\r\n\tMain emphasis should be on its applications. In every field MOFs can be used due to its greater stability and high surface area, but the focus should be on applications.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"507abe0040ce1d146a7ed603648a1bb6",bookSignature:"Dr. Shobha Waghmode",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7388.jpg",keywords:"MOFs, COFs, Nanomaterials, PANI, Agnps",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 11th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 1st 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 30th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 18th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 19th 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"197394",title:"Dr.",name:"Shobha",middleName:null,surname:"Waghmode",slug:"shobha-waghmode",fullName:"Shobha Waghmode",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197394/images/13227_n.jpg",biography:"Savitribai Phule Pune University",institutionString:"Savitribai Phule Pune University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Pune",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"8",title:"Chemistry",slug:"chemistry"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"270935",firstName:"Rozmari",lastName:"Marijan",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/270935/images/7974_n.png",email:"rozmari@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"45039",title:"Multi-Wavelength Fiber Lasers",doi:"10.5772/53398",slug:"multi-wavelength-fiber-lasers",body:'
1. Introduction
A fiber amplifier can be converted into a laser by placing it inside a cavity designed to provide optical feedback. Such lasers are called fiber lasers. In this kind of lasers there are optical fibers that act as gain media such as erbium or ytterbium doped fibers among other, although some lasers with a semiconductor gain medium and a fiber resonator have also been called fiber lasers.
Nowadays, multiwavelength lasers are of great interest for telecommunications and sensors multiplexing. These lasers also have a great potential in the fiber-optic test and measurement of WDM components. The requirements for such optical sources are: a high number of channels over large wavelength span, moderate output powers (of the order of 100µW per channel) with good optical signal to noise ratio (OSNR) and spectral flatness, single longitudinal mode operation of each laser line, tunability and accurate positioning on the ITU frequency grid. Reaching all these requirements simultaneously is a difficult task, and many different approaches using semiconductor or erbium-doped fiber technology have been proposed and experimented in order to obtain multiwavelength laser oscillation.
Fiber lasers also offer great possibilities as multiwavelength sources. Their ease of fabrication has yielded many ingenious designs. The main challenge in producing a multiline output with and erbium doped fiber laser (EDFL) is the fact that the erbium ion saturates mostly homogeneously at room temperature, preventing stable multiwavelength operation.
Single longitudinal mode operation of fiber lasers is desirable for many potential applications where coherence is necessary. These include coherent communications, interferometric fiber sensors and coherent light techniques in bulk or micro-optics, such as holography or spatial filtering. [1]. However, these lasers normally operate in multiple longitudinal modes because of a large gain bandwidth (>30 nm) and a relatively small longitudinal-mode spacing (< 100 MHz). The spectral bandwidth of laser output can exceed 10 nm under CW operation [2]. Many applications of continuous wave (CW) lasers require operation in a narrow-linewidth single mode whose wavelength can be tuned over the gain bandwidth. Numerous methods have been used to realize narrow-linewidth fiber lasers, however fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs) are preferred for this purpose since they can be fabricated with a reflectivity spectrum of less than 0.1 nm.
It is also worth noting that the large gain bandwidth of fiber lasers is useful for tuning them over a wavelength range exceeding 50 nm [2]. Several other methods have been used to achieve single longitudinal mode operation of fiber lasers and these include unidirectional ring resonators [3], intracavity wave-mixing in a saturable absorber [4], fiber Fox-Smith resonators [5] and injection locking using the line narrowed output form a separate source [6]. Nevertheless, no technique is free from operating difficulties due to the problems of isolating the fiber laser resonator from environmental influences, such as vibrations and temperature drift among other factors. Most of these problems can be addressed by using some clever schemes, as will be presented in this work.
2. Fiber lasers design
Fiber lasers can be designed with a variety of choices for the laser cavity [2]. One of the most common type of laser cavity is known as the Fabry-Perot cavity, which is made by placing the gain medium between two high-reflecting mirrors. In the case of fiber lasers, mirror often butt-coupled to the fiber ends to avoid diffraction losses.
Several alternatives exist to avoid passing the pump light through dielectric mirrors. For example, one can take advantage of fiber couplers. It is possible to design a fiber couple such that most of the pump power comes out of the port that is a part of the laser cavity. Such couplers are called wavelength-division-multiplexing (WDM) couplers. Another solution is to use fiber gratings as mirrors. As it is known, a FBG can acts as a high-reflectivity mirror for the laser wavelength while being transparent to pump radiation. The use of two such gratings results in an all-fiber Fabry-Perot cavity. An added advantage of Bragg gratings is that the laser can be forced to operate in a single longitudinal mode. A third approach makes use of fiber–loop mirrors that can be designed to reflect the laser light but transmit pump radiation.
Ring cavities are often used to force unidirectional operation of a laser. In the case of fiber lasers, an additional advantage is that a ring cavity can be made without using mirrors, resulting in an all-fiber cavity. In the simplest design, two ports of a WDM coupler are connected tighter to form a ring cavity containing the doped fiber, as shown in Figure 1.
An isolator is inserted within the loop for unidirectional operation. However, some alternative fiber laser configurations have been shown, where these kinds of devices can be suppressed from the cavity rings by using optical circulators [7]. Theoretically, a polarization controller is also needed for conventional doped fiber that does not preserve polarization. However, some works [7] have demonstrated that this device has little influence on the multiwavelength regime.
Figure 1.
Schematic of a unidirectional ring cavity used for fiber lasers.
Ring fiber lasers are also known to be susceptible to power fluctuations. These instabilities can significantly degrade the characteristics of a sensor array based on a tunable ring laser interrogation scheme [8]. Although the laser output power stability usually depends on many parameters like the EDF lengths, the coupling ratio on the output and the total cavity length [9], [10]-[15], it can be improved through an appropriate choice of laser parameters.
For sensor applications, a tunable narrow-band laser source is very attractive since it significantly simplifies the detection scheme. However, the interaction of laser relaxation oscillations with external perturbations induces self-pulsation and output power variations. In addition, the long coherence length of the radiation emitted by a single-mode laser may result in Fabry-Perot type unwanted interference within the sensing arm. In a few-mode regime, mode-hopping results in power fluctuations. To avoid these fluctuations the laser must operate in a many-mode regime, in which the power carried by each mode is sufficiently small. Specifically, the spacing between longitudinal modes is defined by the length of the cavity which is usually a few tens of meters. The number of modes (N) and modes spacing (Δλ) in a fiber ring laser are given by:
Δλ=λ2nLE1
N=nLλE2
where n: is the refractive index of the Er fiber, L: the ring length, and λ: the centered mode wavelength.
Some experimental studies have been carried out with the purpose of enabling an erbium doped fiber ring laser (EDFRL) design to be optimized, by using highly Er-doped fiber instead of conventional one [16], in order to meet the required performance by analyzing several configurations. In that way, the optimal EDF length [17] required to generate both the highest possible gain for a given signal and output power oscillations as low as possible under certain constraints can be found.
Thus, several EDFL hybrid cavity configurations, combining both EDFR and short cavity fiber laser, have been designed and experimentally analyzed [18], [19]. Figure 2 shows the experimental setup of a short-cavity fiber laser. These studies were focused on the optimization of laser parameters, which include EDF lengths, pump power and diverse configurations, without changing the basic scheme, which was kept as simple as possible.
Figure 2.
Experimental setup of a short-cavity fiber laser
Regarding to the spectral characterization of these kind of EDFLs, Figure 3 shows the exit amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) measured in the amplifier configuration, i.e., when the free end of the EDF was connected to an optical spectrum analyzer (OSA). It may be useful to note that the steady-state ASE spectra can be accurately simulated with the standard static model [20] based on the doped fiber parameters provided by the fiber manufacturer.
Figure 3.
ASE obtained from a 1 m length of Er-80 when it is pumped by a 980nm light source.
Spectrally resolved measurements of the laser (i.e., closed cavity) output with different EDF lengths as the gain medium (and 500mW of input power) show a multiple-wavelength operation. The position of the comb depends on the fiber length. For a 25cm-long fiber, the generation occurs at shorter wavelengths values, while already for a 1m-long fiber the generation shifts to longer wavelengths (Figure 4). This shift is due to an increase of the effective fiber length when the cavity is closed and it corresponds to the L-band operation of an EDFA with an increased fiber length.
Frequency hopping to other longitudinal cavity modes is possible since neighboring modes may have a higher (unsaturated) gain. Usually, when no cavity filters are used, linear cavity lasers are less stable in power and frequency than ring cavity lasers. Ring cavity EDFLs use the gain provided by the EDF more efficiently and have a cavity free spectral range (FSR) that is twice as large for the same cavity length compared to linear cavity lasers [16].
On the other hand, the linear, or Fabry–Perot cavity, is the most common laser cavities, and the first EDFL cavity that was explored. Its main advantages are its simplicity and the possibility to make very short cavities. It is thus well suited for robust single longitudinal mode operation. They are also suitable for master oscillator power amplifier (MOPA) [21] applications since it is usually easy to recover unabsorbed pump power at the output coupler.
Figure 4.
Output power spectra for closed cavity configuration with different EDF lengths. (1) 25, (2) 50, (3) 75 and (4) 100 cm length of the erbium-doped fiber. 500mW pump power.
An example of a linear cavity is presented in Figure 5. In a forward pumped linear cavity EDFL, the pump light is injected through a wavelength-dependent reflector (WDR) which is, ideally, perfectly transparent at the pump wavelength and perfectly reflective at the signal wavelength. The output coupler completes the linear cavity. It is preferable that the output coupler be highly reflective at the pump wavelength to recycle unused pump power thus providing optimized pumping and no residual pump at the output.
The output coupler must also have a reflectivity at the signal wavelength that optimizes the output power [22]. The output coupler reflectivity in the signal band can either be broadband, leading to a lasing wavelength determined by the erbium-doped fiber gain curve, or wavelength-selective, leading to a lasing wavelength selected, and possibly tuned, by the output coupler. Linear cavities are also ideal for compact single-longitudinal mode lasers and for high power applications.
Many other cavity designs are possible. For example, one can use two coupled Fabry-Perot cavities. In the simplest scheme, one mirror is separated from the fiber end by a controlled amount. The 4% reflectivity of the fiber-air interface acts as a low-reflectivity mirror that couples the fiber cavity with the empty air-filled cavity. Because of that, all the free terminations on the systems have to be immersed in refractive-index-matching gel to avoid undesired reflections. Such compound resonator has been used to reduce the line width of an Er-doped fiber laser [23]. Three fiber gratings in series also produce two coupled Fabry-Perot cavities. Still another design makes use of a Fox-Smith resonator [5].
Figure 5.
General schematic diagram of a linear cavity EDFL. M1: pump WDR mirror, M2: output coupler, EDF: erbium-doped fiber, ISO: optical isolator.
As it was previously pointed out, multiwavelength lasers are of great interest for telecommunications and sensors multiplexing. These lasers also have a great potential in the fiber-optic test and measurement of WDM components. The requirements for such optical sources are: a high number of channels over large wavelength span, moderate output powers (of the order of 100µW per channel) with good OSNR and spectral flatness, single longitudinal mode operation of each laser line, tunability and accurate positioning on the ITU frequency grid [25].
2.1. Laser output fluctuations
Many lasers, exhibit fluctuations in their output intensity that appear as either a sequence of sharp, narrow pulses (spikes) or a small oscillation “ripple” superimposed upon the steady-state laser output signal. The lasers that experience these fluctuations are lasers in which the recovery time of the excited-state population inversion is significantly longer that the laser cavity decay time.
It has been recognized that such instabilities can significantly degrade the performance characteristics of a sensor array based on a tunable ring laser interrogation scheme. Most of the factors influencing stability of the output power of fiber laser have been analyzed theoretically in detail [23]. A systematically effort to study these causes has been carried out. Based on previous experience these studies have been focused on optimization of some the following parameters: pump power [19], doped fiber length and ions concentration [26], output coupling ratio [7], total cavity length [26], spectral hole-burning effect [27] or the cavity losses [28]. However, polarization control seems not very important for the multimode regime [7].
2.2. Room temperature operation of fiber lasers
Multiple gain medium: In a manner similar to semiconductor laser arrays, it is possible to create multifrequency EDFLs that use a single gain medium per wavelength. In 1994, Takahashi et al. [29] demonstrated a multifrequency ring EDFL oscillating simultaneously over four wavelengths spaced 1.6 nm apart by using an 8 x 8 AWG and four EDFAs. Later, Miyazaki and his co-worker [30] showed a ring EDFL that lases on 15 lines separated by 1.6nm. Again, the laser consisted of 15 EDFAs placed between two 16 x 16 AWGs. The light from a 1480 nm pump laser was evenly distributed to N fiber segments by a 1 x N broadband coupler. Each segment was composed of a piece of EDF followed by an optical isolator, a tunable optical filter and variable attenuator. By adjusting each attenuator it was possible to establish multifrequency oscillation in this ring cavity. Independent wavelength tuning of each laser line was the main feature of this structure.
Various schemes have been demonstrated to show both SLM and tunability simultaneously, for example, using such schemes as a multi-ring cavity with a band pass filter [31], a tunable fiber Bragg grating (FBG) Fabry-Perot etalon [32] and a saturable absorber with a tunable FBG [33]. It has been shown in prior works that a section of unpumped EDF in a Sagnac loop can be used as a saturable absorber in which two counter-propagating waves form a standing wave and induce spatial-hole-burning (SHB). The refraction index of the unpumped EDF changes spatially due to SHB and this results in an ultra-narrow bandwidth self-induced FBG [34], [35].
By means of optimized length of unpumped EDF, the beat frequencies corresponding to the multimode lasing disappeared when a saturable absorber is introduced [36] so, lasers that can be wavelength-swept over the entire C-band (1520nm-1570nm) window with linewidth less than 0.7 kHz [37], laser that can also achieve switching modes among several wavelengths by simple adjustment of two polarization controllers in the cavities [38], C- plus L-band fiber ring laser with wide wavelength tunability and single-longitudinal-mode oscillation [39], generation of terahertz (THz) electromagnetic waves by photomixing two wavelengths in a high speed photodetector [40] can be obtained among others.
In 2008, Tianshu Wang [41] reported a novel high power tunable single-frequency erbium-doped fiber laser. The single-frequency operation was realized by using the FBG as a narrow band filter and a section of unpumped EDF as a saturable absorber in the cavity. The obtained slope efficiency was more than 20%, the stability was less than 0.005 dB and the modes adjacent to the lasing mode were completely suppressed.
