullName:"Yueh-Bih Tang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9134",title:"Recent Advances in Digital System Diagnosis and Management of Healthcare",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ff00a5718f23cb880b7337b1c36b5434",slug:"recent-advances-in-digital-system-diagnosis-and-management-of-healthcare",bookSignature:"Kamran Sartipi and Thierry Edoh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9134.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"29601",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamran",middleName:null,surname:"Sartipi",slug:"kamran-sartipi",fullName:"Kamran Sartipi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9569",title:"Methods in Molecular Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"691d3f3c4ac25a8093414e9b270d2843",slug:"methods-in-molecular-medicine",bookSignature:"Yusuf Tutar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9569.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9157",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanisms and Current Therapeutic Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc8be577966ef88735677d7e1e92ed28",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases-molecular-mechanisms-and-current-therapeutic-approaches",bookSignature:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9157.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82778",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nagehan",middleName:null,surname:"Ersoy Tunalı",slug:"nagehan-ersoy-tunali",fullName:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9839",title:"Outdoor Recreation",subtitle:"Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f5a0d64267e32567daffa5b0c6a6972",slug:"outdoor-recreation-physiological-and-psychological-effects-on-health",bookSignature:"Hilde G. Nielsen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9839.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158692",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hilde G.",middleName:null,surname:"Nielsen",slug:"hilde-g.-nielsen",fullName:"Hilde G. Nielsen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9018",title:"Some RNA Viruses",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a5cae846dbe3692495fc4add2f60fd84",slug:"some-rna-viruses",bookSignature:"Yogendra Shah and Eltayb Abuelzein",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9018.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"278914",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yogendra",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"yogendra-shah",fullName:"Yogendra Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9523",title:"Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5eb6ec2db961a6c8965d11180a58d5c1",slug:"oral-and-maxillofacial-surgery",bookSignature:"Gokul Sridharan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9523.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82453",title:"Dr.",name:"Gokul",middleName:null,surname:"Sridharan",slug:"gokul-sridharan",fullName:"Gokul Sridharan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1511,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"19013",doi:"10.5772/21983",title:"Cell Responses to Surface and Architecture of Tissue Engineering Scaffolds",slug:"cell-responses-to-surface-and-architecture-of-tissue-engineering-scaffolds",totalDownloads:9697,totalCrossrefCites:109,totalDimensionsCites:230,book:{slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",fullTitle:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering - Cells and Biomaterials"},signatures:"Hsin-I Chang and Yiwei Wang",authors:[{id:"45747",title:"Dr.",name:"Hsin-I",middleName:null,surname:"Chang",slug:"hsin-i-chang",fullName:"Hsin-I Chang"},{id:"53659",title:"Ms.",name:"Yiwei",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"yiwei-wang",fullName:"Yiwei Wang"}]},{id:"46479",doi:"10.5772/57353",title:"Floating Drug Delivery Systems for Eradication of Helicobacter pylori in Treatment of Peptic Ulcer Disease",slug:"floating-drug-delivery-systems-for-eradication-of-helicobacter-pylori-in-treatment-of-peptic-ulcer-d",totalDownloads:1995,totalCrossrefCites:79,totalDimensionsCites:180,book:{slug:"trends-in-helicobacter-pylori-infection",title:"Trends in Helicobacter pylori Infection",fullTitle:"Trends in Helicobacter pylori Infection"},signatures:"Yousef Javadzadeh and Sanaz Hamedeyazdan",authors:[{id:"94276",title:"Prof.",name:"Yousef",middleName:null,surname:"Javadzadeh",slug:"yousef-javadzadeh",fullName:"Yousef Javadzadeh"},{id:"98229",title:"Dr.