\r\n\t1. To draw spotlight on recent studies and research concerned with the regeneration process in animal kingdom and models with emphasis on the cellular origins of regeneration. \r\n\t2. Then, we will be dealing with the reasons for the differences in the regenerative capacity of animals on many levels, including the molecular mechanism, gene expression, epigenetic regulation, common elements affecting regeneration and comparing their contributions to regeneration. \r\n\t3. To provide new insights into how to promote regeneration in mammals.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"689b9f46c48cd54a2874b8da7386549d",bookSignature:"Dr. Hussein Abdelhay Essayed Kaoud",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8575.jpg",keywords:"Regeneration, Cellular Basis, Molecular Basis, Differentiation, Epigenetic Regulators, Regeneration Associated Genes, Autotomy, Epimorphosis, Morphallaxis, Polyphyodonty, Vertebrates, Invertebrates",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 17th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 15th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 13th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 4th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 3rd 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in molecular biology, epidemiology, aquaculture toxicology, full professor of animal health and environmental pollution senior member, and holder of two registered patents and three scientific records. Veterinary fellowships in animal care and surgeons and wildlife management & conservation.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"265070",title:"Dr.",name:"Hussein Abdelhay",middleName:null,surname:"Essayed Kaoud",slug:"hussein-abdelhay-essayed-kaoud",fullName:"Hussein Abdelhay Essayed Kaoud",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265070/images/system/265070.png",biography:"Dr. Hussein Kaoud was the Chairman of the Department of Preventive Medicine at Cairo University. He has given lectures in Molecular Epidemiology and Biotechnology at different universities and has been a member of many International Publishing Houses, Reviewer, and Editor for indexed journals. Currently, he works as Full Professor of Preventive Medicine at Cairo University, Egypt. His research interest is focused on Molecular Biology and Advanced Technology of Basic Life Sciences after he had his Ph.D. and D.Sc. He has published more than 300 publications. Dr. Hussein Kaoud has several international books, one international award (USA), 10 Cairo university International Publication awards and the Appreciation Award in Advanced Technological Sciences, from Cairo University. He supervised, examined and discussed many medical dissertations.",institutionString:"Cairo University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Cairo University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"6",title:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"297737",firstName:"Mateo",lastName:"Pulko",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297737/images/8492_n.png",email:"mateo.p@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6475",title:"Tissue Regeneration",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d5ed06a80f0205146aa90d158facefd1",slug:"tissue-regeneration",bookSignature:"Hussein Abdel hay El-Sayed Kaoud",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6475.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"265070",title:"Dr.",name:"Hussein Abdelhay",surname:"Essayed Kaoud",slug:"hussein-abdelhay-essayed-kaoud",fullName:"Hussein Abdelhay Essayed Kaoud"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5469",title:"Canine Medicine",subtitle:"Recent Topics and Advanced Research",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a7e798d88413dd09f8a4af2b2e325b82",slug:"canine-medicine-recent-topics-and-advanced-research",bookSignature:"Hussein Abdelhay Elsayed Kaoud",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5469.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"265070",title:"Dr.",name:"Hussein Abdelhay",surname:"Essayed Kaoud",slug:"hussein-abdelhay-essayed-kaoud",fullName:"Hussein Abdelhay Essayed Kaoud"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8288",title:"Bacterial Cattle Diseases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f45b8b4974eb0d7de8719ef6b9146200",slug:"bacterial-cattle-diseases",bookSignature:"Hussein Abdel hay El-Sayed Kaoud",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8288.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"265070",title:"Dr.",name:"Hussein Abdelhay",surname:"Essayed Kaoud",slug:"hussein-abdelhay-essayed-kaoud",fullName:"Hussein Abdelhay Essayed Kaoud"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6694",title:"New Trends in Ion Exchange Studies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3de8c8b090fd8faa7c11ec5b387c486a",slug:"new-trends-in-ion-exchange-studies",bookSignature:"Selcan Karakuş",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6694.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206110",title:"Dr.",name:"Selcan",surname:"Karakuş",slug:"selcan-karakus",fullName:"Selcan Karakuş"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"10524",title:"A Framework to Generate 3D Learning Experience",doi:"10.5772/9214",slug:"a-framework-to-generate-3d-learning-experiences",body:null,keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/10524.pdf",chapterXML:null,downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/10524",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/10524",totalDownloads:1591,totalViews:79,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:null,datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"March 1st 2010",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/10524",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/10524",book:{slug:"new-achievements-in-technology-education-and-development"},signatures:"Ugo Barchetti, Alberto Bucciero, Stefano Santo Sabato and Luca Mainetti",authors:null,sections:null,chapterReferences:null,footnotes:null,contributors:null,corrections:null},book:{id:"3638",title:"New Achievements in Technology",subtitle:"Education and Development",fullTitle:"New Achievements in Technology, Education and Development",slug:"new-achievements-in-technology-education-and-development",publishedDate:"March 1st 2010",bookSignature:"Safeeullah Soomro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3638.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY-NC-SA 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"951",title:"Dr.",name:"Safeeullah",middleName:null,surname:"Soomro",slug:"safeeullah-soomro",fullName:"Safeeullah Soomro"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"10542",title:"Creating an Entrepreneurship Ecosystem in Higher Education",slug:"creating-an-entrepreneurship-ecosystem-in-higher-education",totalDownloads:3965,totalCrossrefCites:6,signatures:"Luisa Carvalho, Teresa Costa and Pedro Dominguinhos",authors:[null]},{id:"10533",title:"A Course Project: An Overview from the PBL 'as-Research-Oriented' Viewpoint",slug:"a-course-project-an-overview-from-the-pbl-as-research-oriented-viewpoint",totalDownloads:1459,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Juan Carlos Soto Merino",authors:[null]},{id:"10528",title:"Wining Youth for Science and Technology – an Educational Challenge",slug:"wining-youth-for-science-and-technology-an-educational-challenge",totalDownloads:1247,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Valentina M. Pomazan, Doina Mihalascu, Lucian C. Petcu and Mihai A. Girtu",authors:[null]},{id:"10548",title:"Use of the Internet for Enhancing Tourism and Hospitality Higher Education in Southern Africa: Implications for E-learning",slug:"use-of-the-internet-for-enhancing-tourism-and-hospitality-higher-education-in-southern-africa-implic",totalDownloads:5478,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Dimitri Tassiopoulos",authors:[null]},{id:"10540",title:"Projects as a Method of Training, Teaching and Research Education",slug:"projects-as-a-method-of-training-teaching-and-research-education",totalDownloads:5418,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Holzbaur",authors:[null]},{id:"10550",title:"A Modified Agile Methodology for an ERP Academic Project Development",slug:"a-modified-agile-methodology-for-an-erp-academic-project-development",totalDownloads:2556,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Estelles, E., Pardo, J., Sanchez, F. and Falco A.",authors:[null]},{id:"10532",title:"Telepresence Teaching: Implementation Issues in Universities and other Institutes of Higher Learning",slug:"telepresence-teaching-implementation-issues-in-universities-and-other-institutes-of-higher-learning",totalDownloads:2029,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Nonofo Losike – Sedimo",authors:[null]},{id:"10546",title:"Methodology for Part Visualization Problem Solving - the Importance of the Process",slug:"methodology-for-part-visualization-problem-solving-the-importance-of-the-process",totalDownloads:3580,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"E. Sierra Uria and M. Garmendia Mugika",authors:[null]},{id:"10525",title:"Applied Geoinformatics in Forestry and Landscape Research and Education",slug:"applied-geoinformatics-in-forestry-and-landscape-research-and-education",totalDownloads:2500,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Vladimir Zidek and Martin Klimanek",authors:[null]},{id:"10531",title:"Improving Student Competencies Through Face–to-Face and Virtual Teams",slug:"improving-student-competencies-through-face-to-face-and-virtual-teams",totalDownloads:1253,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Oltra M. J., Boronat M., Garcia C. and Flor M.",authors:[null]},{id:"10541",title:"The Implementation of Ict Integration in Malaysian Smart Schools",slug:"the-implementation-of-ict-integration-in-malaysian-smart-schools",totalDownloads:4389,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Wan Zah Wan Ali and Hajar Mohd Nor",authors:[null]},{id:"10543",title:"Final Qualifications Work Definition in the EHEA",slug:"final-qualifications-work-definition-in-the-ehea",totalDownloads:1234,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Mercedes de la Camara Delgado, F. Javier Saenz Marcilla and Eugenio Fernandez Vicente",authors:[null]},{id:"10534",title:"An Empirical Study on the Effort Required in the Realization of Final Year Projects in Engineering Degrees",slug:"an-empirical-study-on-the-effort-required-in-the-realization-of-final-year-projects-in-engineering-d",totalDownloads:1228,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"F. Javier Saenz Marcilla, Mercedes de la Camara Delgado and Eugenio Fernandez Vicente",authors:[null]},{id:"10529",title:"A Robust Intelligent Tutoring System for the Integration of People with Intellectual Disabilities into Social and Work Environments",slug:"a-robust-intelligent-tutoring-system-for-the-integration-of-people-with-intellectual-disabilities-in",totalDownloads:1500,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"E. Irigoyen, K. L. de Ipina, N. Garay, A. Goicoechea, A. Ezeiza, A. Conde, M. Larranaga and A. Soraluze",authors:[null]},{id:"10538",title:"Augmented Reality Technology for Education",slug:"augmented-reality-technology-for-education",totalDownloads:3355,totalCrossrefCites:13,signatures:"Mariano Alcaniz, Manuel Contero, David C. Perez-Lopez and Mario Ortega",authors:[null]},{id:"10536",title:"A Case Study of The Integration of Environmental Education in the Primary School Curriculum",slug:"a-case-study-of-the-integration-of-environmental-education-in-the-primary-school-curriculum",totalDownloads:5781,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Sekinah Sehlola",authors:[null]},{id:"10545",title:"The Use of the Common Assessment Framework Tool: Empiric Study on the University of Evora (Academic Services)",slug:"the-use-of-the-common-assessment-framework-tool-empiric-study-on-the-university-of-evora-academic-se",totalDownloads:2062,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"T. Nogueiro and M. Saraiva",authors:[null]},{id:"10544",title:"Semantics-Enhanced E-learning Courses",slug:"semantics-enhanced-e-learning-courses",totalDownloads:1676,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Steffen Mencke and Reiner Dumke",authors:[null]},{id:"10537",title:"Educational Software as a Learning Tool for Primary School Students",slug:"educational-software-as-a-learning-tool-for-primary-school-students",totalDownloads:7269,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Marco Vannucci and Valentina Colla",authors:[null]},{id:"10549",title:"Removing Barriers to Conducting Research in Ireland’s Institutes of