Single gain medium: The very first attempts [42], [43] at room temperature operation of single gain stage multifrequency EDFLs showed, notwithstanding their inefficiency, the great potential of these sources. Later, Hübner et al. [44] proved that a multifrequency EDFL could be obtained through writing a series of DFB (distributed feedback laser) fiber Bragg gratings in a single erbium-doped fiber. Their laser produced five lines over a 4.2 nm range. The use of specialty doped fiber has also led to very elegant designs. A twincore EDF was used by Graydon et al. [45] as an inhomogeneous gain medium in a multifrequency ring EDFL. In that fiber, wavelength-dependent periodic coupling between the two cores partially decouples the available gain for each wavelength, since they interact with a different subset of erbium ions. Poustie et al. [46] used a multimode fiber to create a frequency periodic filter based on spatial mode beating and showed multi-wavelength operation over four lines spaced by 2.1 nm. In 1992, Abraham et al. [47] conceived a multifrequency hybrid laser composed of a 980 nm pump laser diode with antireflection coating coupled to an EDF with a fiber mirror. That laser produced an output spectrum with six lines spaced by 0.44 nm. In 1997, Zhao et al. [48] demonstrated that the control of optical feedback in a modified S-type cavity allowed stable multifrequency operation. In addition to this, a very interesting scheme to realize room temperature operation of a multifrequency EDFL was demonstrated by Sasamori et al. [49]. They used an acousto-optic modulator to prevent the laser from reaching steady-state operation. Initially, the authors believed that the repeated frequency shifting of the circulating ASE by the acousto-optic modulator prevented laser oscillation and yielded an incoherent source. Recently, it was shown that this source is in fact a laser and its potential as a frequency reference was demonstrated [9], [50], [51].
X.S. Liu et al. [52] experimentally demonstrated a simple-structure but efficient multiwavelength EDFL based on dual effects of nonlinear polarization rotation (NPR) and four-wave-mixing (FWM). With this structure, a maximum of 38-lines output in C-band and 28-wavelength flattened output within 3 dB bandwidth in L-band, both with the same spacing of about 0.4 nm, was obtained. Through the comparative experiments, it was demonstrated that introducing hybrid nonlinear effects by using a length of DSF is more efficient to generate multiwavelength lasing than using SMF.
The most obvious way to force multifrequency operation in a single gain medium EDFL is to cool the EDF by immersion in a bath of liquid nitrogen (77 K). At these temperatures the erbium ions become inhomogeneous, and multifrequency operation is much easier. It must be noted that this complex and unreliable approach is not recommended for field applications. Nonetheless, many potent experimental results have been published using this method and it is worthwhile to review them. In 1996, Chow et al. [53] published results concerning a multifrequency ring EDFL using two different types of frequency periodic filters. They obtained eleven laser peaks spaced by 0.65nm using a Fabry–Perot filter based on chirped fiber Bragg gratings [54], and five laser peaks spaced by 1.8 nm with a sampled fiber Bragg grating. An example of these kind of structures can be seen in Figure 6.
That same year, Yamashita et al. [55] proposed a single-polarization linear cavity multifrequency EDFL. This laser does not use polarization-maintaining fiber and operates in a travelling-wave mode, thus preventing spatial hole burning, since cavity feedback is provided by Faraday mirrors. A Fabry–Perot etalon is used as the frequency periodic filter. A polarizer and a Faraday rotator are placed on each side of the etalon to prevent parasitic reflections. With this setup, the authors obtained simultaneous oscillation over 17 wavelength spaced by 0.8 nm. Simultaneous lasing of up to 24 wavelengths has been demonstrated by Park et al. [56] using controlled polarization evolution in a ring cavity and liquid nitrogen cooling to enhance spectral hole burning, polarization hole burning, and polarization selectivity. A polarizer and a polarization controller were placed before a piece of polarization maintaining fiber to form a Lyot filter with a free spectral range of 1.1 nm. Finally, Yamashita et al. [57] realized a multiwavelength Er:Yb Fabry–Perot micro-laser with 29 0.4 nm-spaced lines.
Figure 6.
Schematic diagram of a nitrogen-cooled multifrequency EDFL.
2.4. Multiwavelength fiber laser-based multiplexing systems
One of the major difficulties to detect the sensing signals when broadband light sources are more than 50 km long is the Rayleigh scattering-induced optical noise as well as loss of background signal in the transmission fiber [58]. To increase the performance of sensing systems, a fiber laser-based sensing probe with a narrow bandwidth and a high extinction ratio should be considered.
As it was said, FBGs are suitable for use as spectrally narrowband reflectors for creating cavities for fiber lasers. Multisensor fiber Bragg grating lasers utilizes several FBGs normally at different wavelengths, an amplification section and a mirror (or structure acting as a mirror) to create an in-fiber cavity [59]. The utilization of an amplifying medium between the gratings and the mirror pumped inside or outside the cavity provides gain and thus lasing. The cavity may show single mode or multimode performance depending on the gratings and the cavity length. This multimode performance can be seen in Figure 7, where the output optical spectrum measured by a BOSA (Brillouin optical spectrum analyzer) for a multiwavelength erbium doped fiber ring laser tested by heating one FBG on a climatic chamber in the range of 30˚C to 100˚C is shown. In addition to this, a linear relation between each lasing wavelength with the temperature can be observed. For single mode operation using typical FBG bandwidth, the cavity required to be on the order of a few cm, thus most part of remote sensing system are multimode. Numerous configurations to multiplex a number of FBGs have been carried out. These new sensing configurations offer a much improved SNR than the non-lasing ones. Initially Er-doped fiber amplifiers were utilized, being nowadays utilized Raman amplification, EDFAs and SOAs depending on the application and distance to be achieved [7].
Figure 7.
Output optical spectrum measured by the BOSA for the MEDFRL (with 1.5m of highly doped Er-fiber (Er-80) from Liekki) tested by heating one FBG on a climatic chamber in the range of 30˚C to 100˚C.
Several approaches based on fiber lasers have been reported in order to realize long-distance and remote sensing. Peng et al. [60] proposed an advanced configuration based on the use of a linear cavity Raman laser configuration formed by FBGs and a fiber loop mirror to achieve a high optical signal-to-noise ratio (50 dB), but in such a system the number of FBG sensors was limited by the relatively low Raman gain, which is difficult to improve even by using a high Raman pump power and multiwavelength lasing characteristics.
Another approach, also proposed by Peng et al., [61] was a multiwavelength fiber ring laser configuration with an erbium doped waveguide amplifier and a semiconductor optical amplifier (SOA), but only six or so FBG sensors can be used in such a system with its narrow effective bandwidth of 20 nm, which depends on the overlap of the spectrum between the EDFA and the SOA. Moreover, its sensing distance is limited by the SOA, which cannot be pumped remotely.
Recently, numerous multiwavelength switchable erbium-doped fiber lasers have been developed [62]. These topologies offer a stable operation without the necessity of passive multi-ring cavities [63] or polarization maintaining fiber [64], are suitable for the selection of all the possible output combinations of several different lasing wavelengths and they have been used for remote sensing up to 50 km [65]. In addition to this, in [66], an approach using a tunable fiber ring laser with hybrid Raman–Erbium-doped fiber amplification was demonstrated, obtaining an optical SNR of 60 dB for 50 km. However, ultra-long distance FBG multiplexing systems have been demonstrated [67] without using optical amplification, obtaining acceptable signal to noise ratios (20 dB) after 120 km. Besides, a 200 km long fiber ring laser for multiplexing FBG arrays was recently developed [68] and it was also able to detect four multiplexed FBGs placed 250 km away, offering a signal to noise ratio of 6–8 dB [69].
As can be seen in [70] backward Raman amplification approach is an effective way to realize ultra-long distance FBG sensing systems. Because of that, a 300km transmission distance has been recently achieved with an optical SNR of 4 dB [71], which is the longest FBG sensing distance, to the best of our knowledge.
3. Laser cavity resonance modes
In a typical laser, the number of cavity resonances that can fit within the gain bandwidth is often plotted as a function of laser output power versus wavelength. This subsection deals with how varying the appropriate frequencies can alter curves describing the number of cavity modes and gain bandwidth of a laser.
One can suppress all but one lasing mode by increasing the spacing between adjacent modes such that other modes lie outside the width of the laser gain curve. This is usually achieved by designing very short cavity lasers. In fiber lasers, this can be achieved by designing a very short (few centimeters long) standing-wave cavity combined with one or two narrow band Bragg gratings that select a single longitudinal mode.
A common misconception about lasers results from the idea that all of the emitted light is reflected back and forth within the cavity until a critical intensity is reached, whereupon some “escapes” through the output mirror as a beam [72]. In reality, the output mirror always transmits a constant fraction of the light as the beam, reflecting the rest back into the cavity. This function is important in allowing the laser to reach an equilibrium state, with the power levels both inside and outside the laser becoming constant.
Due to the fact that the light oscillates back and forth in a laser cavity, the phenomenon of resonance becomes a factor in the amplification of laser intensity. Depending upon the wavelength of stimulated emission and cavity length, the waves reflected from the end mirrors will either interfere constructively and be strongly amplified, or interfere destructively and cancel laser activity. Because the waves within the cavity are all coherent and in phase, they will remain in phase when reflected from a cavity mirror. The waves will also be in phase upon reaching the opposite mirror, provided the cavity length equals an integral number of wavelengths. Thus, after making one complete oscillation in the cavity, light waves have traveled a path length equal to twice the cavity length. If that distance is an integral multiple of the wavelength, the waves will all add in amplitude by constructive interference. When the cavity is not an exact multiple of the lasing wavelength, destructive interference will occur, destroying laser action. The following equation defines the resonance condition that must be met for strong amplification to occur in the laser cavity:
N⋅λ=2⋅(Cavitylength)E3
where N is an integer, and λ is the wavelength. The condition for resonance is not as critical as it might appear because actual laser transitions in the cavity are distributed over a range of wavelengths, termed the gain bandwidth [72]. Wavelengths of light are extremely small compared to the length of a typical laser cavity, and in general, a complete roundtrip path through the cavity will be equivalent to several hundred thousand wavelengths of the light being amplified.
Resonance is possible at each integral wavelength increment and because the corresponding wavelengths are very close, they fall within the gain bandwidth of the laser. Figure 8 illustrates a typical example in which several resonance values of N, referred to as longitudinal modes of the laser, fit within the gain bandwidth.
Laser beams have certain common characteristics, but also vary to a wide degree with respect to size, divergence, and light distribution across the beam diameter. These characteristics depend strongly upon the design of the laser cavity (resonator), and the optical system controlling the beam, both within the cavity and upon output. Although a laser may appear to produce a uniform bright spot of light when projected onto a surface, if the light intensity is measured at different points within a cross section of the beam, it will be found to vary in intensity. Resonator design also affects beam divergence, a measure of beam spreading as distance from the laser increases. The beam divergence angle is an important factor in calculating the beam diameter at a given distance.
Figure 8.
Cavity resonance modes and gain bandwidth.
In order to obtain monochromatic or single-mode laser radiation, it is usually necessary to insert a frequency dependent loss element (a filter) to insure that gain exceeds loss for only a single longitudinal mode.
4. Fiber lasers
4.1. Rare earth doped optical fiber lasers
Rare earth doped optical fibers are now a well-established class of gain media with many diverse applications that extend far from the original conceived application; namely, in-line amplifiers [73], [74]. Erbium-doped silica fiber lasers have been use, for example, for distributed sensing applications [75], remote sensing of magnetic fields [76], and as sources of optical solitons for all-optical fiber-based communications networks [77]. Many of these applications have evolved because of the advantages accrued from placing the rare earth ion in the optical fiber host lattice. The interaction between the rare earth ion and the intrinsic electric field associated with the host results in a broadening of the absorption and emission lineshapes associated with the rare earth ion. It is fortuitous that the absorption bands associated with many of the rare earth ions occur at wavelengths that are common to well-established laser diodes. The broadening of the absorption bands removes some of the wavelength-tailoring problems encountered with rare earth doped crystalline materials [78]. In fact, the ability to convert the output radiation from low-cost laser diodes, which generally occurs in a low-quality output mode with a poor frequency definition, into a high-brightness coherent source, is beneficial to applications, such as remote sensing and fiber-based communication systems, because it results in compact systems with low power requirements. The broadband emission of trivalent rare earth ions allows the development of sources emitting either broad continuous-wave (CW) spectra or ultrashort pulses, as well as widely tunable narrow-linewidth operation [73].
A fiber laser using a trivalent rare earth as the active element has the potential for very narrow linewidth operation compared with other sources that oscillate in the same spectral regions, such as semiconductor lasers [73]. The output radiation from a single-frequency laser is not monochromatic, but has a finite bandwidth. The theoretical limit for the bandwidth is known as the Schalow-Townes limit and depends on both the linewidth of an individual longitudinal mode of the cavity and the amount of amplified spontaneous emission coupled to the oscillating longitudinal mode [22]. The cavity linewidth scales inversely with the cavity length of the laser, and the waveguiding nature of a fiber allows cavity lengths of many meters to be established. In comparison, the cavity length of semiconductor lasers is typically a fraction of a centimeter. Also, the optimum linewidth that can be expected from a fiber laser is significantly smaller than that of a semiconductor laser, making the fiber a suitable tool for narrow-linewidth applications [22].
Because of potential applications of multiwavelength fiber lasers, such as the fields of optical communication, optical fiber sensing, optical component testing and microwave photonics among other, erbium-doped fiber lasers emitting in multiple wavelengths simultaneously have attacked much interest recently [79],[80]. The multiwavelength fiber lasers used have various advantages such as the wavelength multiplexing operation, simple and compact structure, low cost, and small insertion loss, etc. It is worth mentioning than another important application of these multiwavelength fiber lasers is their use as light sources themselves in WDM systems.
Erbium-doped fiber is rarely employed to implement a stable multiwavelength lasing at room temperature owing to the homogeneous line-broadening property of the EDF. Over the last decade, various approaches have been proposed to address the above issue, for example, as it was previously pointed out in section 2.3, the EDF cooling the frequency shifting [9], the spatial and polarization hole-burning-effect-based [81], the nonlinear effects, and the nonlinear polarization rotation-based methods [82]. Most of these aspects have the following drawback: they use to offer few lasing wavelengths or they use to show a rather broad linewidth.