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Hamedeyazdan",slug:"sanaz-hamedeyazdan",fullName:"Sanaz Hamedeyazdan"}]},{id:"25512",doi:"10.5772/30872",title:"Epidemiology of Psychological Distress",slug:"epidemiology-of-psychological-distress",totalDownloads:8066,totalCrossrefCites:57,totalDimensionsCites:145,book:{slug:"mental-illnesses-understanding-prediction-and-control",title:"Mental Illnesses",fullTitle:"Mental Illnesses - Understanding, Prediction and Control"},signatures:"Aline Drapeau, Alain Marchand and Dominic Beaulieu-Prévost",authors:[{id:"84582",title:"Dr.",name:"Aline",middleName:null,surname:"Drapeau",slug:"aline-drapeau",fullName:"Aline Drapeau"},{id:"84605",title:"Dr.",name:"Alain",middleName:null,surname:"Marchand",slug:"alain-marchand",fullName:"Alain Marchand"},{id:"84606",title:"Dr.",name:"Dominic",middleName:null,surname:"Beaulieu-Prévost",slug:"dominic-beaulieu-prevost",fullName:"Dominic Beaulieu-Prévost"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"43758",title:"Anxiety Disorders in Pregnancy and the Postpartum Period",slug:"anxiety-disorders-in-pregnancy-and-the-postpartum-period",totalDownloads:39763,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:20,book:{slug:"new-insights-into-anxiety-disorders",title:"New Insights into Anxiety Disorders",fullTitle:"New Insights into Anxiety Disorders"},signatures:"Roberta Anniverno, Alessandra Bramante, Claudio Mencacci and Federico Durbano",authors:[{id:"157077",title:"Dr.",name:"Federico",middleName:null,surname:"Durbano",slug:"federico-durbano",fullName:"Federico Durbano"},{id:"166382",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberta",middleName:null,surname:"Anniverno",slug:"roberta-anniverno",fullName:"Roberta Anniverno"}]},{id:"70711",title:"Fetal Growth Restriction",slug:"fetal-growth-restriction",totalDownloads:1706,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"growth-disorders-and-acromegaly",title:"Growth Disorders and Acromegaly",fullTitle:"Growth Disorders and Acromegaly"},signatures:"Edurne Mazarico Gallego, Ariadna Torrecillas Pujol, Alex Joan Cahuana Bartra and Maria Dolores Gómez Roig",authors:[{id:"202446",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Maria Dolores",middleName:null,surname:"Gómez Roig",slug:"maria-dolores-gomez-roig",fullName:"Maria Dolores Gómez Roig"},{id:"311835",title:"Dr.",name:"Edurne",middleName:null,surname:"Mazarico",slug:"edurne-mazarico",fullName:"Edurne Mazarico"}]},{id:"70405",title:"Hemostasis in Cardiac Surgery: How We Do it with Limited Resources",slug:"hemostasis-in-cardiac-surgery-how-we-do-it-with-limited-resources",totalDownloads:2694,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:null,title:"Contemporary Applications of Biologic Hemostatic Agents across Surgical Specialties - Volume 1",fullTitle:"Contemporary Applications of Biologic Hemostatic Agents across Surgical Specialties - Volume 1"},signatures:"Fevzi Sarper Türker",authors:null},{id:"64851",title:"Herbal Medicines in African Traditional Medicine",slug:"herbal-medicines-in-african-traditional-medicine",totalDownloads:9954,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:17,book:{slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Ezekwesili-Ofili Josephine Ozioma and Okaka Antoinette Nwamaka\nChinwe",authors:[{id:"191264",title:"Prof.",name:"Josephine",middleName:"Ozioma",surname:"Ezekwesili-Ofili",slug:"josephine-ezekwesili-ofili",fullName:"Josephine Ezekwesili-Ofili"},{id:"211585",title:"Prof.",name:"Antoinette",middleName:null,surname:"Okaka",slug:"antoinette-okaka",fullName:"Antoinette Okaka"}]},{id:"59779",title:"Effective Communication in Nursing",slug:"effective-communication-in-nursing",totalDownloads:6504,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"nursing",title:"Nursing",fullTitle:"Nursing"},signatures:"Maureen Nokuthula Sibiya",authors:[{id:"73330",title:"Dr.",name:"Nokuthula",middleName:null,surname:"Sibiya",slug:"nokuthula-sibiya",fullName:"Nokuthula Sibiya"}]},{id:"64858",title:"The Neurobiology