Technology",slug:"removing-barriers-to-conducting-research-in-ireland-s-institutes-of-technology",totalDownloads:1536,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"John Donovan, Anthony Betts and Stephen Jerrams",authors:[null]},{id:"10527",title:"Academic and Professional Development of Nursing in Spain: a Decade for Change",slug:"academic-and-professional-development-of-nursing-in-spain-a-decade-for-change",totalDownloads:3103,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Mariscal Crespo M.I, Merino Navarro D, Mena Navarro F, Macia Soler L, Zabalegui Yarnoz A and Camacho Bejarano R",authors:[null]},{id:"10530",title:"Working in Terms of Competences: Activities Designed Using Active Methodologies",slug:"working-in-terms-of-competences-activities-designed-using-active-methodologies",totalDownloads:1119,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Rosario Vilaplana, Oscar Gomis and Antonio Hyder",authors:[null]},{id:"10526",title:"Bridging the Digital Divide and the Impact of New Media Technologies on Development in South Africa",slug:"bridging-the-digital-divide-and-the-impact-of-new-media-technologies-on-development-in-south-africa",totalDownloads:6335,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Osunkunle, Oluyinka Oludolapo",authors:[null]},{id:"10539",title:"EHEA: any Obstacles to Converge?",slug:"ehea-any-obstacles-to-converge-",totalDownloads:1537,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Ruth Herrero-Martin, Jose Perez-Garcia, Juan P. Solano and Isabel M. Solano-Fernandez",authors:[null]},{id:"10535",title:"Connected Information: the Hyperrepresentation of Andrea Palladio's Villas",slug:"connected-information-the-hyperrepresentation-of-andrea-palladio-s-villas",totalDownloads:2102,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Andrea Giordano, Cosimo Monteleone and Isabella Friso",authors:[null]},{id:"10547",title:"Swap-Sivi, a Technological Research Project Applied to Art Teaching and Create Digital Contents",slug:"swap-sivi-a-technological-research-project-applied-to-art-teaching-and-create-digital-contents",totalDownloads:1447,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Ignacio Oliva, Juan Vicente Llorens and Miguel Angel Roque",authors:[null]},{id:"10524",title:"A Framework to Generate 3D Learning Experience",slug:"a-framework-to-generate-3d-learning-experiences",totalDownloads:1591,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Ugo Barchetti, Alberto Bucciero, Stefano Santo Sabato and Luca Mainetti",authors:[null]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3651",title:"E-learning",subtitle:"Experiences and Future",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"e-learning-experiences-and-future",bookSignature:"Safeeullah Soomro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3651.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"951",title:"Dr.",name:"Safeeullah",surname:"Soomro",slug:"safeeullah-soomro",fullName:"Safeeullah Soomro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"10052",title:"E-Learning Indicators: A Multidimensional Model For Planning Developing And Evaluating E-Learning Software Solutions",slug:"e-learning-indicators-a-multidimensional-model-for-planning-developing-and-evaluating-e-learning-sof",signatures:"Bekim Fetaji and Majlinda Fetaji",authors:[null]},{id:"10062",title:"Barriers to Effective use of Information Technology in Science Education at Yanbu Kingdom of Saudi Arabia",slug:"barriers-to-effective-use-of-information-technology-in-science-education-at-yanbu-kingdom-of-saudi-a",signatures:"Abdulkareem Eid S. Alwani and Safeeullah Soomro",authors:[null]},{id:"10067",title:"The Use of Multi-Agents\\' Systems in e-Learning Platforms",slug:"the-use-of-multi-agents-systems-in-e-learning-platforms",signatures:"Tomasz Marcin Orzechowski",authors:[null]},{id:"10066",title:"Quality Metrics of an Integrated E-learning System – Students’ Perspective",slug:"quality-metrics-of-an-integrated-e-learning-system-students-perspective",signatures:"Ksenija Klasnic, Jadranka Lasic-Lazic and Sanja Seljan",authors:[null]},{id:"10065",title:"Intelligent Interaction Support for E-learning",slug:"intelligent-interaction-support-for-e-learning",signatures:"Takashi Yukawa and Yoshimi Fukumura",authors:[null]},{id:"10059",title:"Supporting Technologies for Synchronous E-learning",slug:"supporting-technologies-for-synchronous-e-learning",signatures:"Juan C. Granda, Christian Uria, Francisco J. Suarez and Daniel F. Garcia",authors:[null]},{id:"10068",title:"Bayesian Agent in E-learning",slug:"bayesian-agent-in-e-learning",signatures:"Maomi Ueno",authors:[null]},{id:"10050",title:"Data Mining for Instructional Design, Learning and Assessment",slug:"data-mining-for-instructional-design-learning-and-assessment",signatures:"Lluis Vicent and Xavier Gumara",authors:[null]},{id:"10063",title:"A Learning Style – Driven Architecture Build on Open Source LMS’s Infrastructure for Creation of Psycho-Pedagogically – ‘Savvy’ Personalized Learning Paths",slug:"a-learning-style-driven-architecture-build-on-open-source-lms-s-infrastructure-for-creation-of-psych",signatures:"Tania Al. Kerkiri, Angela-M. Paleologou, Dimitris Konetas and Kostantinos Chatzinikolaou",authors:[null]},{id:"10064",title:"E-learning in Information Accessibility of Disabled Assistant Technology",slug:"e-learning-in-information-accessibility-of-disabled-assistant-technology",signatures:"Chunlian Li and Yu Sun",authors:[null]},{id:"10069",title:"Application of Data-Mining Technology on E-Learning Material Recommendation",slug:"application-of-data-mining-technology-on-e-learning-material-recommendation",signatures:"Feng-Jung Liu and Bai-Jiun Shih",authors:[null]},{id:"10070",title:"Loosely-Tied Distributed Architecture for Highly Scalable E-Learning System",slug:"loosely-tied-distributed-architecture-for-highly-scalable-e-learning-system",signatures:"Gierlowski and Nowicki",authors:[null]},{id:"10061",title:"Evolution of Collaborative Learning Environments Based on Desktop Computer to Mobile Computing: A Model-Based Approach",slug:"evolution-of-collaborative-learning-environments-based-on-desktop-computer-to-mobile-computing-a-mod",signatures:"Ana I. Molina, William J. Giraldo, Francisco Jurado, Miguel A. Redondo and Manuel Ortega",authors:[null]},{id:"10055",title:"From the Discovery of Students Access Patterns in E-learning Including Web 2.0 Resources to the Prediction and Enhancement of Students Outcome",slug:"from-the-discovery-of-students-access-patterns-in-e-learning-including-web-2-0-resources-to-the-pred",signatures:"Raquel Hijon-Neira and Angel Velazquez-Iturbide",authors:[null]},{id:"10058",title:"Dependable E-learning Systems",slug:"dependable-e-learning-systems",signatures:"Ali Al-Dahoud, Marek Woda and Tomasz Walkowiak",authors:[null]},{id:"10051",title:"Ontology-driven Annotation and Access of Educational Video Data in E-learning",slug:"ontology-driven-annotation-and-access-of-educational-video-data-in-e-learning",signatures:"Aijuan Dong, Honglin Li and Baoying Wang",authors:[null]},{id:"10057",title:"When a Robot Turns into a Totem: the RoboBeggar Case",slug:"when-a-robot-turns-into-a-totem-the-robobeggar-case",signatures:"Gaetano La Russa, Erkki Sutinen and Johannes C. Cronje",authors:[null]},{id:"10056",title:"Virtual Patients as a Practical Realisation of the E-learning Idea in Medicine",slug:"virtual-patients-as-a-practical-realisation-of-the-e-learning-idea-in-medicine",signatures:"Andrzej A. Kononowicz and Inga Hege",authors:[null]},{id:"10053",title:"Data Warehouse Technology and Application in Data Centre Design for E-government",slug:"data-warehouse-technology-and-application-in-data-centre-design-for-e-government",signatures:"Xuanzi Hu",authors:[null]},{id:"10060",title:"The Emergence of the Intelligent Government in the Second Society",slug:"the-emergence-of-the-intelligent-government-in-the-second-society",signatures:"Dennis de Kool and Johan van Wamelen",authors:[null]},{id:"10071",title:"A Lightweight SOA-based Collaboration Framework for European Public Sector",slug:"a-lightweight-soa-based-collaboration-framework-for-european-public-sector",signatures:"Adomas Svirskas, Jelena Isacenkova and Refik Molva",authors:[null]},{id:"10054",title:"Spatial Aided Decision-making System for E-Government",slug:"spatial-aided-decision-making-system-for-e-government",signatures:"Liang Wang, Rong Zhao, Bin Li, Jiping Liu and Qingpu Zhang",authors:[null]},{id:"10072",title:"Evaluating Local E-Government: a Comparative Study of Greek Prefecture Websites",slug:"evaluating-local-e-government-a-comparative-study-of-greek-prefecture-websites",signatures:"Prodromos Yannas and Georgios Lappas",authors:[null]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"71777",title:"Orexin and Psychoneurobiology: A Hidden Treasure",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91852",slug:"orexin-and-psychoneurobiology-a-hidden-treasure",body:'
1. Introduction
Orexin, also known as hypocretin, is a neuropeptide that regulates arousal, wakefulness, and appetite. The most common form of narcolepsy, in which the sufferer experiences brief losses of muscle tone (cataplexy), is caused by a lack of orexin in the brain due to destruction of the cells that produce it. There are only 10,000–20,000 orexin-producing neurons in the human brain, located predominantly in the perifornical area and lateral hypothalamus. They project widely throughout the central nervous system, regulating wakefulness, feeding, and other behaviors. The orexin system was initially suggested to be primarily involved in the stimulation of food intake, based on the finding that central administration of orexin-A and orexin-B increased food intake. In addition, it stimulates wakefulness, regulates energy expenditure, and modulates visceral function [1, 2].
Two distinct types of orexin, orexin-A and orexin-B, were identified; they act on specific receptors called orexin receptor type 1 (OX1R) and orexin receptor type 2 (OX2R). Orexin-A activates both of these receptors equally, while orexin-B has a five times higher affinity to OX2R than OX1R. Upon activation, prepro-orexin will split to orexin-A and orexin-B, which act on their G protein-coupled receptors (Figure 1) [3].
Figure 1.
Schematic representation of orexin system.
Orexin receptors are distributed mainly in the lateral hypothalamus and adjacent areas, and their nerve fibers project to multiple brain regions. Orexinergic neurons in the lateral hypothalamus group are closely associated with reward-related functions. These neurons preferentially innervate the ventral tegmental area and the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. In contrast, the perifornical-dorsal group of orexinergic neurons is involved in functions related to arousal and autonomic response. These neurons project inter-hypothalamically, as well as to the brainstem, where the release of orexin modulates various autonomic processes. Indeed, accumulating evidence shows that the orexin/receptor system is ectopically expressed in several neurological disorders, suggesting that it plays an important role in the incidence and pathogenesis of these diseases [4].
It has been verified that hypothalamic orexigenic neurons are involved in reward functions, while prefrontal orexigenic neurons are linked in the regulation of autonomic and arousal functions. Moreover, orexin provokes and stimulates food intake via inhibition of autonomic digestive feedbacks. Orexigenic neurons are inhibited by leptin and food intake, while hypoglycemia and ghrelin activate orexigenic neurons. Amino acid and high-protein diets paradoxically provoke the hyperpolarization of orexigenic neurons and block glucose-induced orexigenic neuron activations [5]. Animal model studies have shown that orexin is a very important link between sleep and body metabolism since sleep deprivation leads to higher food intake and induction of catabolism [6].
Additionally, orexin stimulates different neurotransmitters which are linked to the activation of the central nervous system, including acetylcholine, histamine, noradrenaline, and dopamine. Therefore, mutations of orexin receptors lead to sleep disorders. Mice with orexin knockout are subjected to narcolepsy and excessive daytime sleepiness [7]. Alizamini et al. study showed that central administration of orexin leads to stimulation of locomotion, psychomotor performance, body temperature, and energy expenditure. Furthermore, mice with orexin deficiency are subjected to obesity due to reduction of basal metabolic and energy expenditure rates. Beside, orexin knockout out mice is characterized by a reduction in brown adipose tissue thermogenesis with poor differentiation of pre-adipocyte into adipocytes in the adipose tissue [8]. Central and peripheral effects of orexin are illustrated in Figure 2.