Moreover, EDFLs can operate in several wavelength regions, ranging from visible to far infrared. The 1.55 μm region has attracted the most attention because it coincides with the low-loss region of silica fibers used for optical communications.
The performance of EDFLs improves considerably when they are pumped at the 0.98 or 1.48 µm wavelength because of the absence of excited-state absorption. Indeed, semiconductor lasers operating at these wavelengths have been developed solely for the purpose of pumping Er-doped fibers. Their use has resulted in commercial 1.55-μm fiber lasers.
EDFLs pumped at 1.48 µm also exhibit good performance. In fact, the choice between 0.98 and 1.48 µm is not always clear since each pumping wavelength has its own merits. Both have been used for developing practical EDFLs with excellent performance characteristics [83], [84].
An important property of continuously operating EDFLs from a practical standpoint is their ability to provide output that is tunable over a wide range and many techniques can be used to reduce the spectral bandwidth of tunable EDFLs [2]. Ring cavities can also be used to make tunable or switchable EDFLs [62], [65], [85].
Besides, fiber gratings can also be used to improve the performance of EDFLs. Since 1990, when a Bragg grating was used to realize a line width of about 1 GHz [86], fiber gratings have been used in EDFAs for a variety of reasons [87]. The simplest configuration splices a Bragg grating at each end of an erbium-doped fiber, forming a Fabry–Perot cavity. Such devices are called distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) lasers. These fiber lasers can be tuned continuously while exhibiting a narrow line width. They can also be made to oscillate in a single longitudinal mode by decreasing the fiber length. Multiple fiber gratings can be also used to make coupled-cavity fiber lasers. Figure 9 shows an example of the output power spectral density of a single-stage EDFA (with two FBGs centered at 1540 and 1545nm and pump power of 90mW at 980nm. This EDFA (Photonetics, model BT 1300) provides 13 dBm output saturation power and a maximum 35 dB small signal gain.
Figure 9.
Output power spectral density (res=0.1nm) of a single-stage EDFA with λ1=1540nm, λ2=1545nm, Pp=90mW, L= 32 m, and λp=980nm.
Multiwavelength optical sources, capable of simultaneously emitting light at several well defined wavelengths, are useful for WDM lightwave systems. Fiber lasers can be used for this purpose, and numerous schemes have been developed [88]. The cavity length is made quite small (~ 1 mm or so) since spacing between the lasing wavelengths is governed by the longitudinal-mode spacing. A 1mm cavity length corresponds to a 100 GHz wavelength spacing. Such fiber lasers operate as standard multimode lasers. Cooling of the doped fiber helps to reduce the homogeneous broadening of the gain spectrum to below 0.5 nm. The gain spectrum is then predominantly inhomogeneously broadened, resulting in multimode operation through spectral hole burning. Long cavities with several meters of doped fibers can also be used. Wavelength selection is then made using an intracavity comb filter such as a Fabry–Perot interferometer.
Many other rare-earth ions can be used to make fiber lasers. Holmium, samarium, thulium, and ytterbium have been used in nearly simultaneous experiments to make fiber lasers emitting at wavelengths ranging from visible to infrared. Attention later shifted to Pr3+ ions in an attempt to realize fiber lasers and amplifiers operating at 1.3 μm. Pr-doped fiber lasers can also operate at 1.05 μm. Thulium-doped fiber lasers have attracted considerable attention because of their potential applications. Operation at several other important wavelengths can be realized by using fluoride fibers as a host in place of silica fibers.
Holmium-doped fiber lasers have attracted attention because they operate near 2 µm, a wavelength useful for medical and other eye-safe applications. Thulium codoping permits these lasers to be pumped with GaAs lasers operating near 0.8 µm. Ytterbium-doped fiber lasers, operating near 1.01 µm and tunable over 60 nm, were first made in 1988 [89]. In 1992, the use of fluoride fibers as the host medium provided output powers of up to 100 mW. In a later experiment, more than 200-mW power with a quantum efficiency of 80% was obtained from a silica-based Yb-doped fiber laser pumped at 869 nm [90].
4.1.1. Single longitudinal mode operation
A number of schemes have also been demonstrated to show single-longitudinal mode (SLM), using such schemes as a multi-ring cavity with a band pass filter [31], a tunable fiber Bragg grating (FBG) Fabry-Perot etalon [32] and a saturable absorber with a tunable FBG [33]. In addition to this, it has been experimentally demonstrated [36] that the beat frequencies corresponding to the multimode lasing disappeared when saturable absorber (an optimized length of unpumped EDF) is introduced.
Even when single-mode regime is achieved, these lasers suffer from multi-gigahertz mode hopping. However these rings are at least several meters long so thermally induced hops to adjacent cavity modes still occur. An alternative approach is to use gratings, or distributed Bragg reflectors (DBR), in a linear cavity. These can be fabricated directly into an optical fiber through refractive index changes induced by short wavelength radiation to provide both optical feedback and wavelength selectivity [91]. Such a linear laser must possess better wavelength selectivity than a ring to overcome spatial hole burning. However, because the cavity losses can be so low, the resonator can potentially be made much shorter and with greater finesse. Singlemode operation has been reported in erbium-doped fiber DBR lasers with cavity lengths of 50cm [91] and 10cm [87]. To assure that the singlemode operation is robust, the cavity should be sufficiently short such that the mode spacing is comparable to the grating bandwidth.
On the other hand, and as reported in [92], a SLM fiber ring laser can be made to annihilate the mode competition with an auxiliary lasing. Owing to the interaction of the seed light produced from one channel to the other one and vice versa, multiple-longitudinal-mode oscillation can be suppressed, and thus the mode competition and mode hopping is not produced. Therefore, the laser oscillation is rather stable. In a single-wavelength operation of these lasers, has been experimentally demonstrated that multiple longitudinal modes are supported by the cavity. However, for similar pumping levels, a single-mode operation of the laser when we emit simultaneously several wavelengths using a special ring cavity configuration has been achieved [85]. The stable SLM operation is guaranteed if the output power of both channels is similar. This implies that it is possible to avoid the utilization of additional optical filtering techniques (that reduce the optical efficiency) to achieve the SLM operation.
4.1.2. Applications of single frequency fiber lasers
The narrow linewidhs and excellent frequency noise characteristics of single-frequency fiber lasers make them ideal form many applications. One key area for which the fiber geometry is attractive is remote sensing. The advent of fiber lasers based on Bragg reflectors has triggered a revolution in sensing applications, making possible, for example, the ustrasensitive detection of strain and magnetic fields. The narrowband reflection of the Bragg reflector meant that only a small precentage of the incident signal was reflected by the device, resulting in difficulties in extracting the optical signal from the background noise. The ability to incorporate Bragg gratings into fiber lasers has allowed the development of high-power (> 1mW) sensitive optical sensors and alleviated these signal to noise problems [73].
Several approaches have been investigated to developed fiber laser based strain sensors [93]. Also, cavities for narrow-linewidth fiber lasers can be made with matched pairs of fiber Bragg reflectors. These lasers have been employed to produce both single point and multipoint sensors [94]. Instead of using the Bragg reflector to sense the environmental change, the actual laser acts as the sensor. As it is well known, a change in the optical path length induces a change in the frequency, so by monitoring the wavelength change the environmental perturbation can be monitored. The multipoint sensor consists of a series of fiber lasers made from Bragg reflectors peaking at different wavelengths. In addition to this, magnetic fields can be detected using an active fiber laser sensor [76]. A single frequency fiber laser was attached to a magnetostrictive element. This element exhibits a quadratic dependence to the applied field, and it can be used to detect either AC or DC magnetic fields [73].
The foregoing sensors rely on changes in laser wavelength to provide information on the perturbation applied to the active sensor. The polarization properties of fiber lasers can be also be exploited to produce a sensor. Dual-frequency operation can be obtained in narrow-linewidth fiber lasers by exiting the orthogonal polarization axes of the weakly birefringent laser cavity. Because the refractive indices associated with polarization axes are different, the oscillating frequencies of the two modes are also different. Detection of these two frequencies result in a beat note at the detector. By applying to the cavity a perturbation that alters its birefringence, the beat frequency changes, and by monitoring this frequency change the applied perturbation can be quantified.
The need for a suitable standard close to 1.5 μm is driven by the use of narrow-linewidth lasers for wavelength multiplexed communication systems. In general, the light sources used for these systems have been distributed feedback semiconductor lasers. However, it has been demonstrated that narrow-linewidth fiber lasers are a potentially suitable replacement [73].
5. Raman lasers
Raman fiber lasers (RFLs) are attractive light sources for generating laser light at wavelengths which are difficult to obtain with other lasers. One of the most significant characteristics of these lasers is versatility in terms of wavelength, since Raman gain is achievable throughout the complete window of transparency of silica (300-2200nm). Providing that a suitable high power pump is provided, the Raman amplification process can be cascaded several times [95] allowing lasing in a broad wavelength range. Such wavelength versatility cannot be achieved using traditional lasers based on rare-earth-doping that have limited emission bands not broader than a few tens of nanometers. The nonuniform nature of the Raman gain spectrum is of concern for wavelength-division-multiplexed (WDM) lightwave systems because different channels will be amplified by different amounts. This problem is solved in practice by using multiple pumps at slightly different wavelengths. Each pump provides nonuniform gain but the gain spectra associated with different pumps overlap partially. With a suitable choice of wavelengths and powers for each pump laser, it is possible to realize nearly flat gain profile over a considerably wide wavelength range.
Figure 10.
Measured gain evolution observed within a 50 km standard fiber transmission span for different pump powers.
In addition to this, and besides the advantages due to distributed amplification, another merit of the Raman amplifier is that any gain band can be tailored by proper choice of pump wavelength. One of the main purposes of discrete Raman amplifiers is to realize an amplifier operating in different windows than EDFA. There have been many efforts to develop discrete Raman amplifiers operating in 1.3 [96], 1.52 [97], and 1.65 µm [98] bands. Because the interaction length of the Raman amplifier is typically orders of magnitude longer than that of EDFA, nonlinearity, saturation, and double Rayleigh backscattering may become serious issues. However, by optimizing the length of the gain fiber (see Figure 10) and using a two-stage structure, one may be able to design discrete Raman amplifiers that are good for signal transmissions. Raman fiber lasers have been used in several of the pioneering experiments in distributed Raman amplification. For example, the first demonstrations of (a) capacity upgrades using Raman amplification by Hansen et al. [99], (b) multiwavelength pumping for large bandwidth by Rottwitt and Kidorf [100], and (c) higher order pumping by Rottwitt et al. [101] all used single wavelength Raman fiber lasers. Many other systems’ results have also established an RFL as a viable Raman pump source.
In long-distance FBG systems, the most important problem is Rayleigh scattering in the transmission fiber connecting the FBGs and interrogator. The noise floor of the FBG reflection spectrum is caused by Rayleigh-scattered light. The FBG reflection spectrum detected by the interrogator decreases and the power of the Rayleigh-scattered light increases as the length of the transmission fiber increases. When the length is about 70 km, the signal to noise ratio (OSNR) of the FBG reflection spectrum becomes very low, limiting the practical length of the transmission fiber for FBG sensor systems of about this length (70 Km). A number of long-distance remote sensing systems using multiwavelength Raman lasers have been also proposed [102].
There were several methods used to improving the sensing distance of FBG-based sensor systems [103]. Based on a tunable laser and optical amplification, a sensing distance of 100km was achieved with a SNR of about 57 dB [104]. Takanori Saitoh et al. developed a FBG sensor system based on EDFA, whose performance was highly dependent on the quality of the light source and sensing distance of 230 km was obtained with a SNR of 4dB [70]. On the other hand, Fernandez-Vallejo et al. developed an ultra-long range fiber Bragg grating sensor interrogation system able to detect four multiplexed FBGs placed 250 km away, offering a signal to noise ratio of 6–8 dB [104]. Due to in many applications, such as railway, oil or gas pipelines, FBG sensor systems with even longer sensing distance are needed. Recently, a novel tunable fiber ring laser configuration with combination of hybrid Raman amplification and EDFA has been presented [105] to improve the sensing characteristics of the FBG-based ultra-long sensor system. A maximum sensing distance of 300 km with an SNR of about 4 dB has been obtained.
6. Random lasers
Random lasers are miniature sources of stimulated emission in which the feedback is provided by scattering in a gain medium [107]. Random lasers have currently evolved into a large research field. The recent review of random lasers can be found in [108]. Since scattering provides the feedback in random lasers, they do not require any external cavity or mirrors. However, external mirrors enhance the performance of random laser if they are positioned close enough to the gain medium and help to increase the feedback of stimulated emission or the efficiency of utilization of pumping. The random laser with one mirror, which had high transmission at the pumping wavelength and high reflection at the stimulated emission wavelength, was demonstrated in [109]. It has been shown that the mirror helps to reduce the threshold by∼25% and increase the slope efficiency by∼30%. The relatively moderate improvement was explained by the fact that the mirror and the laser powder in [109] were separated by a1 mm thick wall of the cuvette.
An intrinsic fundamental loss mechanism of an optical fiber is Rayleigh scattering (RS) [110]. When using Raman amplification besides losses due to RS there will also be losses due to double Rayleigh scattering (DRS). The long lengths of fiber used for Raman amplification make the Rayleigh scattering associated noise an issue. As the gain in Raman amplifiers increases so will RS and DRS, which eventually limit the achievable gain [111]. An interesting approach in order to diminish these losses is using this Rayleigh associated noise as an active part of the laser. It can be used as a distributed random mirror transforming what were losses in gain in the output signal [112], [113]. Lasers taking advantage of cooperative Rayleigh scattering as a self-feedback mechanism of Brillouin-Rayleigh scattering have been reported [114]-[116]. Schemes have been implemented by using four-wave mixing method through the use of reduced high nonlinear Bismuth-erbium doped fiber for Brillouin-Raman multiwavelength lasing with comb generation [117], or high-reflectivity mirror in the linear cavity for distributed feedback [118], [119]. Different multiwavelength Raman fiber lasers based in these same structural setups have been recently developed: a multiwavelength Raman fiber laser based in highly birefringent photonic crystal fiber loop mirrors combined with random mirrors [110] or based in Sagnac structures [120], [121].