of Anorexia Nervosa",slug:"the-neurobiology-of-anorexia-nervosa",totalDownloads:892,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"anorexia-and-bulimia-nervosa",title:"Anorexia and Bulimia Nervosa",fullTitle:"Anorexia and Bulimia Nervosa"},signatures:"Ashley Higgins",authors:null},{id:"63771",title:"The Role of Catheter Reshaping at the Angiographic Success",slug:"the-role-of-catheter-reshaping-at-the-angiographic-success",totalDownloads:536,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"angiography",title:"Angiography",fullTitle:"Angiography"},signatures:"Yakup Balaban",authors:[{id:"252647",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Yakup",middleName:null,surname:"Balaban",slug:"yakup-balaban",fullName:"Yakup Balaban"}]},{id:"61866",title:"Plants Secondary Metabolites: The Key Drivers of the Pharmacological Actions of Medicinal Plants",slug:"plants-secondary-metabolites-the-key-drivers-of-the-pharmacological-actions-of-medicinal-plants",totalDownloads:5564,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:32,book:{slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Rehab A. Hussein and Amira A. El-Anssary",authors:[{id:"212117",title:"Dr.",name:"Rehab",middleName:null,surname:"Hussein",slug:"rehab-hussein",fullName:"Rehab Hussein"},{id:"221140",title:"Dr.",name:"Amira",middleName:null,surname:"El-Anssary",slug:"amira-el-anssary",fullName:"Amira El-Anssary"}]},{id:"17956",title:"Sexual and Reproductive Function in Chronic Kidney Disease and Effect of Kidney Transplantation",slug:"sexual-and-reproductive-function-in-chronic-kidney-disease-and-effect-of-kidney-transplantation",totalDownloads:11790,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"after-the-kidney-transplant-the-patients-and-their-allograft",title:"After the Kidney Transplant",fullTitle:"After the Kidney Transplant - The Patients and Their Allograft"},signatures:"Mahboob Lessan-Pezeshki and Shirin Ghazizadeh",authors:[{id:"26564",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahboob",middleName:null,surname:"Lessan Pezeshki",slug:"mahboob-lessan-pezeshki",fullName:"Mahboob Lessan Pezeshki"},{id:"26571",title:"Prof.",name:"Shirin",middleName:null,surname:"Ghazizadeh",slug:"shirin-ghazizadeh",fullName:"Shirin Ghazizadeh"}]},{id:"64747",title:"Bone Development and Growth",slug:"bone-development-and-growth",totalDownloads:3711,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,book:{slug:"osteogenesis-and-bone-regeneration",title:"Osteogenesis and Bone Regeneration",fullTitle:"Osteogenesis and Bone Regeneration"},signatures:"Rosy Setiawati and Paulus Rahardjo",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"medicine",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"75604",title:"Normal Puerperium",slug:"normal-puerperium",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96348",book:{title:"Midwifery"},signatures:"Subrat Panda, Ananya Das, Arindam Mallik and Surajit Ray Baruah"},{id:"75596",title:"The Use of a Dynamic Elastomeric Fabric Orthotic Intervention in Adolescents and Adults with Scoliosis",slug:"the-use-of-a-dynamic-elastomeric-fabric-orthotic-intervention-in-adolescents-and-adults-with-scolios",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96391",book:{title:"Spinal Deformities in Adolescents, Adults and Older Adults"},signatures:"Martin Matthews and James Wynne"},{id:"75582",title:"Elimination of Plasmodium vivax Malaria: Problems and Solutions",slug:"elimination-of-plasmodium-vivax-malaria-problems-and-solutions",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96604",book:{title:"Current Topics and Emerging Issues in Malaria Elimination"},signatures:"Liwang Cui, Awtum Brashear, Lynette Menezes and John Adams"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:652},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/books/open-scientific-data-why-choosing-and-reusing-the-right-data-matters/legal-issues-arising-in-open-scientific-data",hash:"",query:{},params:{book:"open-scientific-data-why-choosing-and-reusing-the-right-data-matters",chapter:"legal-issues-arising-in-open-scientific-data"},fullPath:"/books/open-scientific-data-why-choosing-and-reusing-the-right-data-matters/legal-issues-arising-in-open-scientific-data",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()