Figure 2.
Central and peripheral effects of orexin.
The aim of this study was to provide a narrative review of the neurobiological effect of orexin system and to examine the association between orexin neurotransmission and different psychoneurological disorders, including depression, schizophrenia, addiction, Parkinson’s disease, and dementia. Evidence from experimental, preclinical and clinical studies is evaluated for bidirectional relationships between orexin neurobiology and psychoneurological disorders. Given the nature of the subject area, it remains clear that this literature search cannot be regarded as a systemic review.
2. Method and search strategy
A diversity of search strategies was adopted and assumed which included electronic database searches of Medline and PubMed using MeSH terms, keywords, and title words. There is no limitation for publication year. The terms used for these searches were as follows: [orexin OR hypocretin] AND [cognitive function OR vigilance OR depression OR schizophrenia OR addiction OR Alzheimer dementia OR stroke OR sleep disorders]. [suvorexant OR orexin antagonists] AND [sleep disorders OR vigilance OR depression OR schizophrenia OR addiction]. Reference lists of identified and notorious articles were reviewed. Besides, only English articles were considered, and case reports were not involved in the review. The key features of recognized relevant search studies were considered, and the conclusions were summarized in a narrative review.
2.1 Orexin and cognitive function
Orexin regulates behavioral and neuroendocrine response during stressful conditions as these events lead to the impairment of cognitive flexibility and function. Also, patients with psychiatric disorders such as panic disorder are associated with significant reduction of hypothalamic orexin activations [9].
It has been shown that stress improves male cognitive flexibility, but it worsens female cognitive flexibility due to gender differences in stress-induced orexin neuropeptide activations. Women are twice as likely as men to suffer from stress-related psychiatric disorders, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and major depressive disorder (MDD); however, the biological basis of these sex differences is not fully understood. Interestingly, orexins are known to be dysregulated in these disorders. Both preclinical and clinical studies have reported higher orexin system expression in females, which contributes to exaggerated neuroendocrine and behavioral responses to stress. Therefore, orexins may be important in the etiology of stress-related psychiatric disorders that present differently in men and women [10]. Piantadosi et al. illustrated that stimulation of prefrontal cholinergic neurons leads to the release of orexin from hypothalamic neurons, which play an important role in cognitive activation since high orexin activates the arousal state and executive functions via activation of cortical cholinergic neurons [11]. Chieffi et al. study reported the beneficial effects of exercise in stimulation of orexin release due to enhancement of hippocampal activity as exercise attenuates hippocampal deterioration and depressive symptoms in elderly persons through regulation of orexin release [12].
Notably, cognitive impairment is the main feature of neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders as in dementia and narcolepsy, which are linked to orexin dysfunction. Therefore, intranasal orexin peptide may be an effective agent for cognitive dysfunction [13]. Astonishingly, orexin plays a crucial role in activation of learning and memory, as orexin-A provokes memory acquisition and consolidation through activation of monoaminergic system. Consequently, orexin antagonist leads to significant memory dysfunction in the experimental rats [14]. Kim et al. study revealed that orexin is an important key factor of hippocampal neurogenesis as orexin-A participates in the hippocampal neuronal proliferation and neuroprotection following stroke; thus orexin agonist participates in prevention of negative stroke outcomes [15]. On the other hand, Uslaner et al. exhibited that dual orexin receptor antagonists (DORA-22) is an effective sedative agent, with less cognitive disability than GABA allosteric modulators, which cause significant cognitive dysfunctions [16, 17]. Therefore, orexin improves cognitive functions as illustrated in different human and animal studies (Table 1).
Orexin is involved in the regulation of central and peripheral signals to regulate metabolic homeostasis. Alongside, orexin stimulates adrenocorticotrophin (ACTH) and corticosteroid secretions via activation of central corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and vasopressin. Therefore, orexin through OX2R receptor controls the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) [18]. Previously, Malendowicz et al. illustrated that chronic orexin administration led to dose-dependent increase in cortisol and aldosterone plasma levels independent of ACTH levels, indicating a direct stimulating effect of orexin on the adrenal cortex [19]. But in spite of these findings, Patel et al. study confirmed insignificant effect of orexin antagonists on ACTH and cortisol serum levels as well as on the markers of the sympathetic nervous system [20].
It has been reported that orexin administration leads to significant suppression of the hypothalamic prolactin release, which is not upturned by dopamine receptor antagonists like metoclopramide suggesting a novel pathway in controlling of prolactin secretion. The mechanism of prolactin inhibition may be through inhibition of prolactin-releasing factor or stimulation of prolactin-inhibiting factor. But previous study illustrated insignificant effect of orexin antagonist on prolactin plasma levels [21, 22].
Many studies showed that the blood glucose is regulated by central orexin through regulation of hepatic glucose production, skeletal glucose consumption and thermogenesis. High orexin or dysrhythmic in orexin secretion is linked with the development of obesity and insulin resistance [23, 24]. Thus, suvorexant and other orexin antagonists are effective in the management of obesity and insulin resistance via amelioration of body adiposity and augmentation of energy expenditure that improve glucose metabolism. Moreover, orexin-A has important roles in the regulation of pancreatic islet biology through activation of insulin secretion and prolongation of pancreatic islets life span [25].
Tsuneki et al. study illustrated that suvorexant improves glucose tolerance through inhibition of hepatic gluconeogenic factors, when administrated at resting time. However, administration of suvorexant at awaking time illustrates insignificant effect on glucose tolerance due to differential effects on the orexin sleep/wake operating system [26].
In addition, Flores et al. study illustrated an interaction between endocannabinoid and orexigenic neurons as there is a similarity between OX1R and CB1 receptors with diffuse overlapping in the anatomical distribution of these neurons. Therefore, the pharmacological effect of cannabinoid may be through orexigenic receptors [27]. The neuroendocrine effects of orexin are summarized in Table 2.
Among important etiological factors involved in the pathophysiology of depression, disturbances of monoamines and HPA are the main mechanistic pathways leading to functional disorders of neuroplasticity, which is regarded as a cardinal step in the onset of depression [28].
Diurnal variation in orexin serum levels revealed that high orexin levels are occurring at the middle of night. It has been reported that orexin level is significantly decreased in patients with depression in comparison with healthy subjects [29]. But paradoxical high orexin serum levels are seen in some depressed patients, which is normalized by selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Since, orexin-A CSF levels are negatively correlated with depressive symptoms [30].
Long-term antidepressant agents improve orexin serum levels regardless of the type of antidepressant medications [31]. Nevertheless, there are different findings concerning orexin levels in depression. Feng et al. reported that depression is linked to reduction of serotonergic neuronal activity which is responsible for modulation of orexinergic activity [32]. Thus reduction of serotonergic neuronal activity leads to activation of orexin neuroactivity leading to depression. However, orexin levels are significantly reduced in depression compared with healthy control [33].
The initial animal model study observed reduction in the orexinergic neurons by 18% with diminution in size of these neurons in comparison with normal rats. As well, prepro-orexin mRNA expression and orexin-A were reduced compared with control [34].
Previous preclinical study revealed a strong connection between low orexin and risk of depression which are inconsistent with previous studies that illustrated hypoactivity of orexinergic neurons in patients with depression since short-term antidepressant therapy improves sleep pattern through increasing and decreasing the expression of mRNA of orexin-A and orexin-B, respectively [35].
Ito et al. showed that administration of orexin-A leads to significant reduction of despair behavior in depression with important hippocampal neurogenesis via upregulation of neuropeptide Y (NPY). These changes are inhibited by co-administration of orexin-A antagonist [36].
Therefore, orexin levels are different according to the pathophysiology of depression. Low orexin in depressed patients is associated with hypersomnia, whereas high orexin in depressed patients is associated with insomnia and interrupted sleep [17]. Ji et al. illustrated that orexinergic neurons have direct connection to the ventral pallidum (VP) which is concerned with stress response and rewarding system. Orexin stimulates the VP and prevents depressive behavior. Therefore, high orexin in the VP is associated with elevated serum corticosterone serum levels during acute stress, which per se prevent a depressive reaction against stressful events through improvement of stress resilience [37].
2.3.2 Orexin and schizophrenia
The association between orexin and schizophrenia had not been previously explored precisely [38]. Clinical and preclinical findings proposed that orexin and orexin agonist are of great value and useful in treating cognitive deficit in schizophrenia [39]. There are widespread connection and interaction between orexin and dopaminergic neurons in midbrain, thalamocortical region, and amygdala suggesting the potential role of orexinergic neurons in schizophrenia [40].
Modafinil is an atypical dopamine reuptake inhibitor used in the treatment of narcolepsy and antipsychotic drug-induced sleep disorder (Figure 3) [41]. Modafinil has been revealed as a complement of drugs in therapy of schizophrenia, and it reduce negative symptoms with no effect on the positive symptoms. Modafinil improves locomotor and psychomotor performances through activation of orexinergic neurons [42].
Figure 3.
Chemical structure of modafinil.
Therefore, activations of orexinergic neurons by modafinil may be an imperative step for future antipsychotic medications. These findings document that dopaminergic agonists mainly at D1 and D2 receptors modify orexinergic neurotransmissions [43]. Also, dopamine antagonists that cause weight gain lead to activation of orexin pathway, but dopamine antagonists which do not cause weight gain do not activate orexin pathway [44]. Nevertheless, amphetamine which indirectly activates dopamine leads to activation of orexinergic neurotransmission despite induction of weight loss. Moreover, clozapine activates only orexinergic neurons in the prefrontal cortex [45]. Similarly, orexin antagonists abolish olanzapine and haloperidol effect on midbrain dopaminergic neurons, suggesting that orexin is an important neurotransmitter mediates the action of antipsychotic drugs [46]. As well, Chen et al. illustrated that orexin-A is stimulated and upregulated by non-obesegenic antipsychotic drugs [47]. Also, the high orexin level in patients with schizophrenia treated with antipsychotic drugs is regarded as a protective factor against the development and risk of drug-induced metabolic syndrome [48]. Furthermore, orexin agonist like modafinil ameliorates cognitive function, attention, and antipsychotic-induced sedation.
2.3.3 Orexin and addiction
The orexinergic system has broad projections and connections to different brain area which are concerned with drug-induced neuro-adaptation, including midbrain dopaminergic neurons, ventral tegmental area (VTA), nucleus accumbens (NA), amygdala, and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). Drug abuse leads to augmentation of dopaminergic activity in NA through activation of orexinergic neurons at mesocorticolimbic pathway [49]. Correspondingly, experimental studies illustrated that OX1R and OX2R are highly expressed in the NA leading to inhibitory effect instead of excitatory effects seen on the VTA, amygdala, and mPFC. Therefore, a differential effect of orexin is receptor type dependent [50].
Acute administration of addicting drugs such as methamphetamine, nicotine, and amphetamine leads to activation of orexinergic neurons at the lateral hypothalamus. However, acute administration of cocaine and morphine does not affect orexinergic neurons. Besides, chronic administration of addict drugs causes activation of orexinergic neurons mainly at OX2R receptors, but chronic increasing dose of addict drugs leads to downregulation of orexinergic receptors [51]. Carr and Kalivas reported that orexin is an important mediator which enables cocaine to induce addiction-like behavior in rats due to dopaminergic neuronal changes [52]. Also, James et al. verified that orexinergic neurons at the lateral hypothalamus play a vital role in expression of addiction-like phenotype [53]. Thus, the orexinergic system is regarded as an important novel target for drug therapies to treat addiction.