7. Other fiber lasers
Besides the fiber lasers previously pointed out, there are other fiber lasers that it is worth taking into consideration. This subsection is devoted to show some of the most common types.
Different techniques have been used to Q-switch a fiber laser. Q-switching can be achieved actively through the action of an electrically controlled loss modulator. It can also be carried out passively [73]. For example, a saturable absorber placed in the cavity acts as a loss modulator, with an intensity-dependent transmission controlled by the laser field itself. Active Q-switching has been used preferentially with fiber lasers. Ideally, in its low-transmission state the loss modulator should introduce a loss high as possible, to maintain the laser below threshold while gain is built-up to high values. On the other hand, it should be as transparent as possible in its high-transmission state, to minimize the loss it adds to the laser field. Finally, the switching time of the loss modulator should be short enough to accommodate the rapidly expanding laser field. A slow-opening modulator is a source of loss and can also result in multiple pulsing [22], [122].
Mode-locked fiber lasers are capable of producing pulses with widths from close to 30 fs to 1ns at repetition rates, ranging from less than 1 MHz to 100 GHz. This versatility, as well as the compact size of optical fibers, is quite unique in laser technology, and thus open up fiber lasers to a large range of applications. Indeed, mode-locked fiber lasers have been established as a premier source of short optical pulses, ranking equally with semiconductor and solid-state lasers. As mode-locked fiber laser technology matured and these lasers became commercially available, they have been used in many different fields, such as laser radar, all-optical scanning delay lines, nonlinear frequency conversion, injection-seeding, two-photon microscopes, THz generation, and optical telecommunications, just to mention the most widely publicized areas [73].
Separately, stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) is a nonlinear process that can occur in optical fibers at input power levels much lower than those needed for stimulated Raman scattering (SRS). It manifests through the generation of a backward-propagating Stokes wave that carries most of the input power, once the Brillouin threshold is reached. For this reason, SBS limits the channel power in optical communication systems. At the same time, it can be useful for making fiber-based Brillouin amplifiers and lasers.
Brillouin fiber lasers consisting of a Fabry–Perot cavity exhibit features that are qualitatively different from those making use of a ring cavity. The difference arises from the simultaneous presence of the forward and backward propagating components associated with the pump and Stokes waves. Higher-order Stokes waves are generated through cascaded SBS, a process in which each successive Stokes component pumps the next-order Stokes component after its power becomes large enough to reach the Brillouin threshold. At the same time, anti-Stokes components are generated through four-wave mixing between copropagating pump and Stokes waves. The number of Stokes and anti-Stokes lines depends on the pump power. Most Brillouin fiber lasers use a ring cavity to avoid generation of multiple Stokes lines through cascaded SBS. The performance of a Brillouin ring laser depends on the fiber length used to make the cavity.
Considerable attention was paid during the 1990s to developing hybrid Brillouin erbium fiber lasers capable of operating either at several wavelengths simultaneously or in a single mode, whose wavelength is tunable over a wide range [106]. Besides the foregoing fiber lasers, some novel FBG interrogation techniques for remote sensing using a hybrid Brillouin-Raman fiber laser (100 km) [123] or combining Raman, Brillouin and erbium gain in a fiber laser (155 km) [124] have experimentally demonstrated.
8. Conclusions
This work dealt with various aspects of the multiwavelength fiber lasers. These kinds of lasers can be designed with a variety of choices for the laser cavity, because of that a brief explanation about the suitable configuration design has been shown.
There are a number of fiber lasers with different configurations and amplification methods; however this work has been centered on the erbium doped and Raman fiber lasers. The importance of the multiwavelength fiber lasers has been pointed out. Some of their problems, such as the laser output fluctuations, have been explained just as several reported stabilization techniques.
Finally, it is worth highlighting that multiwavelength fiber lasers are the hot topic in industrial-laser circles. They promise to revolutionize the laser industry through a disruptive combination of high reliability, high efficiency, low cost, and excellent beam quality. Fiber lasers are merely the most prominent example of these technologies’ proliferation in industrial lasers.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the Spanish Government project TEC2010-20224-C02-01.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/45039.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/45039.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/45039",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/45039",totalDownloads:3249,totalViews:789,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"May 2nd 2012",dateReviewed:"September 14th 2012",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"June 13th 2013",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/45039",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/45039",book:{slug:"current-developments-in-optical-fiber-technology"},signatures:"Rosa Ana Perez-Herrera and Manuel Lopez-Amo",authors:[{id:"157779",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Perez-Herrera",fullName:"Rosa Ana Perez-Herrera",slug:"rosa-ana-perez-herrera",email:"rosa.perez@unavarra.es",position:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Publica De Navarra",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"166673",title:"Prof.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Amo",fullName:"Manuel Lopez-Amo",slug:"manuel-lopez-amo",email:"mla@unavarra.es",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Fiber lasers design",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Laser output fluctuations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Room temperature operation of fiber lasers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Liquid nitrogen cooled multifrequency fiber lasers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4. Multiwavelength fiber laser-based multiplexing systems",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Laser cavity resonance modes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Fiber lasers",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.1. Rare earth doped optical fiber lasers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"4.1.1. Single longitudinal mode operation ",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"4.1.2. Applications of single frequency fiber lasers",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12",title:"5. Raman lasers",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"6. Random lasers",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"7. Other fiber lasers",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"8. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"2"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'López Higuera JM. Advanced Photonic Topics. Universidad de Cantabria; 1997'},{id:"B2",body:'Liu K. et al. Broadband diode-pumped fibre laser. Electronics Letters 1988; 24(14) 838-840.'},{id:"B3",body:'Fernandez-Vallejo M, Diaz S, Perez-Herrera RA, et al. Comparison of the stability of ring resonator structures for multiwavelength fiber lasers using Raman or Er-doped fiber amplification. IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics 2009; 45(12) 1551-1557'},{id:"B4",body:'Horowitz M, et al. Narrow-linewidth, singlemode erbium-doped fibre laser with intracavity wave mixing in saturable absorber. Electronics Letters 1994; 30(8) 648-649'},{id:"B5",body:'Barnsley P, et al. Fiber Fox-Smith resonators: application to single-longitudinal-mode operation of fiber lasers. Journal of the Optical Society of America 1988; 5(8) 1339-1346'},{id:"B6",body:'Jones JDC, et al. An injection-locked erbium fibre laser. Optics Communications 1990; 76(1) 42-46'},{id:"B7",body:'Perez-Herrera RA, et al. Stability comparison of two ring resonator structures for multiwavelength fiber lasers using highly doped Er-fibers. IEEE Journal of Lightwave Technology 2009; 27(14) 2563-2569'},{id:"B8",body:'Chan CC, Jin W, Ho HL, Demokan MS. Performance analysis of a time-division-multiplexed fiber Bragg grating sensor array by use of a tunable laser source. IEEE J. Selected Topics Quantum Electronics 2000; 6(5) 741–749'},{id:"B9",body:'Bellemare A, Karasek M, Rochette M, LaRochelle S, Tetu M. Room temperature multifrequency erbium-doped fiber lasers anchored on the ITU frequency grid. Journal of Lightwave Technology 2000; 18(6) 825–831 '},{id:"B10",body:'Gusarov A, Liegeois F. Experimental study of a tunable fiber ring laser stability. Optics Communications 2004; 234(1-6) 391-397'},{id:"B11",body:'Chen X, Yao J, Zeng F, Deng Z. Single-longitudinal-mode fiber ring laser employing an equivalent phase-shifted fiber Bragg grating. IEEE Photonics Technology Letters 2005; 17(7) 1390-1392'},{id:"B12",body:'Bellemare A, Karásek M, Riviere C, Babin F, He G, Roy V Schinn GW. A Broadly Tunable Erbium-Doped Fiber Ring Laser: Experimentation and Modeling. IEEE Journal on Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics 2001; 7(1) 22-29'},{id:"B13",body:'Liu CK, Jou JJ, Liaw SK, Lee HC. Computer-aided analysis of transients in fiber lasers and gain-clamped fiber amplifiers in ring and line configurations through a circuit simulator. Optics Communications 2002; 209(4-6) 427–436'},{id:"B14",body:'Yeh CH, Chi S. A broadband fiber ring laser technique with stable and tunable signal-frequency operation. Optics Express 2005; 13(14) 5240-5244'},{id:"B15",body:'Yeh CH, Shih FY, Chow CW, Chi S. Dual-Wavelength S-Band Erbium-Doped Fiber Double-Ring Laser. Laser Physics 2008; 18(12) 1553-1556'},{id:"B16",body:'Talaverano L, Abad S, Jarabo S, López-Amo M. Multiwavelength Fiber Laser Sources with Bragg-Grating Sensor Multiplexing Capability. Journal of Lightwave Technology 2001; 19(4) 553-558'},{id:"B17",body:'Bellemare A. Continuous-wave silica-based erbium-doped fibre lasers. Progress in Quantum Electronics 2003; 27(4) 211-266'},{id:"B18",body:'Perez-Herrera RA, Chen S, Zhao W, Sun T, Grattan KTV, Lopez-Amo M. Stability performance of short cavity Er-doped fiber lasers. Optics Communications 2010; 283(6) 1067-1070.'},{id:"B19",body:'Perez-Herrera RA, Chen S, Zhao W, Sun T, Grattan KTV, Lopez-Amo M. Experimental optimization in terms of power stability and output power of highly Er-doped fiber lasers with single and hybrid cavities. Fiber & Integrated Optics 2010; 29(2) 106-120'},{id:"B20",body:'Giles CR, Desurvire E. Modeling erbium-doped fiber amplifiers. Journal of Lightwave Technology 1991; 9(2) 271-283'},{id:"B21",body:'Ball GA, Holton CE, Hull-Allen G, Morey WW. 60mW 1.5μm single-frequency low-noise fiber laser MOPA. IEEE Photonics Technology Letters 1994; 6(2) 192–194'},{id:"B22",body:'Siegman AE., editor. Lasers. University Science Books: Mill Valley; 1986'},{id:"B23",body:'O’Sullivan MS, Chrostowski J, Desurvire E, Simpson JR. High-power narrow-linewidth Er3+-doped fiber laser. Optics Letters 1989; 14(9) 438-440'},{id:"B24",body:'Pang H-W, Cui H-M, Lian H., Zhao R-M, Hu B-N, Wang Y-F. Design of erbium-doped fiber laser based on linear multi-cavity. In: Yang L, Chen Y, Kley E-B, Li R (eds.) 3rd International Symposium on Advanced Optical Manufacturing and Testing Technologies: Advanced Optical Manufacturing Technologies, AOMATT 2007, 8-12 July 2007, Chengdu, China'},{id:"B25",body:'International Telecommunication Union (ITU-T). Optical interfaces for multichannel systems with optical amplifiers. Recommendation G.692, 40pp, 1998'},{id:"B26",body:'Liegeois F, Gusarov AI. Mid-term stability of a fiber ring laser with a wavelength-tunable Fabry-Perot filter. In proceedings of SPIE - The International Society for Optical Engineering 2004; 5480(36) 36-45'},{id:"B27",body:'Liu Y, Dong X, Shum P, Yuan S, Kai G, Dong X. Stable room-temperature multi-wavelength lasing realization in ordinary erbium-doped fiber loop lasers. Optics Express 2006; 14(20) 9293-9298'},{id:"B28",body:'Deepa V, Vijaya R. Linewidth characteristics of a filterless tunable erbium doped fiber ring laser. Journal of Applied Physics 2007; 102(8), art. no. 083107-4'},{id:"B29",body:'Takahashi H, Toba H, Inoue Y. Multiwavelength ring laser composed of EDFAs and an arrayed waveguide wavelength multiplexer. Electronics Letters 1994; 30(1) 44–45'},{id:"B30",body:'Miyazaki T, et al. A multiwavelength fiber ring-laser employing a pair of silica-based arrayed-waveguide-gratings. IEEE Photonics Technology Letters 1997; 9(7) 910–912'},{id:"B31",body:'Yeh CH, Huang TT, Chien HC, Ko CH, Chi S. Tunable S-band erbium-doped triple-ring