Orexin serum level in chronic smoker subjects is related to craving in the phase of abstinence since it increased during addiction phase and reduced during withdrawal phase. This reduction leads to increase in craving and risk of relapse [54]. Therefore, orexin serum level is regarded as a potential biomarker predicts time and risk of smoking relapse.
Furthermore, Tsai and Huang reported that the orexin serum level is increased in heroin addicts who shifted to methadone maintenance therapy compared with controls suggesting that methadone increases orexin serum levels [55]. Similarly, orexin serum level is increased in chronic alcoholism, which is positively correlated with the severity of alcohol withdrawal. Alleviation of alcohol withdrawal syndrome is linked with reduction of the orexin serum level, which monitors the status of alcoholic patients during the abstinence period [56].
2.3.4 Orexin and sleep disorders
Narcolepsy is a sleep disorder that causes excessive daytime sleepiness or an intractable urge to sleep in, in which duration of rapid eye movement sleep (REM) is reduced. Cataplexy is a sudden reduction in muscle tones with preserved consciousness. Narcolepsy is commonly associated with cataplexy, which is triggered by emotional stimuli [57]. Methylphenidate, modafinil, and other psychostimulants are effective in the management of these sleep disorders [58]. Dysregulation of NREM sleep leads to narcolepsy only, whereas dysregulation of REM sleep leads to combined narcolepsy with cataplexy [59]. It has been reported that orexin increases vigilance through increasing awaking time and decreasing REM and NREM sleep periods. Both OX1R and OX2R are involved in the maintenance of arousal state directly or indirectly through the activation of monoaminergic neurons (noradrenalin, dopamine, histamine, and serotonin). Also, orexin activates cholinergic neurons in the basal forebrain, which is also important for arousal statues [60]. Yamanaka et al. study illustrated that activation of OX2R by orexin leads to wakefulness which is mediated by a histamine neurotransmitter since antihistamine blocks the excitatory effect of orexin, while activation of OX1R by orexin leads to wakefulness, through noradrenalin neurotransmitter [61]. Reduction of orexin level in the cerebrospinal fluid was documented in patients with narcolepsy and nowadays is regarded as one of the diagnostic criteria in the diagnosis of narcolepsy. Likewise, human postmortem study found that orexin peptide and prepro-orexin mRNA are deficient in the pons and cerebral cortex [62]. Therefore, these findings unveil that orexin is an important neuropeptide in the regulation of sleep and consolidated wakefulness. Table 3 summarized the potential role of orexin in common psychiatric disorders.
Orexinergic neurons are severely affected in Parkinson’s disease (PD); previously Fronczek et al. confirmed that orexinergic neuron density was reduced in the prefrontal cortex by 40% with significant reduction in CSF orexin levels in PD patients compared to the healthy control [63].
Furthermore, animal model study illustrated that 15% damage to the orexinergic neurons did not affect CSF orexin, while damage more than 70% leads to 50% decline in the CSF orexin [64]. These findings may explain the association of narcolepsy with PD since both dopamine and orexin interplay in the regulation of sleep pattern through activation of midbrain and thalamocortical pathway [65]. Feng et al. illustrated that in PD, there is a deficiency in hypoxia inducible factor 1 alpha (HIF1-α) due to mitochondrial dysfunction and the administration of orexin-A leads to significant neuroprotective effect on the dopaminergic neurons through the activation of HIF-α [66].
Moreover, orexin-A improves dopaminergic neurons in PD through the reduction of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and activation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the substantia nigra [43]. Therefore, orexin antagonist may increase risk of PD due to reduction of the neuroprotective and stimulating effects on the dopaminergic neurons at substantia nigra [67]. Sheng et al. found that orexin plays important roles in activation of the subthalamic nucleus which may give a new evidence for the participation of the subthalamic orexinergic system in PD. Importantly, orexin-A increased the protein level of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra. The upregulation of BDNF is mainly via OX1R [68]. Long-term therapy with ropinirole in PD leads to significant reduction in the orexin activity which might explain the adverse effect of ropinirole-induced sleep disorder through inhibition of glutamatergic excitatory effect on the orexinergic neurons. Therefore, pharmacotherapy of PD should be re-evaluated in this context [69].
2.4.2 Alzheimer’s disease
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease affecting different brain areas characterized by cognitive deficit and progressive memory loss [70]. AD also affects hypothalamic orexinergic neurons leading to excessive daytime sleepiness, which is correlated with low orexin CSF levels, as reduction 40% of the brain cell number is linked with a 14% reduction in orexin CSF levels [71]. Normally, orexin regulates cholinergic and monoaminergic neuron firing during sleep and wakefulness. In AD a reduction in the cholinergic pathway leads to disturbance in sleep patterns leading to daytime sleepiness and insomnia at night which are a hallmark of sleep rhythm in AD [72]. Besides, reduction of cholinergic activity causes overactivity of orexinergic neurons, which causes abnormal sleep and cognitive functions. These changes lead to an elevation of the orexin CSF level, which is linked with reduced REM sleep [73].
Dementia with Lewy bodies is characterized by an elevation in α-synuclein level, which is accumulated in orexin-containing neurons at the hypothalamus causing interference in orexin axonal transport. This effect leads to a reduction in the activity of the orexinergic system in dementia with Lewy bodies but not in AD [74]. Therefore, there are complexities in the orexinergic system according to the clinical presentation and sleep pattern in patients with AD.
2.4.3 Huntington’s disease
Huntington’s disease (HD) is a hereditary neurodegenerative disorder characterized by personality changes, motor disturbances, cognitive decline, and weight loss [75]. HD is caused by a defect in the gene encoding huntingtin, a protein with unclear function, which is essential for cell survival during development and in adult life [76]. In HD there is neurodegeneration involving the neostriatum and cerebral cortex, with the manifestation of intraneuronal aggregates of misfolded huntingtin. Moreover, in patients with end-stage HD, there is about 90% of neuronal loss in the tuber nucleus of the lateral hypothalamus. Orexin-A and orexin-B are synthesized from the same precursor gene and are expressed in the same neurons with their cell bodies concentrated to the lateral hypothalamus [77]. Preclinical and clinical studies observed that orexin serum and CSF levels are decreased by 72% in HD. In healthy subjects, orexin CSF level is >200pg/ml, but in HD and narcolepsy, this level is decreased below 110 pg/ml, due to degeneration of orexinergic neurons in the lateral hypothalamus. Therefore, CSF orexin level is regarded as a biomarker to evaluate the disease progression and usefulness of therapeutic intervention in patients with HD [78, 79]. However, Meier et al. illustrated that CSF and serum orexin levels are of no diagnostic value in prediction and follow-up of HD [80].
Recently, Cabanas et al. observed that orexin in HD has aberrant effects leading to abnormal sleep pattern, and thus orexin antagonist suvorexant may be of great value in restoring normal sleep and behavioral disturbance in HD [81] in addition, these neurons remain functional and illustrate paradoxical effect, it become more modifiable and affect by serotonine and noradrenaline, and less sensitive to the effect of suprachiasmatic nucleus (the master clock of the brain) causing abnormal biological circadian rhythm [81, 82].
Therefore, orexin level in HD is reduced, but the remaining functional orexinergic neurons lead to abnormal circadian biological rhythm causing behavioral, motor, and sleep disturbances.
2.4.4 Multiple sclerosis
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a demyelinating disease in which the insulating covers of nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord are damaged. This damage disrupts the ability of parts of the nervous system to transmit signals, resulting in a range of signs and symptoms, including physical, mental, and sometimes psychiatric problems. Specific symptoms can include double vision, blindness in one eye, muscle weakness, and trouble with sensation or coordination. MS takes several forms, with new symptoms either occurring in isolated attacks (relapsing forms) or building up over time (progressive forms). Between attacks, symptoms may disappear completely; however, permanent neurological problems often remain, especially with the advancement of the disease [83, 84].
The three main characteristics of MS are the formation of lesions in the central nervous system, inflammation, and the destruction of myelin sheaths of neurons. These features interact in a complex and not yet fully understood manner to produce the breakdown of nerve tissue and in turn the signs and symptoms of the disease. Cholesterol crystals are believed to both impair myelin repair and aggravate inflammation. MS is believed to be an immune-mediated disorder that develops from an interaction of the individual’s genetics and as yet unidentified environmental causes. Damage is believed to be caused, at least in part, by attack on the nervous system by a person’s own immune system [85].
Considering the multiplicity of symptoms associated with multiple sclerosis (MS), there is possibility that hypocretin system function might be involved in the pathogenesis of the disease. Papuc et al. showed that high orexin CSF level in patients with MS as compared with healthy controls, but it positively correlated with fatigue level, suggesting a compensatory mechanism for the production of orexin in MS [86]. On the other hand, Nozaki et al. illustrated that orexin CSF level is reduced and correlated with symmetrical hypothalamic lesion and spinal cord damage in MS. Therefore, low orexin level was implicated in the pathogenesis of hypersomnia and cognitive deficit in patients with MS [87]. Recently, Pallais et al. confirmed that orexin has a neuroprotective effect in MS through inhibition of inflammatory and proinflammatory mediators mainly matrixmetaloproteinases (MMP-3, MMP-9) which are involved in damage of neuronal matrix proteins. Consequently, low CSF orexin level indicates underlying active disease [88].
Therefore, CSF orexin level is a valuable biomarker in the diagnosis and prediction of the severity of MS.
2.4.5 Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also known as motor neuron disease (MND), is a disease that leads the death of neurons controlling voluntary muscles. The underlying mechanism involves damage to both upper and lower motor neurons. ALS is characterized by stiff muscles, muscle twitching, and muscle weakness is still unknown. The cause of ALS is not known in 90% of cases but is believed to involve both genetic and environmental factors. The remaining 10% of cases is inherited [89]. Previously, Van Rooij et al. illustrated that CSF orexin level was normal in patients with ALS and not correlated with age and gender. However, a disturbance in the orexinergic system is involved in the pathogenesis of ALS [90]. Moreover, the pathogenesis of ALS is associated with lateral hypothalamic lesions, a site of the orexinergic system leading to sleep disturbances and hypersomnia [91].
Despite different and large body of literature survey, little is known about CSF orexin levels, in clinical and preclinical studies in ALS.
Therefore, orexin CSF level and orexinergic activity in different neurodegenerative diseases are summarized in Table 4.
Regarding orexin antagonists, suvorexant is a dual orexin receptor antagonist was approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) on 13 August 2014 [92]. Other orexin antagonists are almorexant, lemborexant, and filorexant are used in the management of insomnia and other sleep disorders. Also, these drugs may be of great value in the control of depressive disorders and peripheral diabetic neuropathy [93].
Suvorexant (Figure 2) is the first orexin antagonists approved in the United States for treatment of insomnia, which is effective in reduction of time to sleep onset and increase of total sleeping time [94]. Moreover, administration of SB-33867 which is an orexin antagonist leads to significant reduction of sympathetic tone causing a reduction in blood pressure, heart rate, and plasma noradrenalin. These findings suggest that orexin through OX1 receptor regulates sympathetic tone since intravenous administration of orexin leads to parallel increases in noradrenalin plasma levels [95].