laser with single-longitudinal-mode operation. Optics Express 2007; 15(2) 382-386'},{id:"B32",body:'Cheng XP, Shum P, Tse CH, Zhou JL, Tang M, Tan WC, Wu RF, Zhang J. Single-longitudinal-mode erbium-doped fiber laser based on high finesse fiber Bragg grating Fabry-Perot Etalon. IEEE Photonics Technology Letters 2008; 20(12) 976-978'},{id:"B33",body:'Song YW, Havstad SA, Starodubov D, Xie Y, Willner AE Feinberg J. 40-nm-wide tunable fiber ring laser with single-mode operation using a highly stretchable FBG. IEEE Photonics Technology Letters 2001; 13(11) 1167-1169'},{id:"B34",body:'Fischer B, Zyskind JL, Sulhoff JW, DiGiovanni DJ. Nonlinear wave mixing and induced gratings in erbium-doped fiber amplifiers. Optics Letters 1993; 18(24) 2108-2110'},{id:"B35",body:'Frisken SJ. Transient Bragg reflection gratings in erbium-doped fiber amplifiers. Optics Letters 1992; 17(24) 1776-1778'},{id:"B36",body:'Sharma U, Kim CS, Kang JU. Highly Stable Tunable Dual-Wavelength Q-Switched Fiber Laser for DIAL Applications. IEEE Photonics Techn. Letters 2004; 16(5) 1277-1279'},{id:"B37",body:'Zhang K, Kang JU. C-band wavelength-swept single-longitudinal mode erbium-doped fiber ring laser. Optics Express 2008; 16(18) 14173-14179 '},{id:"B38",body:'Liu Y, Feng X, Yuan S, Kai G, Dong X. Simultaneous four-wavelength lasing oscillations in an erbium-doped fiber laser with two high birefringence fiber Bragg gratings. Optics Express 2004; 12(10) 2056-2061'},{id:"B39",body:'Yeh C-H, Chi S. A broadband fiber ring laser technique with stable and tunable signal-frequency operation. Optics Express 2005; 13(14) 5240-5244'},{id:"B40",body:'Sun J, Yuan X, Zhang X, Huang D. Single-longitudinal-mode dual-wavelength fiber ring laser by incorporating variable saturable absorbers and feedback fiber loops. Optics Communications 2007; 273(1) 231–237'},{id:"B41",body:'Wang T. Study on high power single-frequency erbium doped fiber laser for long distance communications. Microwave and Optical Techn. Letters 2008; 50(6) 1660-1662'},{id:"B42",body:'Schmuck H, Pfeiffer T. Fibre-pigtailed Fabry-Perot filter used as tuning element and for comb generation in an erbium doped fibre ring laser. In proceedings of the Technical Digest of 17th European Conference on Optical Communication, ECOC’91, 9-12 Sept 1991, Paris, France.'},{id:"B43",body:'Park N, Dawson JW, Vahala KJ. Multiple wavelength operation of an erbium-doped fiber laser. IEEE Photonics Technology Letters 1992; 4(6) 540–542'},{id:"B44",body:'Hübner J, Varming P, Kristensen M. Five wavelength DFB fibre laser source for WDM systems. Electronics Letters 1997; 33(2) 139–140'},{id:"B45",body:'Graydon O, Loh WH, Laming RI, Dong L. Triple-frequency operation of an Er-doped twincore fiber loop laser. IEEE Photonics Technology Letters 1996; 8(1) 63–65'},{id:"B46",body:'Poustie AJ, Finlayson N, Harper P. Multiwavelength fiber laser using a spatial mode beating filter. Optics Letters 1994; 19(10) 716–718'},{id:"B47",body:'Abraham D, Nagar R, Ruberto MN, Eisenstein G, Zyskind JL, DiGiovanni D, Koren U Raybon G. Intracavity-diode-pumped erbium doped fibre laser. Electronics Letters 1992; 28(19) 1830–1832'},{id:"B48",body:'Zhao Y, et al. Multiple wavelength operation of a unidirectional Er-doped fiber ring laser with optical feedback. In proceedings of the Technical Digest of Lasers and Electro-Optics, CLEO’97, 18-23 May 1997, Baltimore, Maryland'},{id:"B49",body:'Sasamori H, Isshiki K, Watanabe H, Kasahara K. Multi-wavelength erbium-doped ring light source with fiber grating filter. Technical Digest of Optical Amplifiers and Their Applications, OAA’97, 1997, paper WC3, pp. 235–238 '},{id:"B50",body:'Bellemare A, Rochette M et al. Multifrequency erbium-doped fiber ring lasers anchored on the ITU frequency grid. In proceedings of the Technical Digest of Conference on Optical Fiber Communication, OFC’99, 21-26 Feb 1999, San Diego, California.'},{id:"B51",body:'Karásek M, Bellemare A. Numerical analysis of multifrequency erbium-doped fiber ring laser employing a periodic filter and a frequency shifter. IEE Proceedings-Optoelectronics 2000; 147(2) 115–119'},{id:"B52",body:'Liu XS, Zhan L, Hu X, Li HG, Shen QS, Xia YX. Multiwavelength erbium-doped fiber laser based on nonlinear polarization rotation assisted by four-wave-mixing. Optics Communications 2009; 282(14) 2913–2916'},{id:"B53",body:'Chow J, Town G, Eggleton B, Ibsen M, Sugden K, Bennion I. Multiwavelength generation in an erbium-doped fiber laser using in-fiber comb filters. IEEE Photonics Technology Letters 1996; 8(1) 60–62'},{id:"B54",body:'Town GE, Sudgen K, Williams JAR, Bennion I, Poole SB. Wide-band Fabry-Perot-like filters in optical fibers. IEEE Photonics Technology Letters 1995; 7(1) 78–80'},{id:"B55",body:'Yamashita S, Hotate K. Multiwavelength erbium-doped fiber laser using intracavity etalon and cooled by liquid nitrogen. Electronics Letters 1996; 32(14) 1298–1299'},{id:"B56",body:'Park N, Wysocki PF. 24-line multiwavelength operation of erbium-doped fiber-ring laser. IEEE Photonics Technology Letters 1996; 8(11) 1459–1461'},{id:"B57",body:'Yamashita S, Hsu K, Loh WH. Miniature Erbium:Ytterbium fiber Fabry-Perot multiwavelength lasers. IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics 1997; 3(4) 1058–1064'},{id:"B58",body:'Lopez-Amo M, López-Higuera JM. Multiplexing Techniques for FBG Sensors. In: Cusano A, Cutolo A, and Albert J. (eds.) Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors: Research Advancements, Industrial Applications and Market Exploitation. Oak Park, Illinois: Ed. Bentham Science Publishers Ltd; 2010.'},{id:"B59",body:'Koo KP, Kersey AD. Bragg grating based laser sensor systems with interferometric interrogation and wavelength division multiplexing. Journal of Lightwave Technology 1995; 13(7) 1243-1249.'},{id:"B60",body:'Peng PC, Tseng HY, Chi S. Long-Distance FBG Sensor System Using a Linear-Cavity Fiber Raman Laser Scheme. IEEE Photonics Technology Letters 2004; 16(2) 575-577'},{id:"B61",body:'Peng PC, Feng KM, Peng WR, Chiou HY, Chang CC, Chi S. Long-distance fiber grating sensor system using a fiber ring laser with EDWA and SOA. Optics Communications 2005; 252(1-3) 127-131'},{id:"B62",body:'Perez-Herrera RA, Fernandez-Vallejo M, Diaz S, Quintela MA, Lopez-Amo M, López-Higuera JM. Stability comparison of two quadruple-wavelength switchable erbium-doped fiber lasers. Optical Fiber Technology 2010; 16(4) 205-211'},{id:"B63",body:'Liaw S-K, Lee C-C, Ho K-P, Chi S. Power equalized wavelength-selective fiber lasers using fiber Bragg gratings. Optics Communications1998; 155 (4-6) 255–259.'},{id:"B64",body:'Feng S, Xu O, Lu S, Ning T, Jian S. Switchable multi-wavelength erbium doped fiber ring laser based on cascaded polarization maintaining fiber Bragg gratings in a Sagnac loop interferometer. Optics Communications 2008; 281(24) 6006– 6010.'},{id:"B65",body:'Perez-Herrera RA, et al. Switchable multi-wavelength erbium-doped fiber laser for remote sensing. In proceedings of the SPIE 20th International Conference on Optical Fiber Sensors, OFS-20, 5-9 Oct 2009, Edinburgh, United Kingdom, 75031Y-1. 75031Y-4.'},{id:"B66",body:'Rao YJ, Ran ZL, Chen RR. Long-distance fiber Bragg grating sensor system with a high optical signal-to-noise ratio based on a tunable fiber ring laser configuration. Optics Letters 2006; 31(18) 2684-2686'},{id:"B67",body:'Saitoh T, Nakamura K, Takahashi Y, Iida H, Iki Y, Miyagi K. Ultra-Long-Distance Fiber Bragg Grating Sensor System. IEEE Photonics Technology Letters 2007; 19(20) 1616-1618'},{id:"B68",body:'Fernandez-Vallejo M, Bravo M, Lopez-Amo M 200-km long fiber ring laser for multiplexing fiber Bragg gratings arrays. In proceedings of the SPIE 22th International Conference on Optical Fibre sensors, OFS-22, 15-19 October 2012, Pekin, China, 84218J.'},{id:"B69",body:'Fernandez-Vallejo M, Rota-Rodrigo S, Lopez-Amo M. Remote (250 km) fiber Bragg grating multiplexing system. Sensors 2011; 11(9) 8711-8720'},{id:"B70",body:'Saitoh T, Nakamura K, Takahashi Y, Iida H, Iki Y, Miyagi K. Ultra-long-distance (230 km) FBG sensor system. In proceedings of the SPIE 19th International Conference on Optical Fiber Sensors, OFS-19, 14-18 April 2008, Perth, Western Australia, 70046C-70046C-4'},{id:"B71",body:'Rao YJ, Feng S, Jiang Q, Ran Z. Ultra-long distance (300km) fiber Bragg grating sensor system using hybrid EDF and Raman amplification. In proceedings of the SPIE 20th International Conference on Optical Fiber Sensors, OFS-20, 5-9 Oct 2009, Edinburgh, United Kingdom, 75031Q-75031Q-4'},{id:"B72",body:'http://www.olympusmicro.com/primer/java/lasers/gainbandwidth/index.html'},{id:"B73",body:'Digonnet MJF, editor. Rare-Earth-Doped Fiber Lasers and Amplifiers. Second Edition. Boca Ratón, EEUU: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group; 2001'},{id:"B74",body:'Snitzer, E. Optical Maser Action of Nd+3 in a Barium Crown Glass. Physical Review Letters 1961; 7(12) 444-446'},{id:"B75",body:'Kersey AD, Morey WW. Multi-element Bragg-grating based fibre-laser strain sensor. Electronics Letters 1993; 29(11) 964-966'},{id:"B76",body:'Koo K, Kersey A, Bucholtz F. Fiber Bragg grating laser magnetometer. In proceeding of the Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics, postdeadline paper PD41, 1995, Baltimore, Maryland'},{id:"B77",body:'Taylor JR. Soliton fiber lasers. In proceedings of the Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics, paper CWM3, 1995, Baltimore, Maryland'},{id:"B78",body:'Koechner W, editor. Solid State Laser Engineering. Berlin: Springer, 2006.'},{id:"B79",body:'Liu XS, Zhan L, Hu X, Li HG, Shen QS Xia YX. Multiwavelength erbium-doped fiber laser based on nonlinear polarization rotation assisted by four-wave-mixing. Optics Communications 2009; 282(14) 2913-2916'},{id:"B80",body:'Zhang K, Kang JU. C-band wavelength-swept single-longitudinal mode erbium-doped fiber ring laser. Optics Express 2008; 16(18) 14173-14179'},{id:"B81",body:'Ibsen M, Ronnekleiv E, Cowle GJ, Zervas MN, Laming RI. Multiple wavelength all-fibre DFB lasers. Electronics Letters 2000; 36(2) 143-144'},{id:"B82",body:'Yamashita S, et al. Multiwavelength Er-Doped Fiber Ring Laser Incorporating Highly Nonlinear Fiber. Japanese Journal of Applied Physics 2005; 44(33-36) L1080-L1081 '},{id:"B83",body:'Humphrey PD, Bowers JE. Fiber-birefringence tuning technique for an erbium-doped fiber ring laser. IEEE Photonics Technology Letters 1993; 5(1) 32-34'},{id:"B84",body:'Chieng YT, Minasian RA. Tunable erbium-doped fiber laser with a reflection Mach-Zehnder interferometer. IEEE Photonics Technology Letters 1994; 6(2) 153-156'},{id:"B85",body:'Quintela MA, Perez-Herrera RA, Canales I, Fernandez-Vallejo M, Lopez-Amo M, Lopez Higuera JM. Stabilization of dual-wavelength erbium doped ring fiber lasers by single-mode operation. IEEE Photonics Technology Letters 2010; 22(6) 368-370'},{id:"B86",body:'Kashyap RP et al. All-fibre narrowband reflection gratings at 1500 nm. Electronics Letters 1990; 26(11) 730-732'},{id:"B87",body:'Ball GA, Morey WW. Continuously tunable single-mode erbium fiber laser. Optics Letters 1992; 17(6) 420-422'},{id:"B88",body:'Perez-Herrera RA, et al. L-Band Multiwavelength Single-Longitudinal Mode Fiber Laser for Sensing Applications. IEEE Journal of Lightwave Technology 2012; 30(8) 1173-1177, art. no. 6062627'},{id:"B89",body:'Hanna DC, et al. Continuous-wave oscillation of a monomode ytterbium-doped fibre laser. Electron. Letters 1988; 24(17) 1111-1113'},{id:"B90",body:'Allain JY, Bayon JF, Monerie M, Bernage P, Niay P. Ytterbium-doped silica fiber laser with intracore Bragg gratings operating at 1.02 µm. Electronics Lett. 1993; 29(3) 309-310'},{id:"B91",body:'Ball GA, Morey WW, Glenn WH. Standing-Wave Monomode Erbium Fiber Laser. IEEE Photonics Technology Letters 1991; 3(7) 613-615'},{id:"B92",body:'Sun J, Huang L. Single-longitudinal-mode fiber ring laser using internal lasing injection and self-injection feedback. Optical Engineering 2007; 46(7) 074201-1-6'},{id:"B93",body:'Kim HK, Kim SK, Kim BY. Polarimetric fibre laser sensors using Er-doped fibre. Optical and Quantum Electronics 1995; 27(5) 481-485'},{id:"B94",body:'Ball GA, Morey WW, Cheo PK. Singlepoint and multipoint fiber-laser sensors. IEEE Photonics Technology Letters 1993; 5(2) 267–270'},{id:"B95",body:'Lin C, Cohen LG, Stolen RH, Tasker GW, French WG. Near-infrared sources in the 1–1.3 μm region by efficient stimulated Raman emission in glass fibers. Optics Communications 1977; 20(3) 426–428'},{id:"B96",body:'Gapontsev DV, Chernikov SV, Taylor JR. Fibre Raman amplifiers for broadband operation at 1.3 µm. Optics Communications 1999; 166(1) 85-88'},{id:"B97",body:'Kani J, Jinno M, Oguchi K. Fibre Raman amplifier for 1520nm band WDM transmission. Electronics Letters 1998; 34(18) 1745-1747'},{id:"B98",body:'Masuda H, Kawai S, Suzuki K-I, Aida K. 1.65 µm band fibre Raman amplifier pumped by wavelength-tunable amplified spontaneous emission light source. Electronics Letters 1998; 34(24) 2339-2340'},{id:"B99",body:'Hansen PB, Eskildsen L, Grubb SG, et al. Capacity upgrades of transmission systems by Raman amplification. IEEE Photonics Technology Letters 1997; 9(2) 262–264'},{id:"B100",body:'Rottwitt K, Kidorf HD. A 92 nm bandwidth Raman amplifier. In proceedings of Optical Fiber Communication Conference, OFC, 22 Feb 1988, Postdeadline Paper PD6, San Jose, California. '},{id:"B101",body:'Rottwitt K, Stentz A, Nielson T, Hansen P, Feder K, Walker K. Transparent 80 km bi-directionally pumped distributed Raman amplifier with second order pumping. In proceedings of the European Conference on Optical Communication, ECOC´99, 26-30 Sept 1999, II-144–145, Nice, France.'