Hatta et al. study confirmed the significant effect of suvorexant in the management of delirium in elderly patients in acute care units. The anti-delirium effect is due to the regulation of circadian biology [96]. Delirium is proposed to be related of suvorexant to disturbances and disorders in sleep pattern in critically ill patients in the intensive care unit. Also, attention disorders are caused by disturbances in the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) which is responsible for maintenance of human arousal. Normally, the arousal state is regulated and stimulated by ARAS neurotransmitters and by hypothalamic orexin [97]. Therefore, orexin receptor antagonists may play important role in the regulation of hypothalamic and brain stem stress during acute injury. Moreover, a recent study by Kawada et al. illustrated that suvorexant add-on therapy to ramelteon in the management of sleep disorders in patients with acute stroke is more effective than when combined with benzodiazepines [98].
It has been verified that prolonged alcohol consumption is associated with sleep disturbance which is a powerful factor for relapse and setback to alcohol use. Suvorexant reduces the motivation properties of alcohol, so it plays a crucial role in the prevention of alcoholism [99].
Beside, Gentile et al. study revealed the possible role of suvorexant in reduction of motor impulsivity of cocaine-induced psychostimulant effects. Thus suvorexant may be effective in attenuation of cocaine withdrawal syndrome [100].
As well, suvorexant had placebo-like effect on EEG in comparison with zolpidem which has a significant reduction in the spectral density of rapid eye movement and non-rapid eye movement sleep (NREM) pattern [101].
In spite of the wide uses of suvorexant in the management of sleep disorders and controlling insomnia, it did not reduce the psychomotor performances as documented by Vermeeren et al. study [102].
Orexin-A is involved in regulation of feeding; it stimulates nocturnal feeding through OX1 receptor. Therefore, OX1 receptor antagonist regulates feeding and reduced nocturnal feeding; thus, orexin antagonist could be useful in the treatment of obesity [103]. Orexin-A is implicated in the pathogenesis of obesity; it promotes hyperphagia through central activation of cannabinoid receptors and inhibition of melanocyte-stimulating hormone [104]. Both orexin-A and endocannabinoid increases glucose response of neuronal excitability in the arcuate nucleus leading to induction of feeding and obesity [104].
In summary, more research is required to reinforce the extant information on the importance of the limited number of factors studied to date and provide data on additional potentially relevant effects. Similarly, rubric for such research should shift from preclinical and animal model studies to clinical studies to illustrate disease progression and treatment effects in relation to orexin neurobiology. This study suggests that orexin system is a future target in the management of different psychoneurological disorders after delineating the specific role of orexin receptor agonists and antagonists. Moreover, measurement of orexin serum level which is an easy method may be of great value in evaluation and assessment of different neurological disorders. Also, ratio of orexin serum level/CSF orexin level may reflect the activity of endogenous orexinergic system.
3. Conclusion
Orexin system is regarded as a potential novel target in the management of schizophrenia, depression, addiction, and sleep disorders. Orexin serum level might predict relapse and withdrawal of addict patients.
Conflict of interest
None.
Funding and support
None.
\n',keywords:"orexin, sleep disorders, psychiatric disorders, neurodegenerative disorders",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/71777.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/71777.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71777",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71777",totalDownloads:201,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"December 12th 2019",dateReviewed:"February 21st 2020",datePrePublished:"April 13th 2020",datePublished:"September 9th 2020",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Orexin is a neuropeptide secreted from the lateral hypothalamus and prefrontal cortex concerned in wakefulness and excitement. This study aimed to review the possible neurobiological effect of orexin. A diversity of search strategies was adopted and assumed which included electronic database searches of Medline and PubMed using MeSH terms, keywords, and title words. Orexin plays a vital role in activation of learning, memory acquisition, and consolidation through activation of the monoaminergic system, which affects cognitive flexibility and cognitive function. Orexin stimulates adrenocorticotrophin (ACTH) and corticosteroid secretions via activation of the central corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH). Cerebrospinal (CSF) and serum orexin serum levels are reduced in depression, schizophrenia, and narcolepsy. However, high orexin serum levels are revealed in drug addictions. Regarding neurodegenerative brain diseases, CSF and serum orexin levels are reduced in Parkinson’s disease (PD), Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Huntington’s disease (HD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and multiple sclerosis (MS). Orexin antagonist leads to significant reduction of sympathetic overactivity during withdrawal syndrome. Also, orexin antagonist improves sleep pattern. The orexinergic system is involved in different psychiatric and neurological disorders; therefore targeting of this system could be a possible novel pathway in the management of these disorders. In addition measurement of CSF and serum orexin levels might predict the relapse and withdrawal of addict patients.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/71777",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/71777",signatures:"Hayder M. Alkuraishy, Ali I. Al-Gareeb and Naseer A. Al-Harchan",book:{id:"8781",title:"Weight Management",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Weight Management",slug:"weight-management",publishedDate:"September 9th 2020",bookSignature:"Hubertus Himmerich",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8781.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"231568",title:"Dr.",name:"Hubertus",middleName:null,surname:"Himmerich",slug:"hubertus-himmerich",fullName:"Hubertus Himmerich"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"306350",title:"Prof.",name:"Hayder M.",middleName:null,surname:"Alkuraishy",fullName:"Hayder M. Alkuraishy",slug:"hayder-m.-alkuraishy",email:"hayderm36@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"320583",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali I.",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Gareeb",fullName:"Ali I. Al-Gareeb",slug:"ali-i.-al-gareeb",email:"dr.aliismalalgareeb@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"320584",title:"Dr.",name:"Naseer A.",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Harchan",fullName:"Naseer A. Al-Harchan",slug:"naseer-a.-al-harchan",email:"dr.nasswr@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Method and search strategy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Orexin and cognitive function",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Orexin and neuroendocrinology",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Orexin and psychiatric disorders",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.3.1 Orexin and depression",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.3.2 Orexin and schizophrenia",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.3.3 Orexin and addiction",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"Table 3.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"2.4 Orexin in neurodegenerative diseases",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.4.1 Parkinson’s disease",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"2.4.2 Alzheimer’s disease",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"2.4.3 Huntington’s disease",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"2.4.4 Multiple sclerosis",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"Table 4.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"2.5 Orexin antagonists and neurobiology",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17",title:"3. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"Funding and support",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Burdakov D. Reactive and predictive homeostasis: Roles of orexin/hypocretin neurons. Neuropharmacology. 2018:19. pii: S0028-3908(18)30811-6'},{id:"B2",body:'Airapetov MI, Sekste EA, Eresko SO, Bychkov ER, Lebedev AA, Shabanov PD. Chronic alcoholism influences the mRNA level of the orexin receptor type 1 (OX1R) in emotiogenic structures of the rat brain. Biomed︠its︡inska︠ia︡ Khim︠iia︡. 2018;64(5):451-454'},{id:"B3",body:'Lu GL, Lee MT, Chiou LC. Orexin-mediated restoration of hippocampal synaptic potentiation in mice with established cocaine-conditioned place preference. Addiction Biology. 2019;24(6):1153-1566'},{id:"B4",body:'Wei Q , Krolewski DM, Moore S, Kumar V, Li F, Martin B, et al. Uneven balance of power between hypothalamic peptidergic neurons in the control of feeding. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2018;115(40):E9489-E9498'},{id:"B5",body:'Palomba L, Silvestri C, Imperatore R, Morello G, Piscitelli F, Martella A, et al. Negative regulation of leptin-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation by cannabinoid CB1 receptor activation in hypothalamic neurons. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 2015;290(22):13669-13677'},{id:"B6",body:'Kaneko K, Yoshikawa M, Ohinata K. Novel orexigenic pathway prostaglandin D2-NPY system--involvement in orally active orexigenicδ opioid peptide. Neuropeptides. 2012;46(6):353-357'},{id:"B7",body:'Gozzi A, Turrini G, Piccoli L, Massagrande M, Amantini D, Antolini M, et al. Functional magnetic resonance imaging reveals different neural substrates for the effects of orexin-1 and orexin-2 receptor antagonists. PLoS One. 2011;6(1):e16406'},{id:"B8",body:'Alizamini MM, Kavianpour M, Karimi-Haghighi S, Fatahi Z, Haghparast A. Intra-hippocampal administration of orexin receptor antagonists dose-dependently attenuates reinstatement of morphine seeking behavior in extinguished rats. Peptides. 2018:31. pii: S0196-9781(18)30196-7'},{id:"B9",body:'Grafe LA, Cornfeld A, Luz S, Valentino R, Bhatnagar S. Orexins mediate sex differences in the stress response and in cognitive flexibility. Biological Psychiatry. 2017;81(8):683-692'},{id:"B10",body:'Lambe EK, Olausson P, Horst NK, Taylor JR, Aghajanian GK. Hypocretin and nicotine excite the same thalamocortical synapses in prefrontal cortex: Correlation with improved attention in rat. Journal of Neuroscience. 2005;25:5225-5229'},{id:"B11",body:'Piantadosi PT, Holmes A, Roberts BM, Bailey AM. Orexin receptor activity in the basal forebrain alters performance on an olfactory discrimination task. Brain Research. 2015;1594:215-222'},{id:"B12",body:'Chieffi S, Messina G, Villano I, Messina A, Esposito M, Monda V, et al. Exercise influence on hippocampal function: Possible involvement of orexin-A. Frontiers in Physiology. 2017;8:85'},{id:"B13",body:'Calva CB, Fadel JR. Intranasal administration of orexin peptides: Mechanisms and therapeutic potential for age-related cognitive dysfunction. Brain Research. 2018:24. pii: S0006-8993(18)30446-3'},{id:"B14",body:'Song J, Kim E, Kim CH, Song HT, Lee JE. The role of orexin in post-stroke inflammation, cognitive decline, and depression. Molecular Brain. 2015;8:16'},{id:"B15",body:'Al-Kuraishy HM, Al-Gareeb AI, Naji MT, Al-Mamorry F. Role of vinpocetine in ischemic stroke and poststroke outcomes: A critical review. Brain Circulation. 2020;6(1):1-9'},{id:"B16",body:'Uslaner JM, Tye SJ, Eddins DM, Wang X, Fox SV, Savitz AT, et al. Orexin receptor antagonists differ from standard sleep drugs by promoting sleep at doses that do not disrupt cognition. Science Translational Medicine. 2013;5(179):179ra44'},{id:"B17",body:'Alijanpour S, Khakpai F, Ebrahimi-Ghiri M, Zarrindast MR. Co-administration of the low dose of orexin and nitrergic antagonists induces an antidepressant-like effect in mice. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy. 2018;109:589-594'},{id:"B18",body:'Czerwinska J, Chojnowska K, Kaminski T, Bogacka I, Smolinska N, Kaminska B. Orexin receptor expression in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal and hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axes of free-living European beavers (Castor fiber L.) in different periods of the reproductive cycle. General and Comparative Endocrinology. 