},{id:"B102",body:'Fernandez-Vallejo et al. Resilient long-distance sensor system using a multiwavelength Raman laser. Measurement Science and Technology 2010; 21(9), art. no. 094017.'},{id:"B103",body:'Rao Y-J, Ran Z-L, Chen R-R. Long-distance fiber Bragg grating sensor system with a high optical signal-to-noise ratio based on a tunable fiber ring laser configuration. Optics Letters 2006; 31(18) 2684-2686'},{id:"B104",body:'Fernandez-Vallejo M et al. Remote (250 km) Fiber Bragg Grating Multiplexing System. Sensors 2011; 11(9) 8711-8720'},{id:"B105",body:'Rao Y-J, Feng S, Jiang Q, Ran Z-L. Ultra-long distance (300km) fiber Bragg grating sensor system using hybrid EDF and Raman amplification. In proceedings of the SPIE 20th International Conference on Optical Fiber Sensors, OFS-20, 5-9 Oct 2009, Edinburgh, United Kingdom, 75031Q-75031Q-4'},{id:"B106",body:'Al-Mansoori MH et al. Widely tunable linear cavity multi-wavelength Brillouin-Erbium fiber lasers. Optics Express 2005; 13(9) 3471-3476'},{id:"B107",body:'Noginov MA, Zhu G, Small C, Novak J. Neodymium random laser with external mirrors. Applied Physics B: Lasers and Optics 2006; 84(1-2) 269-273'},{id:"B108",body:'Noginov MA, editor. Solid-State Random Lasers. USA: Springer, 2005'},{id:"B109",body:'Noginov MA, Noginova N, Egarievwe SU, Wang JC, Caulfield HJ. Nonlinear Optical Phenomena and Coherent Optics in information Technologies. In: Chesnokov SS, Kandidov VP, Koroteev NI (Eds.) ICONO’98, 29 June-3 July 1998, Moscow, Russia'},{id:"B110",body:'Pinto AMR, Frazão O, Santos JL, Lopez-Amo M. Multiwavelength Raman Fiber Lasers Using Hi-Bi Photonic Crystal Fiber Loop Mirrors Combined With Random Cavities. Journal Of Lightwave Technology 2011; 29(10) 1482-1488'},{id:"B111",body:'Headley C, Agrawal GP, editor. Raman Amplification in Fiber Optical Communication Systems. London, U.K.: Elsevier Academic Press, 2005'},{id:"B112",body:'Pinto AMR, Frazao O, Santos JL, Lopez-Amo M. Multiwavelength fiber laser based on a photonic crystal fiber loop mirror with cooperative Rayleigh scattering. Appl. Phys. B. 2010; 99(3) 391–395 '},{id:"B113",body:'Zamzuri AK, et al. Contribution of Rayleigh scattering on Brillouin comb line generation in Raman fiber laser. Appl. Opt. 2010; 49(18) 3506–3510'},{id:"B114",body:'Park KD, et al. Dynamics of cascaded Brillouin-Rayleigh scattering in a distributed fiber Raman amplifier. Optics Letters 2002; 27(3) 155–157'},{id:"B115",body:'Giraldi MTM, et al. Rayleigh assisted Brillouin effects in distributed Raman amplifiers under saturated conditions at 40Gb/S. Microw. Opt. Technol. Lett. 2010; 52(6) 1331–1335'},{id:"B116",body:'Min B, Kim P, Park N. Flat amplitude equal spacing 798-channel Rayleigh-assisted Brillouin/Raman multiwavelength comb generation in dispersion compensating fiber. IEEE Photon. Technol. Lett. 2001; 13(12) 1352–1354'},{id:"B117",body:'Shahi S, Harun SW, Norizan SF, Moghaddam MRA, Ahmad H. Brillouin-Raman multi-wavelength laser comb generation based on Bi-EDF by using dual-wavelength in dispersion compensating fiber. J. Nonlinear Opt. Phys. 2010; 19(1) 123–130'},{id:"B118",body:'Zamzuri AK, et al. Flat amplitude multiwavelength Brillouin-Raman comb fiber laser in Rayleigh-scattering-enhanced linear cavity. Opt. Exp. 2007; 15(6) 3000–3005'},{id:"B119",body:'Zamzuri AK, Ali MIM, et al. Brillouin-Raman comb fiber laser with cooperative Rayleigh scattering in a linear cavity. Opt. Lett. 2006; 31(7) 918–920'},{id:"B120",body:'Pinto AMR, Lopez-Amo M. Double random mirror Hi–Bi photonic crystal fiber Sagnac based multiwavelength fiber laser. Applied Physics B: Lasers and Optics 2011; 103(4) 771-775'},{id:"B121",body:'Pinto AMR, Bravo M, Fernandez-Vallejo M, Lopez-Amo M, Kobelke J, Schuster K. Suspended-core fiber Sagnac combined dual-random mirror Raman fiber laser. Optics Express 2011; 19(12) 11906-11915'},{id:"B122",body:'Midwinter, JE. The theory of Q-switching applied to slow switching and pulse shaping for solid state lasers. British Journal of Applied Physics 1965; 16(8) 1125-1133'},{id:"B123",body:'Fernández-Vallejo M, et al. Fiber Bragg Grating interrogation technique for remote sensing (100km) using a hybrid Brillouin-Raman fiber laser. In proceedings of the SPIE 21st International Conference on Optical Fiber Sensors, OFS-21, 15-19 May 2011, Ottawa, Canada, 77537I'},{id:"B124",body:'Leandro D. et al. Remote (155 km) Fiber Bragg Grating Interrogation Technique Combining Raman, Brillouin, and Erbium Gain in a Fiber Laser. IEEE photonics technology letters 2011; 23(10)'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Rosa Ana Perez-Herrera",address:"rosa.perez@unavarra.es",affiliation:'
Department of Electric and Electronic Engineering, Universidad Pública de Navarra, Campus Arrosadia S/N,Pamplona, Spain
Department of Electric and Electronic Engineering, Universidad Pública de Navarra, Campus Arrosadia S/N,Pamplona, Spain
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"3360",title:"Current Developments in Optical Fiber Technology",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Current Developments in Optical Fiber Technology",slug:"current-developments-in-optical-fiber-technology",publishedDate:"June 13th 2013",bookSignature:"Sulaiman Wadi Harun and Hamzah Arof",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3360.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"17617",title:"Dr.",name:"Sulaiman Wadi",middleName:null,surname:"Harun",slug:"sulaiman-wadi-harun",fullName:"Sulaiman Wadi Harun"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"45119",title:"Optimal Design of a Multi-Layer Network an IP/MPLS Over DWDM Application Case",slug:"optimal-design-of-a-multi-layer-network-an-ip-mpls-over-dwdm-application-case",totalDownloads:2182,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Claudio Risso, Franco Robledo and Pablo Sartor",authors:[{id:"74791",title:"Dr.",name:"Franco",middleName:null,surname:"Robledo",fullName:"Franco Robledo",slug:"franco-robledo"},{id:"76209",title:"Dr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Sartor",fullName:"Pablo Sartor",slug:"pablo-sartor"},{id:"159818",title:"MSc.",name:"Claudio",middleName:null,surname:"Risso",fullName:"Claudio Risso",slug:"claudio-risso"}]},{id:"44295",title:"Scaling the Benefits of Digital Nonlinear Compensation in High Bit-Rate Optical Meshed Networks",slug:"scaling-the-benefits-of-digital-nonlinear-compensation-in-high-bit-rate-optical-meshed-networks",totalDownloads:1610,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Danish Rafique and Andrew D. Ellis",authors:[{id:"99536",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrew D.",middleName:null,surname:"Ellis",fullName:"Andrew D. Ellis",slug:"andrew-d.-ellis"},{id:"157201",title:"Dr.",name:"Danish",middleName:null,surname:"Rafique",fullName:"Danish Rafique",slug:"danish-rafique"}]},{id:"44985",title:"Faults and Novel Countermeasures for Optical Fiber Connections in Fiber-To-The-Home Networks",slug:"faults-and-novel-countermeasures-for-optical-fiber-connections-in-fiber-to-the-home-networks",totalDownloads:1809,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Mitsuru Kihara",authors:[{id:"68668",title:"Prof.",name:"Mitsuru",middleName:null,surname:"Kihara",fullName:"Mitsuru Kihara",slug:"mitsuru-kihara"}]},{id:"45023",title:"Multimode Graded-Index Optical Fibers for Next-Generation Broadband Access",slug:"multimode-graded-index-optical-fibers-for-next-generation-broadband-access",totalDownloads:2883,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"David R. Sánchez Montero and Carmen Vázquez García",authors:[{id:"159007",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez Montero",fullName:"David Sánchez Montero",slug:"david-sanchez-montero"},{id:"160248",title:"Prof.",name:"Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Vázquez García",fullName:"Carmen Vázquez García",slug:"carmen-vazquez-garcia"}]},{id:"45070",title:"Multicanonical Monte Carlo Method Applied to the Investigation of Polarization Effects in Optical Fiber Communication Systems",slug:"multicanonical-monte-carlo-method-applied-to-the-investigation-of-polarization-effects-in-optical-fi",totalDownloads:1384,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Aurenice M. Oliveira and Ivan T. Lima Jr.",authors:[{id:"70444",title:"Prof.",name:"Aurenice",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira",fullName:"Aurenice Oliveira",slug:"aurenice-oliveira"},{id:"83445",title:"Prof.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Lima Jr.",fullName:"Ivan Lima Jr.",slug:"ivan-lima-jr."}]},{id:"44999",title:"Efficiency Optimization of WDM-POF Network in Shipboard Systems",slug:"efficiency-optimization-of-wdm-pof-network-in-shipboard-systems",totalDownloads:2035,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Hadi Guna, Mohammad Syuhaimi Ab-Rahman, Malik Sulaiman,\nLatifah Supian, Norhana Arsad and Kasmiran Jumari",authors:[{id:"68525",title:"Dr.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Guna",fullName:"Hadi Guna",slug:"hadi-guna"},{id:"77356",title:"Dr.",name:"L.S.",middleName:null,surname:"Supian",fullName:"L.S. Supian",slug:"l.s.-supian"},{id:"77396",title:"Prof.",name:"Kasmiran",middleName:null,surname:"Jumari",fullName:"Kasmiran Jumari",slug:"kasmiran-jumari"},{id:"159110",title:"Prof.",name:"Dr. Mohammad Syuhaimi",middleName:null,surname:"Ab-Rahman",fullName:"Dr. Mohammad Syuhaimi Ab-Rahman",slug:"dr.-mohammad-syuhaimi-ab-rahman"},{id:"167040",title:"MSc.",name:"Malik",middleName:null,surname:"Sulaiman",fullName:"Malik Sulaiman",slug:"malik-sulaiman"},{id:"167041",title:"Dr.",name:"Norhana",middleName:null,surname:"Arsad",fullName:"Norhana Arsad",slug:"norhana-arsad"}]},{id:"43808",title:"Step-Index PMMA Fibers and Their Applications",slug:"step-index-pmma-fibers-and-their-applications",totalDownloads:3e3,totalCrossrefCites:4,signatures:"Silvio Abrate, Roberto Gaudino and Guido Perrone",authors:[{id:"29909",title:"Prof.",name:"Guido",middleName:null,surname:"Perrone",fullName:"Guido Perrone",slug:"guido-perrone"},{id:"159261",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Silvio",middleName:null,surname:"Abrate",fullName:"Silvio Abrate",slug:"silvio-abrate"},{id:"166493",title:"Prof.",name:"Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Gaudino",fullName:"Roberto Gaudino",slug:"roberto-gaudino"}]},{id:"45044",title:"Optical Fibre Gratings for Chemical and Bio - Sensing",slug:"optical-fibre-gratings-for-chemical-and-bio-sensing",totalDownloads:2091,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Xianfeng Chen",authors:[{id:"158247",title:"Dr.",name:"Xianfeng",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Xianfeng Chen",slug:"xianfeng-chen"}]},{id:"45020",title:"Fibre-Optic Chemical Sensor Approaches Based on Nanoassembled Thin Films: A Challenge to Future Sensor Technology",slug:"fibre-optic-chemical-sensor-approaches-based-on-nanoassembled-thin-films-a-challenge-to-future-senso",totalDownloads:2094,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Sergiy Korposh, Stephen James, Ralph Tatam and Seung-Woo Lee",authors:[{id:"155096",title:"Dr.",name:"Seung-Woo",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",fullName:"Seung-Woo Lee",slug:"seung-woo-lee"}]},{id:"45050",title:"Optical Fiber Sensors for Chemical and Biological Measurements",slug:"optical-fiber-sensors-for-chemical-and-biological-measurements",totalDownloads:3159,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Miguel A. Pérez, Olaya González and José R. Arias",authors:[{id:"2554",title:"Prof.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Perez",fullName:"Miguel Perez",slug:"miguel-perez"},{id:"159794",title:"Dr.",name:"OLaya",middleName:null,surname:"González Pérez",fullName:"OLaya González Pérez",slug:"olaya-gonzalez-perez"},{id:"165575",title:"MSc.",name:"José R.",middleName:null,surname:"Arias",fullName:"José R. Arias",slug:"jose-r.