2017;240:103-113'},{id:"B19",body:'Malendowicz LK, Hochol A, Ziolkowska A, et al. Prolonged orexin administration stimulates steroid-hormone secretion, acting directly on the rat adrenal gland. International Journal of Molecular Medicine. 2001;7:401-404'},{id:"B20",body:'Patel AX, Miller SR, Nathan PJ, et al. Neuroendocrine and sympathetic responses to an orexin receptor antagonist, SB-649868, and alprazolam following insulin-induced hypoglycemia in humans. Psychopharmacology. 2014;231:3817-3828'},{id:"B21",body:'Al-Maiahy TJ, Al-Gareeb AI, Al-kuraishy HM. Prolactin and risk of preeclampsia: A single institution, cross-sectional study. Asian Pacific Journal of Reproduction. 2019;8(3):112-119'},{id:"B22",body:'Samson WK, Bagley SL, Ferguson AV, White MM. Hypocretin/orexin type 1 receptor in brain: Role in cardiovascular control and the neuroendocrine response to immobilization stress. American Journal of Physiology—Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology. 2007;292:R382-R387'},{id:"B23",body:'Al-Kuraishy HM, Al-Gareeb AI. Effect of orlistat alone or in combination with Garcinia cambogia on visceral adiposity index in obese patients. Journal of Intercultural Ethnopharmacology. 2016;5(4):408-418'},{id:"B24",body:'Cigdem Arica P, Kocael A, Tabak O, Taskin M, Zengin K, Uzun H. Plasma ghrelin, leptin, and orexin-A levels and insulin resistance after laparoscopic gastric band applications in morbidly obese patients. Minerva Medica. 2013;104(3):309-316'},{id:"B25",body:'Al-Kuraishy HM, Al-Gareeb AI. Effects of rosuvastatin alone or in combination with omega-3 fatty acid on adiponectin levels and cardiometabolic profile. Journal of Basic and Clinical Pharmacy. 2016;8(1):8-19'},{id:"B26",body:'Tsuneki H, Kon K, Ito H, Yamazaki M, Takahara S, Toyooka N, et al. Timed inhibition of orexin system by suvorexant improved sleep and glucose metabolism in type 2 diabetic db/db mice. Endocrinology. 2016;157(11):4146-4157'},{id:"B27",body:'Flores A, Maldonado R, Berrendero F. Cannabinoid–hypocretin cross-talk in the central nervous system: What we know so far. Frontiers in Neuroscience. 2013;7:256'},{id:"B28",body:'Al-kuraishy HM, Al-Gareeb AI. Eustress and malondialdehyde (MDA): Role of Panax ginseng: Randomized placebo controlled study. Iranian Journal of Psychiatry. 2017;12(3):194-199'},{id:"B29",body:'Kok SW, Meinders AE, Overeem S, Lammers GJ, Roelfsema F, Frolich M, et al. Reduction of plasma leptin levels and loss of its circadian rhythmicity in hypocretin (orexin)-deficient narcoleptic humans. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. 2002;87(2):805-809'},{id:"B30",body:'Grady SP, Nishino S, Czeisler CA, Hepner D, Scammell TE. Diurnal variation in CSF orexin-A in healthy male subjects. Sleep. 2006;29(3):295-297'},{id:"B31",body:'Shariq AS, Rosenblat JD, Alageel A, Mansur RB, Rong C, Ho RC, et al. Evaluating the role of orexins in the pathophysiology and treatment of depression: A comprehensive review. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry. 2019;92:1-7'},{id:"B32",body:'Feng P, Vurbic D, Wu Z, Hu Y, Strohl KP. Changes in brain orexin levels in a rat model of depression induced by neonatal administration of clomipramine. Journal of Psychopharmacology. 2008;22(7):784-791'},{id:"B33",body:'Ozsoy S, Olguner Eker O, Abdulrezzak U, Esel E. Relationship between orexin A and childhood maltreatment in female patients with depression and anxiety. Social Neuroscience. 2017;12(3):330-336'},{id:"B34",body:'Allard JS, Tizabi Y, Shaffery JP, Trouth CO, Manaye K. Stereological analysis of the hypothalamic hypocretin/orexin neurons in an animal model of depression. Neuropeptides. 2004;38(5):311-315'},{id:"B35",body:'Brundin L, Petersén Å, Björkqvist M, Träskman-Bendz L. Orexin and psychiatric symptoms in suicide attempters. Journal of Affective Disorders. 2007;100(1-3):259-263'},{id:"B36",body:'Ito N, Yabe T, Gamo Y, Nagai T, Oikawa T, Yamada H, et al. Icv administration of orexin-A induces an antidepressive-like effect through hippocampal cell proliferation. Neuroscience. 2008;157(4):720-732'},{id:"B37",body:'Ji MJ, Zhang XY, Chen Z, Wang JJ, Zhu JN. Orexin prevents depressive-like behavior by promoting stress resilience. Molecular Psychiatry. 2019;24(2):282'},{id:"B38",body:'Lambe EK, Liu RJ, Aghajanian GK. Schizophrenia, hypocretin (orexin), and the thalamocortical activating system. Schizophrenia Bulletin. 2007;33(6):1284-1290'},{id:"B39",body:'Borgland SL, Labouèbe G. Orexin/hypocretin in psychiatric disorders: Present state of knowledge and future potential. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2010;35(1):353'},{id:"B40",body:'Fadel J, Deutch AY. Anatomical substrates of orexin–dopamine interactions: Lateral hypothalamic projections to the ventral tegmental area. Neuroscience. 2002;111(2):379-387'},{id:"B41",body:'Andrade C, Kisely S, Monteiro I, Rao S. Antipsychotic augmentation with modafinil or armodafinil for negative symptoms of schizophrenia: Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Journal of Psychiatric Research. 2015;60:14-21'},{id:"B42",body:'Mereu M, Bonci A, Newman AH, Tanda G. The neurobiology of modafinil as an enhancer of cognitive performance and a potential treatment for substance use disorders. Psychopharmacology. 2013;229(3):415-434'},{id:"B43",body:'Bubser M, Fadel JR, Jackson LL, Meador-Woodruff JH, Jing D, Deutch AY. Dopaminergic regulation of orexin neurons. European Journal of Neuroscience. 2005;21(11):2993-3001'},{id:"B44",body:'Nakamura T, Uramura K, Nambu T, Yada T, Goto K, Yanagisawa M, et al. Orexin-induced hyperlocomotion and stereotypy are mediated by the dopaminergic system. Brain Research. 2000;873(1):181-187'},{id:"B45",body:'Deutch AY, Bubser M. The orexins/hypocretins and schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin. 2007;33(6):1277-1283'},{id:"B46",body:'Rasmussen K, Hsu MA, Yang Y. The orexin-1 receptor antagonist SB-334867 blocks the effects of antipsychotics on the activity of A9 and A10 dopamine neurons: Implications for antipsychotic therapy. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2007;32(4):786'},{id:"B47",body:'Chen PY, Chen CH, Chang CK, Kao CF, Lu ML, Lin SK, et al. Orexin-A levels in relation to the risk of metabolic syndrome in patients with schizophrenia taking antipsychotics. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology. 2018;22(1):28-36'},{id:"B48",body:'Dalal MA, Schuld A, Pollmächer T. Lower CSF orexin A (hypocretin-1) levels in patients with schizophrenia treated with haloperidol compared to unmedicated subjects. Molecular Psychiatry. 2003;8(10):836'},{id:"B49",body:'Sharf R, Sarhan M, DiLeone RJ. Role of orexin/hypocretin in dependence and addiction. Brain Research. 2010;1314:130-138'},{id:"B50",body:'Marcus JN, Aschkenasi CJ, Lee CE, Chemelli RM, Saper CB, Yanagisawa M, et al. Differential expression of orexin receptors 1 and 2 in the rat brain. Journal of Comparative Neurology. 2001;435(1):6-25'},{id:"B51",body:'Zhang GC, Mao LM, Liu XY, Wang JQ. Long-lasting up-regulation of orexin receptor type 2 protein levels in the rat nucleus accumbens after chronic cocaine administration. Journal of Neurochemistry. 2007;103(1):400-407'},{id:"B52",body:'Carr D, Kalivas PW. Orexin: A gatekeeper of addiction. Nature Medicine. 2006;12(3):274'},{id:"B53",body:'James MH, Stopper CM, Zimmer BA, Koll NE, Bowrey HE, Aston-Jones G. Increased number and activity of a lateral subpopulation of hypothalamic orexin/hypocretin neurons underlies the expression of an addicted state in rats. Biological Psychiatry. 2019;85(11):925-935'},{id:"B54",body:'Al’Absi M, Lemieux A, Hodges JS, Allen S. Circulating orexin changes during withdrawal are associated with nicotine craving and risk for smoking relapse. Addiction Biology. 2019;24(4):743-753'},{id:"B55",body:'Tsai MC, Huang TL. Orexin A in men with heroin use disorder undergoing methadone maintenance treatment. Psychiatry Research. 2018;264:412-415'},{id:"B56",body:'Pan JS, Zheng K, Liu JH, Gao ZY, Ye YG, et al. Orexin might predict status of alcohol dependence. Chinese Medical Journal. 2018;131(23):2866'},{id:"B57",body:'Dauvilliers Y, Arnulf I, Mignot E. Narcolepsy with cataplexy. The Lancet. 2007;369(9560):499-511'},{id:"B58",body:'Hollway JA, Mendoza-Burcham M, Andridge R, Aman MG, Handen B, Arnold LE, et al. Atomoxetine, parent training, and their effects on sleep in youth with autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology. 2018;28(2):130-135'},{id:"B59",body:'Sturzenegger C, Baumann CR, Lammers GJ, Kallweit U, van der Zande WL, Bassetti CL. Swiss Narcolepsy Scale: A simple screening tool for hypocretin-deficient narcolepsy with cataplexy. Clinical and Translational Neuroscience. 2018;2(2):2514183X18794175'},{id:"B60",body:'Almeneessier AS, Alzoghaibi M, BaHammam AA, Ibrahim MG, Olaish AH, Nashwan SZ, et al. The effects of diurnal intermittent fasting on the wake-promoting neurotransmitter orexin-A. Annals of Thoracic Medicine. 2018;13(1):48'},{id:"B61",body:'Yamanaka A, Tsujino N, Funahashi H, Honda K, Guan JL, Wang QP, et al. Orexins activate histaminergic neurons via the orexin 2 receptor. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 2002;290(4):1237-1245'},{id:"B62",body:'Gabelle A, Jaussent I, Hirtz C, Vialaret J, Navucet S, Grasselli C, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid levels of orexin-A and histamine, and sleep profile within the Alzheimer process. Neurobiology of Aging. 2017;53:59-66'},{id:"B63",body:'Fronczek R, Overeem S, Lee SY, Hegeman IM, Van Pelt J, Van Duinen SG, et al. Hypocretin (orexin) loss in Parkinson’s disease. Brain. 2007;130(6):1577-1585'},{id:"B64",body:'Drouot X, Moutereau S, Nguyen JP, Lefaucheur JP, Creange A, Remy P, et al. Low levels of ventricular CSF orexin/hypocretin in advanced PD. Neurology. 2003;61(4):540-543'},{id:"B65",body:'Asai H, Hirano M, Furiya Y, Udaka F, Morikawa M, Kanbayashi T, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid-orexin levels and sleep attacks in four patients with Parkinson’s disease. Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery. 2009;111(4):341-344'},{id:"B66",body:'Feng Y, Liu T, Li XQ , Liu Y, Zhu XY, Jankovic J, et al. Neuroprotection by Orexin-A via HIF-1α induction in a cellular model of Parkinson’s disease. Neuroscience Letters. 2014;579:35-40'},{id:"B67",body:'Liu MF, Xue Y, Liu C, Liu YH, Diao HL, Wang Y, et al. Orexin-A exerts neuroprotective effects via OX1R in Parkinson’s disease. Frontiers in Neuroscience. 2018;12:835-845'},{id:"B68",body:'Sheng Q , Xue Y, Wang Y, Chen AQ , Liu C, Liu YH, et al. The subthalamic neurons are activated by both orexin-A and orexin-B. Neuroscience. 2018;369:97-108'},{id:"B69",body:'Michinaga S, Hisatsune A, Isohama Y, Katsuki H. An anti-Parkinson drug ropinirole depletes orexin from rat hypothalamic slice culture. Neuroscience Research. 2010;68(4):315-321'},{id:"B70",body:'Hyman BT. Heterogeneity and complexity in Alzheimer disease. In: Brain Pathology. Vol. 29. NJ, USA: Wiley; 2019. pp. 185-185'},{id:"B71",body:'Osorio RS, Ducca EL, Wohlleber ME, Tanzi EB, Gumb T, Twumasi A, et al. Orexin-A is associated with increases in cerebrospinal fluid phosphorylated-tau in cognitively normal elderly subjects. Sleep. 2016;39(6):1253-1260'},{id:"B72",body:'Triaca V, Calissano P. Impairment of the nerve growth factor pathway driving amyloid accumulation in cholinergic neurons: The incipit of the Alzheimer’s disease story? Neural Regeneration Research. 2016;11(10):1553'},{id:"B73",body:'Liguori C, Romigi A, Nuccetelli M, Zannino S, Sancesario G, Martorana A, et al. Orexinergic system dysregulation, sleep impairment, and cognitive decline in Alzheimer disease. JAMA Neurology. 2014;71(12):1498-1505'},{id:"B74",body:'Lessig S, Ubhi K, Galasko D, Adame A, Pham E, Remidios K, et al. Reduced hypocretin (orexin) levels in dementia with Lewy bodies. Neuroreport. 2010;21(11):756'},{id:"B75",body:'Cheong RY, Gabery S, Petersén Å. The role of hypothalamic pathology for non-motor features of Huntington’s disease. Journal of Huntington’s Disease. 2019:1-7 (Preprint)'},{id:"B76",body:'Duarte AI, Sjögren M, Santos MS, Oliveira CR, Moreira PI, Björkqvist M. Dual therapy with liraglutide and ghrelin promotes brain and peripheral energy metabolism in the R6/2 mouse model of Huntington’s disease. Scientific Reports. 2018;8(1):1-4'},{id:"B77",body:'Petersén Å, Gil J, Maat-Schieman ML, Björkqvist M, Tanila H, Araujo IM, et al. Orexin loss in Huntington’s disease. Human Molecular Genetics. 2005;14(1):39-47'},{id:"B78",body:'Mignot E, Lammers GJ, Ripley B, Okun M, Nevsimalova S, Overeem S, et al. The role of cerebrospinal fluid hypocretin measurement in the diagnosis of narcolepsy and other hypersomnias. Archives of Neurology. 