-arias"}]},{id:"45074",title:"Investigation of Bioluminescence at an Optical Fiber End for a High-Sensitive ATP Detection System",slug:"investigation-of-bioluminescence-at-an-optical-fiber-end-for-a-high-sensitive-atp-detection-system",totalDownloads:1651,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Masataka Iinuma, Ryuta Tanaka, Eriko Takahama, Takeshi Ikeda,\nYutaka Kadoya and Akio Kuroda",authors:[{id:"71876",title:"Dr.",name:"Masataka",middleName:null,surname:"Iinuma",fullName:"Masataka Iinuma",slug:"masataka-iinuma"}]},{id:"45075",title:"Smart Technical Textiles Based on Fiber Optic Sensors",slug:"smart-technical-textiles-based-on-fiber-optic-sensors",totalDownloads:4003,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Katerina Krebber",authors:[{id:"158312",title:"Dr.",name:"Katerina",middleName:null,surname:"Krebber",fullName:"Katerina Krebber",slug:"katerina-krebber"}]},{id:"45029",title:"Refractometric Optical Fiber Platforms for Label Free Sensing",slug:"refractometric-optical-fiber-platforms-for-label-free-sensing",totalDownloads:2859,totalCrossrefCites:4,signatures:"Carlos A. J. Gouveia, Jose M. Baptista and Pedro A.S. Jorge",authors:[{id:"76290",title:"Dr.",name:"Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Jorge",fullName:"Pedro Jorge",slug:"pedro-jorge"},{id:"159890",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gouveia",fullName:"Carlos Gouveia",slug:"carlos-gouveia"},{id:"161165",title:"Prof.",name:"José",middleName:null,surname:"Baptista",fullName:"José Baptista",slug:"jose-baptista"}]},{id:"44723",title:"Advances in Optical Fiber Laser Micromachining for Sensors Development",slug:"advances-in-optical-fiber-laser-micromachining-for-sensors-development",totalDownloads:2164,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"João M. P. Coelho, Marta Nespereira, Catarina Silva, Dionísio Pereira\nand José Rebordão",authors:[{id:"69870",title:"MSc.",name:"Catarina",middleName:"Eira",surname:"Silva",fullName:"Catarina Silva",slug:"catarina-silva"},{id:"76286",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Joao",middleName:"M. P.",surname:"Coelho",fullName:"Joao Coelho",slug:"joao-coelho"},{id:"113519",title:"Prof.",name:"José",middleName:null,surname:"Rebordão",fullName:"José Rebordão",slug:"jose-rebordao"},{id:"160196",title:"MSc.",name:"Marta",middleName:null,surname:"Castiñeiras",fullName:"Marta Castiñeiras",slug:"marta-castineiras"},{id:"160199",title:"Dr.",name:"Dionísio",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",fullName:"Dionísio Pereira",slug:"dionisio-pereira"}]},{id:"41896",title:"Mode Locked Fiber Lasers",slug:"mode-locked-fiber-lasers",totalDownloads:2306,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Tarek Ennejah and Rabah Attia",authors:[{id:"157078",title:"Dr.",name:"Tarek",middleName:null,surname:"Ennejah",fullName:"Tarek Ennejah",slug:"tarek-ennejah"},{id:"165481",title:"Prof.",name:"Rabah",middleName:null,surname:"Attia",fullName:"Rabah Attia",slug:"rabah-attia"}]},{id:"45077",title:"Experimental Study of Fiber Laser Cavity Losses to Generate a Dual-Wavelength Laser Using a Sagnac Loop Mirror Based on High Birefringence Fiber",slug:"experimental-study-of-fiber-laser-cavity-losses-to-generate-a-dual-wavelength-laser-using-a-sagnac-l",totalDownloads:1622,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Manuel Durán-Sánchez, R. Iván Álvarez-Tamayo, Evgeny A. Kuzin,\nBaldemar Ibarra-Escamilla, Andrés González-García and Olivier\nPottiez",authors:[{id:"157870",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Durán Sánchez",fullName:"Manuel Durán Sánchez",slug:"manuel-duran-sanchez"},{id:"160257",title:"Mr.",name:"Ricardo Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez Tamayo",fullName:"Ricardo Ivan Alvarez Tamayo",slug:"ricardo-ivan-alvarez-tamayo"},{id:"160259",title:"Dr.",name:"Evgeny",middleName:null,surname:"Kuzin",fullName:"Evgeny Kuzin",slug:"evgeny-kuzin"},{id:"160260",title:"Dr.",name:"Baldemar",middleName:null,surname:"Ibarra Escamilla",fullName:"Baldemar Ibarra Escamilla",slug:"baldemar-ibarra-escamilla"},{id:"160261",title:"Dr.",name:"Andres",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Garcia",fullName:"Andres Gonzalez Garcia",slug:"andres-gonzalez-garcia"},{id:"160262",title:"Dr.",name:"Olivier Jean Michel",middleName:null,surname:"Pottiez",fullName:"Olivier Jean Michel Pottiez",slug:"olivier-jean-michel-pottiez"}]},{id:"45039",title:"Multi-Wavelength Fiber Lasers",slug:"multi-wavelength-fiber-lasers",totalDownloads:3249,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Rosa Ana Perez-Herrera and Manuel Lopez-Amo",authors:[{id:"157779",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Perez-Herrera",fullName:"Rosa Ana Perez-Herrera",slug:"rosa-ana-perez-herrera"},{id:"166673",title:"Prof.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Amo",fullName:"Manuel Lopez-Amo",slug:"manuel-lopez-amo"}]},{id:"45034",title:"Characterization of Optical Fibers by Multiple-Beam Interferometry",slug:"characterization-of-optical-fibers-by-multiple-beam-interferometry",totalDownloads:1814,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Fouad El-Diasty",authors:[{id:"158231",title:"Dr",name:"Fouad",middleName:null,surname:"El-Diasty",fullName:"Fouad El-Diasty",slug:"fouad-el-diasty"}]},{id:"45078",title:"Fiber Measurement Technique Based on OTDR",slug:"fiber-measurement-technique-based-on-otdr",totalDownloads:2480,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Masaharu Ohashi",authors:[{id:"159429",title:"Prof.",name:"Masaharu",middleName:null,surname:"Ohashi",fullName:"Masaharu Ohashi",slug:"masaharu-ohashi"}]},{id:"45079",title:"Optical Fibre on a Silicon Chip",slug:"optical-fibre-on-a-silicon-chip",totalDownloads:3137,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"A. Michael, C.Y. Kwok, Md. Al Hafiz and Y.W. Xu",authors:[{id:"69953",title:"Dr.",name:"Aron",middleName:null,surname:"Michael",fullName:"Aron Michael",slug:"aron-michael"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"8425",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",signatures:"Bishnu Pal",authors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",middleName:"P",surname:"Pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal"}]},{id:"8426",title:"Application Specific Optical Fibers",slug:"application-specific-optical-fibers",signatures:"Bishnu P. Pal",authors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",middleName:"P",surname:"Pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal"}]},{id:"8427",title:"Nonlinear Properties of Chalcogenide Glass Fibers",slug:"nonlinear-properties-of-chalcogenide-glass-fibers",signatures:"Jas S. Sanghera, L. Brandon Shaw, C. M. Florea, P. Pureza, V. Q. Nguyen, F. Kung, Dan Gibson and I. D. Aggarwal",authors:[{id:"5111",title:"Dr.",name:"Jasbinder",middleName:null,surname:"Sanghera",fullName:"Jasbinder Sanghera",slug:"jasbinder-sanghera"},{id:"133867",title:"Dr.",name:"Brandon",middleName:null,surname:"Shaw",fullName:"Brandon Shaw",slug:"brandon-shaw"},{id:"133868",title:"Dr.",name:"Catalin",middleName:null,surname:"Florea",fullName:"Catalin Florea",slug:"catalin-florea"},{id:"133872",title:"Prof.",name:"Gam",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",fullName:"Gam Nguyen",slug:"gam-nguyen"},{id:"133876",title:"Dr.",name:"Ishwar",middleName:null,surname:"Aggarwal",fullName:"Ishwar Aggarwal",slug:"ishwar-aggarwal"}]},{id:"8428",title:"Irradiation Effects in Optical Fibers",slug:"irradiation-effects-in-optical-fibers",signatures:"Sporea Dan, Agnello Simonpietro and Gelardi Franco Mario",authors:[{id:"5392",title:"Dr.",name:"Dan",middleName:null,surname:"Sporea",fullName:"Dan Sporea",slug:"dan-sporea"},{id:"133835",title:"Prof.",name:"Simonpietro",middleName:null,surname:"Agnello",fullName:"Simonpietro Agnello",slug:"simonpietro-agnello"},{id:"133836",title:"Prof.",name:"Franco Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Gelardi",fullName:"Franco Mario Gelardi",slug:"franco-mario-gelardi"}]},{id:"8429",title:"Programmable All-Fiber Optical Pulse Shaping",slug:"programmable-all-fiber-optical-pulse-shaping",signatures:"Antonio Malacarne, Saju Thomas, Francesco Fresi, Luca Potì, Antonella Bogoni and Josè Azaña",authors:[{id:"2707",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Poti",fullName:"Luca Poti",slug:"luca-poti"},{id:"4930",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Malacarne",fullName:"Antonio Malacarne",slug:"antonio-malacarne"},{id:"5391",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Fresi",fullName:"Francesco Fresi",slug:"francesco-fresi"},{id:"109285",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Bogoni",fullName:"Antonella Bogoni",slug:"antonella-bogoni"},{id:"133856",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Saju",fullName:"Thomas Saju",slug:"thomas-saju"},{id:"133858",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Azana",fullName:"Jose Azana",slug:"jose-azana"}]},{id:"8430",title:"Physical Nature of “Slow Light” in Stimulated Brillouin Scattering",slug:"physical-nature-of-slow-light-in-stimulated-brillouin-scattering",signatures:"Valeri I. Kovalev, Robert G. Harrison and Nadezhda E. Kotova",authors:[{id:"4873",title:"Dr.",name:"Valeri",middleName:null,surname:"Kovalev",fullName:"Valeri Kovalev",slug:"valeri-kovalev"},{id:"133838",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Harrison",fullName:"Robert Harrison",slug:"robert-harrison"}]},{id:"8431",title:"Bismuth-doped Silica Fiber Amplifier",slug:"bismuth-doped-silica-fiber-amplifier",signatures:"Young-Seok Seo and Yasushi Fujimoto",authors:[{id:"4778",title:"Researcher",name:"Young-Seok",middleName:null,surname:"Seo",fullName:"Young-Seok Seo",slug:"young-seok-seo"},{id:"4885",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasushi",middleName:null,surname:"Fujimoto",fullName:"Yasushi Fujimoto",slug:"yasushi-fujimoto"}]},{id:"8432",title:"Radio-over-Fibre Techniques and Performance",slug:"radio-over-fibre-techniques-and-performance",signatures:"Roberto Llorente and Marta Beltrán",authors:[{id:"4404",title:"Ms.",name:"Marta",middleName:null,surname:"Beltran",fullName:"Marta Beltran",slug:"marta-beltran"},{id:"16540",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Llorente",fullName:"Roberto Llorente",slug:"roberto-llorente"}]},{id:"8433",title:"Time-Spectral Visualization of Fundamental Ultrafast Nonlinear-Optical Interactions in Photonic Fibers",slug:"time-spectral-visualization-of-fundamental-ultrafast-nonlinear-optical-interactions-in-photonic-fibe",signatures:"Anatoly Efimov",authors:[{id:"4545",title:"Dr.",name:"Anatoly",middleName:null,surname:"Efimov",fullName:"Anatoly Efimov",slug:"anatoly-efimov"}]},{id:"8434",title:"Dispersion Compensation Devices",slug:"dispersion-compensation-devices",signatures:"Lingling Chen, Meng Zhang and Zhigang Zhang",authors:[{id:"4565",title:"Ms.",name:"Lingling",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Lingling Chen",slug:"lingling-chen"},{id:"4773",title:"Professor",name:"Zhigang",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Zhigang Zhang",slug:"zhigang-zhang"}]},{id:"8435",title:"Photonic Crystal Fibre for Dispersion Controll",slug:"photonic-crystal-fibre-for-dispersion-controll",signatures:"Zoltán Várallyay and Kunimasa Saitoh",authors:[{id:"4607",title:"Dr.",name:"Zoltan Krisztian",middleName:null,surname:"Varallyay",fullName:"Zoltan Krisztian Varallyay",slug:"zoltan-krisztian-varallyay"},{id:"133834",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunimasa",middleName:null,surname:"Saitoh",fullName:"Kunimasa Saitoh",slug:"kunimasa-saitoh"}]},{id:"8436",title:"Resonantly Induced Refractive Index Changes in Yb-doped Fibers: the Origin, Properties and Application for All-Fiber Coherent Beam Combining",slug:"resonantly-induced-refractive-index-changes-in-yb-doped-fibers-the-origin-properties-and-application",signatures:"Andrei A. Fotiadi, Oleg L. Antipov and Patrice Mégret",authors:[{id:"4725",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrei",middleName:null,surname:"Fotiadi",fullName:"Andrei Fotiadi",slug:"andrei-fotiadi"},{id:"107849",title:"Prof.",name:"Patrice",middleName:null,surname:"Mégret",fullName:"Patrice Mégret",slug:"patrice-megret"},{id:"133847",title:"Prof.",name:"Oleg",middleName:null,surname:"Antipov",fullName:"Oleg Antipov",slug:"oleg-antipov"}]},{id:"8437",title:"Polarization Coupling of Light and Optoelectronics Devices Based on Periodically Poled Lithium Niobate",slug:"polarization-coupling-of-light-and-optoelectronics-devices-based-on-periodically-poled-lithium-nioba",signatures:"Xianfeng Chen, Kun Liu, and Jianhong Shi",authors:[{id:"4180",title:"Professor",name:"Xianfeng",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Xianfeng Chen",slug:"xianfeng-chen"},{id:"133851",title:"Prof.",name:"Kun",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",fullName:"Kun Liu",slug:"kun-liu"},{id:"133853",title:"Prof.",name:"Jianhong",middleName:null,surname:"Shi",fullName:"Jianhong Shi",slug:"jianhong-shi"}]},{id:"8438",title:"All-Optical Wavelength-Selective Switch by Intensity Control in Cascaded Interferometers",slug:"all-optical-wavelength-selective-switch-by-intensity-control-in-cascaded-interferometers",signatures:"Hiroki Kishikawa, Nobuo Goto and Kenta Kimiya",authors:[{id:"4400",title:"Professor",name:"Nobuo",middleName:null,surname:"Goto",fullName:"Nobuo Goto",slug:"nobuo-goto"},{id:"133356",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroki",middleName:null,surname:"Kishikawa",fullName:"Hiroki Kishikawa",slug:"hiroki-kishikawa"},{id:"133358",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenta",middleName:null,surname:"Kimiya",fullName:"Kenta Kimiya",slug:"kenta-kimiya"}]},{id:"8439",title:"Nonlinear Optics in Doped Silica Glass Integrated Waveguide Structures",slug:"nonlinear-optics-in-doped-silica-glass-integrated-waveguide-structures",signatures:"David Duchesne, Marcello Ferrera, Luca Razzari, Roberto Morandotti, Brent Little, Sai T. Chu and David J. Moss",authors:[{id:"4405",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Moss",fullName:"David Moss",slug:"david-moss"},{id:"4783",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Duchesne",fullName:"David Duchesne",slug:"david-duchesne"},{id:"95840",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Razzari",fullName:"Luca Razzari",slug:"luca-razzari"},{id:"135390",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcello",middleName:null,surname:"Ferrera",fullName:"Marcello