2002;59(10):1553-1562'},{id:"B79",body:'Duffy CM, Hofmeister JJ, Nixon JP, Butterick TA. High fat diet increases cognitive decline and neuroinflammation in a model of orexin loss. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory. 2019;157:41-47'},{id:"B80",body:'Meier A, Mollenhauer B, Cohrs S, Rodenbeck A, Jordan W, Meller J, et al. Normal hypocretin-1 (orexin-A) levels in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with Huntington’s disease. Brain Research. 2005;1063(2):201-203'},{id:"B81",body:'Cabanas M, Pistono C, Puygrenier L, Rakesh D, Jeantet Y, Garret M, et al. Neurophysiological and behavioral effects of anti-orexinergic treatments in a mouse model of Huntington’s disease. Neurotherapeutics. 2019;16(3):784-796'},{id:"B82",body:'Williams RH, Morton AJ, Burdakov D. Paradoxical function of orexin/hypocretin circuits in a mouse model of Huntington’s disease. Neurobiology of Disease. 2011;42(3):438-445'},{id:"B83",body:'Thompson AJ, Banwell BL, Barkhof F, Carroll WM, Coetzee T, Comi G, et al. Diagnosis of multiple sclerosis: 2017 revisions of the McDonald criteria. The Lancet Neurology. 2018;17(2):162-173'},{id:"B84",body:'Montalban X, Hauser SL, Kappos L, Arnold DL, Bar-Or A, Comi G, et al. Ocrelizumab versus placebo in primary progressive multiple sclerosis. New England Journal of Medicine. 2017;376(3):209-220'},{id:"B85",body:'Fleischer V, Radetz A, Ciolac D, Muthuraman M, Gonzalez-Escamilla G, Zipp F, et al. Graph theoretical framework of brain networks in multiple sclerosis: A review of concepts. Neuroscience. 2019;403:35-53'},{id:"B86",body:'Papuć E, Zbigniew S, Paweł G, Konrad R. CSF hypocretin-1 concentrations correlate with the level of fatigue in multiple sclerosis patients. Neuroscience Letters. 2010;474(1):9-12'},{id:"B87",body:'Nozaki H, Shimohata T, Kanbayashi T, Sagawa Y, Katada SI, Satoh M, et al. A patient with anti-aquaporin 4 antibody who presented with recurrent hypersomnia, reduced orexin (hypocretin) level, and symmetrical hypothalamic lesions. Sleep Medicine. 2009;10(2):253-255'},{id:"B88",body:'Pallais JP, Kotz CM, Stanojlovic M. Orexin/hypocretinin in multiple sclerosis and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Neural Regeneration Research. 2020;15(6):1039'},{id:"B89",body:'Takata M, Tanaka H, Kimura M, Nagahara Y, Tanaka K, Kawasaki K, et al. Fasudil, a rho kinase inhibitor, limits motor neuron loss in experimental models of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. British Journal of Pharmacology. 2013;170(2):341-351'},{id:"B90",body:'Van Rooij FG, Schelhaas HJ, Lammers GJ, Verbeek MM, Overeem S. CSF hypocretin-1 levels are normal in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis. 2009;10(5-6):487-489'},{id:"B91",body:'Panda S, Gourie-Devi M, Sharma A. Sleep disorders in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: A questionnaire-based study from India. Neurology India. 2018;66(3):700'},{id:"B92",body:'Herring WJ, Roth T, Krystal AD, Michelson D. Orexin receptor antagonists for the treatment of insomnia and potential treatment of other neuropsychiatric indications. Journal of Sleep Research. 2018;18:e12782'},{id:"B93",body:'Perrey DA, Zhang Y. Therapeutics development for addiction: Orexin-1 receptor antagonists. Brain Research. 2018:24. pii: S0006-8993(18)30447-5'},{id:"B94",body:'Herring WJ, Connor KM, Ivgy-May N, et al. Suvorexant in patients with insomnia: Results from two 3-month randomized controlled clinical trials. Biological Psychiatry. 2016;79:136-148. DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.10.003'},{id:"B95",body:'Li A, Hindmarch CC, Nattie EE, Paton JF. Antagonism of orexin receptors significantly lowers blood pressure in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Journal of Physiology. 2013;591:4237-4248. DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol 2013.256271'},{id:"B96",body:'Hatta K, Kishi Y, Wada K, Takeuchi T, Ito S, Kurata A, et al. Preventive effects of suvorexant on delirium: A randomized placebo-controlled trial. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 2017;78(8):e970-e979'},{id:"B97",body:'Al-Kuraishy HM. Central additive effect of Ginkgo biloba and Rhodiola rosea on psychomotor vigilance task and short-term working memory accuracy. Journal of Intercultural Ethnopharmacology. 2016;5(1):7-19'},{id:"B98",body:'Kawada K, Ohta T, Tanaka K, Miyamura M, Tanaka S. Addition of suvorexant to ramelteon therapy for improved sleep quality with reduced delirium risk in acute stroke patients. Journal of Stroke & Cerebrovascular Diseases. 2018:12. pii: S1052-3057(18)30527-5'},{id:"B99",body:'Campbell EJ, Marchant NJ, Lawrence AJ. A sleeping giant: Suvorexant for the treatment of alcohol use disorder? Brain Research. 2018:3. pii: S0006-8993(18)30419-0'},{id:"B100",body:'Gentile TA, Simmons SJ, Watson MN, Connelly KL, Brailoiu E, Zhang Y, et al. Effects of suvorexant, a dual orexin/hypocretin receptor antagonist, on impulsive behavior associated with cocaine. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2018;43(5):1001-1009'},{id:"B101",body:'Struyk A, Gargano C, Drexel M, Stoch SA, Svetnik V, Ma J, et al. Pharmacodynamic effects of suvorexant and zolpidem on EEG during sleep in healthy subjects. European Neuropsychopharmacology. 2016;26(10):1649-1656'},{id:"B102",body:'Vermeeren A, Vets E, Vuurman EF, Van Oers AC, Jongen S, Laethem T, et al. On-the-road driving performance the morning after bedtime use of suvorexant 15 and 30 mg in healthy elderly. Psychopharmacology. 2016;233(18):3341-3351'},{id:"B103",body:'Nixon JP, Mavanji V, Butterick TA, Billington CJ, Kotz CM, Teske JA. Sleep disorders, obesity, and aging: The role of orexin. Ageing Research Reviews. 2015;20:63-73'},{id:"B104",body:'Morello G, Imperatore R, Palomba L, Finelli C, Labruna G, Pasanisi F, et al. Orexin-A represses satiety-inducing POMC neurons and contributes to obesity via stimulation of endocannabinoid signaling. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2016;113(17):4759-4764'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Hayder M. Alkuraishy",address:"hayderm36@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Medicine and Therapeutic, Medical Faculty, College of Medicine, Al-Mustansiriya University, Baghdad, Iraq
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Ali I. Al-Gareeb",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Medicine and Therapeutic, Medical Faculty, College of Medicine, Al-Mustansiriya University, Baghdad, Iraq
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Naseer A. Al-Harchan",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Medicine and Therapeutic, Medical Faculty, College of Medicine, Al-Mustansiriya University, Baghdad, Iraq
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"8781",title:"Weight Management",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Weight Management",slug:"weight-management",publishedDate:"September 9th 2020",bookSignature:"Hubertus Himmerich",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8781.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"231568",title:"Dr.",name:"Hubertus",middleName:null,surname:"Himmerich",slug:"hubertus-himmerich",fullName:"Hubertus Himmerich"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"206635",title:"Dr.",name:"Sophia",middleName:null,surname:"Alam",email:"sophhass@yahoo.com",fullName:"Sophia Alam",slug:"sophia-alam",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Genetic Polymorphisms in Aromatase (CYP19) Gene and Cancer",slug:"genetic-polymorphisms-in-aromatase-cyp19-gene-and-cancer",abstract:"Estrogens play an important role in the development and progression of several types of cancers. The synthesis of estrogens occurs in almost all tissues of the body in addition to the gonads. The enzyme aromatase (CYP19A1) encoded by CYP19A1 gene is involved in the synthesis of estrogens. Genetic variations in CYP19A1 gene influence both the structure-function relationship of the enzyme and the rate of its synthesis. Extensive studies have reported different types of polymorphisms in the CYP19A1 gene and have shown that the polymorphisms, depending on their location in the gene, have different effects on the function and activity of the gene product. Association studies have been conducted and have led to the realization that interpopulation differences are widespread. Not only do polymorphic forms exert different effects on the development of different cancers, due possibly to the influence of other genetic variations, environmental, metabolic, and epigenetic factors, but also are important as they lead to the interindividual differences seen during treatment of the cancer state. This chapter covers important aspects of the aromatase function, the CYP19A1 gene structure, polymorphisms identified in the gene, different cancers and associated polymorphisms, and the role of the polymorphic forms in affecting the treatment strategies.",signatures:"Arjumand S. Warsy, Fatimah Basil Almukaynizi, Soad AlDaihan,\nSophia Alam and Maha Daghastani",authors:[{id:"201793",title:"Prof.",name:"Arjumand",surname:"Warsy",fullName:"Arjumand Warsy",slug:"arjumand-warsy",email:"aswarsy@gmail.com"},{id:"203211",title:"Dr.",name:"Maha",surname:"Daghestani",fullName:"Maha Daghestani",slug:"maha-daghestani",email:"mdaghestani@ksu.edu.sa"},{id:"203212",title:"Ms.",name:"Fatima",surname:"Al-Makinzy",fullName:"Fatima Al-Makinzy",slug:"fatima-al-makinzy",email:"falmukaynizi@KSU.EDU.SA"},{id:"203213",title:"Dr.",name:"Sooad",surname:"Al-Daihan",fullName:"Sooad Al-Daihan",slug:"sooad-al-daihan",email:"sdaihan@KSU.EDU.SA"},{id:"206635",title:"Dr.",name:"Sophia",surname:"Alam",fullName:"Sophia Alam",slug:"sophia-alam",email:"sophhass@yahoo.com"}],book:{title:"Genetic Polymorphisms",slug:"genetic-polymorphisms",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"69479",title:"Prof.",name:"Francesco",surname:"Fedele",slug:"francesco-fedele",fullName:"Francesco Fedele",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"178790",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor A.",surname:"Sobenin",slug:"igor-a.-sobenin",fullName:"Igor A. Sobenin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201779",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Beata",surname:"Kaleta",slug:"beata-kaleta",fullName:"Beata Kaleta",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"202515",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasemin",surname:"Başbınar",slug:"yasemin-basbinar",fullName:"Yasemin Başbınar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"202525",title:"Prof.",name:"Seniz",surname:"Demiryürek",slug:"seniz-demiryurek",fullName:"Seniz Demiryürek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gaziantep University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"202527",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdullah Tuncay",surname:"Demiryürek",slug:"abdullah-tuncay-demiryurek",fullName:"Abdullah Tuncay Demiryürek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gaziantep University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"203390",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Urszula",surname:"Kaczor",slug:"urszula-kaczor",fullName:"Urszula Kaczor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture in Krakow",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"203396",title:"Dr.",name:"Gizem",surname:"Calibasi Kocal",slug:"gizem-calibasi-kocal",fullName:"Gizem Calibasi Kocal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/203396/images/6740_n.jpg",biography:"Dr.Gizem CALIBASI-KOCAL, graduated from Ege University, Turkey, holding a bachelor degree in Biochemistry. Then she received her MSc and PhD degrees of Basic Oncology from Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey. From 2013 to 2015, she worked in USA in the field of microfluidic technologies related with cancer metastasis in Harvard University and Stanford University as pre-doctoral research fellow. Her research interest has focused on colorectal cancer in terms of metastasis and cancer metabolism, as well as pharmacogenetic applications in cancer management. She was an advisory board member of Personalized Medicine and Pharmacogenomics/Genomics Center in Dokuz Eylul University. She also serves on editorial board of 2 journals and regularly reviews of for prestigious journals. Her achievements were recognized by several awards and honors from The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK), Turkish Association for Cancer Research and Control, Organization of European Cancer Institutes (OECI), European Federation of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine (EFLM).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"204053",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo",surname:"Severino",slug:"paolo-severino",fullName:"Paolo Severino",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"206505",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariateresa",surname:"Pucci",slug:"mariateresa-pucci",fullName:"Mariateresa Pucci",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"our-story",title:"Our story",intro:"
The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
",metaTitle:"Our story",metaDescription:"The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/our-story",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\\n\\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n\\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\\n\\n
2004
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\\n\\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n
\\n\\n
2005
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\\n
\\n\\n
2006
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\\n
\\n\\n
2008
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\\n
\\n\\n
2009
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\\n
\\n\\n
2010
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\\n
\\n\\n
2011
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\\n
\\n\\n
2012
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\\n
\\n\\n
2013
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\\n
\\n\\n
2014
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\\n
\\n\\n
2015
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\\n\\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\\n\\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\\n
\\n\\n
2016
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\\n
\\n\\n
2017
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\n\n
2004
\n\n
\n\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\n\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n
\n\n
2005
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\n
\n\n
2006
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\n
\n\n
2008
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\n
\n\n
2009
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\n
\n\n
2010
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\n
\n\n
2011
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\n\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\n\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\n
\n\n
2012
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\n
\n\n
2013
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\n
\n\n
2014
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\n\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\n
\n\n
2015
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\n\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\n\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\n
\n\n
2016
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n
\n\n
2017
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
\n
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5763},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5227},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1717},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10365},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15784}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118187},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",topicId:"12"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10760",title:"Steppe Biome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"982f06cee6ee2f27339f3c263b3e6560",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10760.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10766",title:"Landscape Architecture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a0a54a9ab661e4765fee76ce580cd121",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10766.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10845",title:"Marine Ecosystems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"b369ac809068d2ebf1f8c26418cc6bec",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10845.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10846",title:"Stormwater",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9bfae8caba192ce3ab6744c9cbefa210",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10846.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10765",title:"Environmental Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e5ba02fedd7c87f0ab66414f3b07de0c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. John P. Tiefenbacher",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10765.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"73876",title:"Dr.",name:"John P.",surname:"Tiefenbacher",slug:"john-p.-tiefenbacher",fullName:"John P. Tiefenbacher"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10763",title:"Biodiversity of Ecosystems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c96b42d4539957c58dfc2eb8fd9ffc21",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Levente Hufnagel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10763.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"10864",title:"Dr.",name:"Levente",surname:"Hufnagel",slug:"levente-hufnagel",fullName:"Levente Hufnagel"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:29},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:6},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9668",title:"Chemistry and Biochemistry of Winemaking, Wine Stabilization and Aging",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c5484276a314628acf21ec1bdc3a86b9",slug:"chemistry-and-biochemistry-of-winemaking-wine-stabilization-and-aging",bookSignature:"Fernanda Cosme, Fernando M. Nunes and Luís Filipe-Ribeiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9668.jpg",editors:[{id:"186819",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Cosme",slug:"fernanda-cosme",fullName:"Fernanda Cosme"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8620",title:"Mining Techniques",subtitle:"Past, Present and Future",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b65658f81d14e9e57e49377869d3a575",slug:"mining-techniques-past-present-and-future",bookSignature:"Abhay Soni",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8620.jpg",editors:[{id:"271093",title:"Dr.",name:"Abhay",middleName:null,surname:"Soni",slug:"abhay-soni",fullName:"Abhay Soni"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9660",title:"Inland Waters",subtitle:"Dynamics and Ecology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"975c26819ceb11a926793bc2adc62bd6",slug:"inland-waters-dynamics-and-ecology",bookSignature:"Adam Devlin, Jiayi Pan and Mohammad Manjur Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9660.jpg",editors:[{id:"280757",title:"Dr.",name:"Adam",middleName:"Thomas",surname:"Devlin",slug:"adam-devlin",fullName:"Adam Devlin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9122",title:"Cosmetic Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"207026ca4a4125e17038e770d00ee152",slug:"cosmetic-surgery",bookSignature:"Yueh-Bih Tang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9122.jpg",editors:[{id:"202122",title:"Prof.",name:"Yueh-Bih",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",slug:"yueh-bih-tang",fullName:"Yueh-Bih Tang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9043",title:"Parenting",subtitle:"Studies by an Ecocultural and Transactional Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6d21066c7438e459e4c6fb13217a5c8c",slug:"parenting-studies-by-an-ecocultural-and-transactional-perspective",bookSignature:"Loredana Benedetto and Massimo Ingrassia",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9043.jpg",editors:[{id:"193200",title:"Prof.",name:"Loredana",middleName:null,surname:"Benedetto",slug:"loredana-benedetto",fullName:"Loredana Benedetto"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9731",title:"Oxidoreductase",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"852e6f862c85fc3adecdbaf822e64e6e",slug:"oxidoreductase",bookSignature:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9731.jpg",editors:[{id:"224662",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"mahmoud-ahmed-mansour",fullName:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5221},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9668",title:"Chemistry and Biochemistry of Winemaking, Wine Stabilization and Aging",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c5484276a314628acf21ec1bdc3a86b9",slug:"chemistry-and-biochemistry-of-winemaking-wine-stabilization-and-aging",bookSignature:"Fernanda Cosme, Fernando M. Nunes and Luís Filipe-Ribeiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9668.jpg",editors:[{id:"186819",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Cosme",slug:"fernanda-cosme",fullName:"Fernanda Cosme"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8620",title:"Mining Techniques",subtitle:"Past, Present and Future",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b65658f81d14e9e57e49377869d3a575",slug:"mining-techniques-past-present-and-future",bookSignature:"Abhay Soni",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8620.jpg",editors:[{id:"271093",title:"Dr.",name:"Abhay",middleName:null,surname:"Soni",slug:"abhay-soni",fullName:"Abhay Soni"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9660",title:"Inland Waters",subtitle:"Dynamics and Ecology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"975c26819ceb11a926793bc2adc62bd6",slug:"inland-waters-dynamics-and-ecology",bookSignature:"Adam Devlin, Jiayi Pan and Mohammad Manjur Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9660.jpg",editors:[{id:"280757",title:"Dr.",name:"Adam",middleName:"Thomas",surname:"Devlin",slug:"adam-devlin",fullName:"Adam Devlin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9122",title:"Cosmetic Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"207026ca4a4125e17038e770d00ee152",slug:"cosmetic-surgery",bookSignature:"Yueh-Bih Tang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9122.jpg",editors:[{id:"202122",title:"Prof.",name:"Yueh-Bih",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",slug:"yueh-bih-tang",fullName:"Yueh-Bih Tang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8098",title:"Resources of Water",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d251652996624d932ef7b8ed62cf7cfc",slug:"resources-of-water",bookSignature:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran, Muhammad Salik Javaid, Aftab Sadiq",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8098.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"167917",title:"Dr.",name:"Prathna",middleName:null,surname:"Thanjavur Chandrasekaran",slug:"prathna-thanjavur-chandrasekaran",fullName:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8415",title:"Extremophilic Microbes and Metabolites",subtitle:"Diversity, Bioprospecting and Biotechnological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"93e0321bc93b89ff73730157738f8f97",slug:"extremophilic-microbes-and-metabolites-diversity-bioprospecting-and-biotechnological-applications",bookSignature:"Afef Najjari, Ameur Cherif, Haïtham Sghaier and Hadda Imene Ouzari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8415.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196823",title:"Dr.",name:"Afef",middleName:null,surname:"Najjari",slug:"afef-najjari",fullName:"Afef Najjari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9731",title:"Oxidoreductase",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"852e6f862c85fc3adecdbaf822e64e6e",slug:"oxidoreductase",bookSignature:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9731.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"224662",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"mahmoud-ahmed-mansour",fullName:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"660",title:"Bathymetry",slug:"bathymetry",parent:{title:"Marine Biology",slug:"earth-and-planetary-sciences-marine-biology"},numberOfBooks:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:0,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"bathymetry",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[],booksByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"bathymetry",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/books/new-achievements-in-technology-education-and-development/a-framework-to-generate-3d-learning-experiences",hash:"",query:{},params:{book:"new-achievements-in-technology-education-and-development",chapter:"a-framework-to-generate-3d-learning-experiences"},fullPath:"/books/new-achievements-in-technology-education-and-development/a-framework-to-generate-3d-learning-experiences",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()