Ferrera",slug:"marcello-ferrera"},{id:"135391",title:"Prof.",name:"Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Morandotti",fullName:"Roberto Morandotti",slug:"roberto-morandotti"},{id:"135392",title:"Prof.",name:"Brent",middleName:null,surname:"Little",fullName:"Brent Little",slug:"brent-little"},{id:"135393",title:"Prof.",name:"Sai",middleName:null,surname:"Chu",fullName:"Sai Chu",slug:"sai-chu"}]},{id:"8440",title:"Advances in Femtosecond Micromachining and Inscription of Micro and Nano Photonic Devices",slug:"advances-in-femtosecond-micromachining-and-inscription-of-micro-and-nano-photonic-devices",signatures:"Graham N. Smith, Kyriacos Kalli and Kate Sugden",authors:[{id:"4668",title:"Dr.",name:"Graham",middleName:"N",surname:"Smith",fullName:"Graham Smith",slug:"graham-smith"},{id:"133360",title:"Prof.",name:"Kyriacos",middleName:null,surname:"Kalli",fullName:"Kyriacos Kalli",slug:"kyriacos-kalli"},{id:"133361",title:"Prof.",name:"Kate",middleName:null,surname:"Sugden",fullName:"Kate Sugden",slug:"kate-sugden"}]},{id:"8441",title:"Magneto-Optical Devices for Optical Integrated Circuits",slug:"magneto-optical-devices-for-optical-integrated-circuits",signatures:"Vadym Zayets and Koji Ando",authors:[{id:"4688",title:"Dr.",name:"Vadym",middleName:null,surname:"Zayets",fullName:"Vadym Zayets",slug:"vadym-zayets"},{id:"133363",title:"Prof.",name:"Koji",middleName:null,surname:"Ando",fullName:"Koji Ando",slug:"koji-ando"}]},{id:"8442",title:"Tunable Hollow Optical Waveguide and Its Applications",slug:"tunable-hollow-optical-waveguide-and-its-applications",signatures:"Mukesh Kumar, Toru Miura, Yasuki Sakurai and Fumio Koyama",authors:[{id:"63461",title:"Dr.",name:"Mukesh",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",fullName:"Mukesh Kumar",slug:"mukesh-kumar"},{id:"133388",title:"Prof.",name:"Toru",middleName:null,surname:"Miura",fullName:"Toru Miura",slug:"toru-miura"},{id:"133402",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasuki",middleName:null,surname:"Sakurai",fullName:"Yasuki Sakurai",slug:"yasuki-sakurai"},{id:"133404",title:"Prof.",name:"Fumio",middleName:null,surname:"Koyama",fullName:"Fumio Koyama",slug:"fumio-koyama"}]},{id:"8443",title:"Regenerated Fibre Bragg Gratings",slug:"regenerated-fibre-bragg-gratings",signatures:"John Canning, Somnath Bandyopadhyay, Palas Biswas, Mattias Aslund, Michael Stevenson and Kevin Cook",authors:[{id:"5461",title:"Professor",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Canning",fullName:"John Canning",slug:"john-canning"},{id:"133394",title:"Dr.",name:"Somnath",middleName:null,surname:"Bandyopadhyay",fullName:"Somnath Bandyopadhyay",slug:"somnath-bandyopadhyay"},{id:"133395",title:"Prof.",name:"Palas",middleName:null,surname:"Biswas",fullName:"Palas Biswas",slug:"palas-biswas"},{id:"133396",title:"Prof.",name:"Mattias",middleName:null,surname:"Aslund",fullName:"Mattias Aslund",slug:"mattias-aslund"},{id:"133397",title:"Prof.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Stevenson",fullName:"Michael Stevenson",slug:"michael-stevenson"},{id:"133400",title:"Prof.",name:"Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Cook",fullName:"Kevin Cook",slug:"kevin-cook"}]},{id:"8444",title:"Optical Deposition of Carbon Nanotubes for Fiber-based Device Fabrication",slug:"optical-deposition-of-carbon-nanotubes-for-fiber-based-device-fabrication",signatures:"Ken Kashiwagi and Shinji Yamashita",authors:[{id:"5133",title:"Dr.",name:"Ken",middleName:null,surname:"Kashiwagi",fullName:"Ken Kashiwagi",slug:"ken-kashiwagi"},{id:"38416",title:"Mr.",name:"Shinji",middleName:null,surname:"Yamashita",fullName:"Shinji Yamashita",slug:"shinji-yamashita"}]},{id:"8445",title:"High Power Tunable Tm3+-fiber Lasers and Its Application in Pumping Cr2+:ZnSe Lasers",slug:"high-power-tunable-tm3-fiber-lasers-and-its-application-in-pumping-cr2-znse-lasers",signatures:"Yulong Tang and Jianqiu Xu",authors:[{id:"5449",title:"Prof.",name:"Jianqiu",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",fullName:"Jianqiu Xu",slug:"jianqiu-xu"},{id:"110808",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulong",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",fullName:"Yulong Tang",slug:"yulong-tang"}]},{id:"8446",title:"2 µm Laser Sources and Their Possible Applications",slug:"2-m-laser-sources-and-their-possible-applications",signatures:"Karsten Scholle, Samir Lamrini, Philipp Koopmann and Peter Fuhrberg",authors:[{id:"4951",title:"Dr.",name:"Karsten",middleName:null,surname:"Scholle",fullName:"Karsten Scholle",slug:"karsten-scholle"},{id:"133366",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"Lamrini",fullName:"Samir Lamrini",slug:"samir-lamrini"},{id:"133370",title:"Prof.",name:"Philipp",middleName:null,surname:"Koopmann",fullName:"Philipp Koopmann",slug:"philipp-koopmann"},{id:"133371",title:"Mr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Fuhrberg",fullName:"Peter Fuhrberg",slug:"peter-fuhrberg"}]},{id:"8447",title:"Designer Laser Resonators based on Amplifying Photonic Crystals",slug:"designer-laser-resonators-based-on-amplifying-photonic-crystals",signatures:"Alexander Benz, Christoph Deutsch, Gernot Fasching, Karl Unterrainer, Aaron M. Maxwell, Pavel Klang, Werner Schrenk and Gottfried Strasser",authors:[{id:"4537",title:"DI",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Benz",fullName:"Alexander Benz",slug:"alexander-benz"},{id:"135394",title:"Prof.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Deutsch",fullName:"Christoph Deutsch",slug:"christoph-deutsch"},{id:"135395",title:"Prof.",name:"Gernot",middleName:null,surname:"Fasching",fullName:"Gernot Fasching",slug:"gernot-fasching"},{id:"135396",title:"Prof.",name:"Karl",middleName:null,surname:"Unterrainer",fullName:"Karl Unterrainer",slug:"karl-unterrainer"},{id:"135397",title:"Prof.",name:"Aaron",middleName:null,surname:"Maxwell",fullName:"Aaron Maxwell",slug:"aaron-maxwell"},{id:"135398",title:"Prof.",name:"Pavel",middleName:null,surname:"Klang",fullName:"Pavel Klang",slug:"pavel-klang"},{id:"135399",title:"Prof.",name:"Werner",middleName:null,surname:"Schrenk",fullName:"Werner Schrenk",slug:"werner-schrenk"},{id:"135400",title:"Prof.",name:"Gottfried",middleName:null,surname:"Strasser",fullName:"Gottfried Strasser",slug:"gottfried-strasser"}]},{id:"8448",title:"High-Power and High Efficiency Yb:YAG Ceramic Laser at Room Temperature",slug:"high-power-and-high-efficiency-yb-yag-ceramic-laser-at-room-temperature",signatures:"Shinki Nakamura",authors:[{id:"4143",title:"Dr.",name:"Shinki",middleName:null,surname:"Nakamura",fullName:"Shinki Nakamura",slug:"shinki-nakamura"}]},{id:"8449",title:"Polarization Properties of Laser-Diode-Pumped Microchip Nd:YAG Ceramic Lasers",slug:"polarization-properties-of-laser-diode-pumped-microchip-nd-yag-ceramic-lasers",signatures:"Kenju Otsuka",authors:[{id:"4259",title:"Professor",name:"Kenju",middleName:null,surname:"Otsuka",fullName:"Kenju Otsuka",slug:"kenju-otsuka"}]},{id:"8450",title:"Surface-Emitting Circular Bragg Lasers – A Promising Next-Generation On-Chip Light Source for Optical Communications",slug:"surface-emitting-circular-bragg-lasers-a-promising-next-generation-on-chip-light-source-for-optical-",signatures:"Xiankai Sun and Amnon Yariv",authors:[{id:"4201",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiankai",middleName:null,surname:"Sun",fullName:"Xiankai Sun",slug:"xiankai-sun"},{id:"122981",title:"Dr.",name:"Amnon",middleName:null,surname:"Yariv",fullName:"Amnon Yariv",slug:"amnon-yariv"}]},{id:"8451",title:"Novel Enabling Technologies for Convergence of Optical and Wireless Access Networks",slug:"novel-enabling-technologies-for-convergence-of-optical-and-wireless-access-networks",signatures:"Jianjun Yu, Gee-Kung Chang, Zhensheng Jia and Lin Chen",authors:[{id:"8503",title:"Dr.",name:"Jianjun",middleName:null,surname:"Yu",fullName:"Jianjun Yu",slug:"jianjun-yu"},{id:"133376",title:"Prof.",name:"Gee-Kung",middleName:null,surname:"Chang",fullName:"Gee-Kung Chang",slug:"gee-kung-chang"},{id:"133378",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhensheng",middleName:null,surname:"Jia",fullName:"Zhensheng Jia",slug:"zhensheng-jia"},{id:"139599",title:"Prof.",name:"Lin",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Lin Chen",slug:"lin-chen"}]},{id:"8452",title:"Photonic Crystal Multiplexer/Demultiplexer Device for Optical Communications",slug:"photonic-crystal-multiplexer-demultiplexer-device-for-optical-communications",signatures:"Sahbuddin Shaari and Azliza J. M. Adnan",authors:[{id:"19951",title:"Dr.",name:"Sahbudin",middleName:null,surname:"Shaari",fullName:"Sahbudin Shaari",slug:"sahbudin-shaari"}]},{id:"8453",title:"Improvement Scheme for Directly Modulated Fiber Optical CATV System Performances",slug:"improvement-scheme-for-directly-modulated-fiber-optical-catv-system-performances",signatures:"Hai-Han Lu, Ching-Hung Chang and Peng-Chun Peng",authors:[{id:"4684",title:"Professor",name:"Hai-Han",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",fullName:"Hai-Han Lu",slug:"hai-han-lu"},{id:"62688",title:"Prof.",name:"Peng-Chun",middleName:null,surname:"Peng",fullName:"Peng-Chun Peng",slug:"peng-chun-peng"}]},{id:"8454",title:"Optical Beam Steering Using a 2D MEMS Scanner",slug:"optical-beam-steering-using-a-2d-mems-scanner",signatures:"Yves Pétremand, Pierre-André Clerc, Marc Epitaux, Ralf Hauffe, Wilfried Noell and N.F. de Rooij",authors:[{id:"5054",title:"Dr.",name:"Yves",middleName:null,surname:"Petremand",fullName:"Yves Petremand",slug:"yves-petremand"},{id:"135512",title:"Prof.",name:"Pierre-Andre",middleName:null,surname:"Clerc",fullName:"Pierre-Andre Clerc",slug:"pierre-andre-clerc"},{id:"135514",title:"Prof.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Epitaux",fullName:"Marc Epitaux",slug:"marc-epitaux"},{id:"135516",title:"Prof.",name:"Ralf",middleName:null,surname:"Hauffe",fullName:"Ralf Hauffe",slug:"ralf-hauffe"},{id:"135518",title:"Prof.",name:"Wilfried",middleName:null,surname:"Noell",fullName:"Wilfried Noell",slug:"wilfried-noell"},{id:"135519",title:"Prof.",name:"N.F.",middleName:null,surname:"De Rooij",fullName:"N.F. De Rooij",slug:"n.f.-de-rooij"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"72019",title:"Systems Glycobiology: Past, Present, and Future",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92267",slug:"systems-glycobiology-past-present-and-future",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
Glycans are long chains of carbohydrate-based polymers composed of repeating units of monosaccharide monomers bound together by glycosidic linkages. Complex and diverse glycans appear to be ever-present macromolecules in all cells in nature, and essential to all biological systems. Glycans play physical, structural, and metabolic roles in living organisms [1]. In the last century, knowledge on the biochemistry and biology of nucleic acids and proteins rapidly increased. Nevertheless, it has been much more difficult to understand the biology of glycans, which are main component of the cell surface [2]. The biosynthesis mechanism of glycans is totally different from those of nucleic acids and proteins. Biological mechanism of glycans is complex, which makes analysis of them extremely difficult and limits our understanding of mechanisms responsible for biological functions of glycans [3]. After the genomics revolution and development of high-throughput technologies, scientific interests increased to understand the characterization, function, and interaction of other significant biomolecules (e.g., DNA transcripts, proteins, lipids, and glycans) for the cell. These interests resulted in emergence of other omic types such as transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, lipidomics and glycomics [4]. From the perspective of evolutionary conservation, conservation decreased in the order genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, lipidomics, and glycomics. On the other hand, reverse order is present for informational diversity of these fields of omics (Figure 1) [5].
\n
Figure 1.
The degree of evolutionary conservation and informational diversity for the omics fields.
\n
With the progress in high-throughput technologies, studies on glycobiology increased to screen cells quickly and generate huge glycomics data sets. Moreover, advanced analytical techniques and tools for data analysis provide possibility to improve high-throughput techniques for screening glycans as a marker of diseases and to classify structure of glycans in therapeutic proteins [6].
\n
\n
\n
2. Glycans
\n
Glycans are linear or branched sugar macromolecules composed of repeating monosaccharides linked glycosidically. Beside nucleic acids and protein, glycans are known as the third dimension in molecular biology [7, 8]. These macromolecules can be found in the form of heteropolysaccharides or homopolysaccharides. Furthermore, glycoconjugates (glycolipid, glycoprotein and proteoglycan), can be also considered as glycan despite the fact that the carbohydrate part of glycoconjugates are only oligosaccharides [9]. In glycoproteins, oligosaccharides and proteins can be linked in different forms, namely N-linked glycans and O-linked glycans. N-acetylglucosamine is linked to the amide side chain of asparagine in N-linked glycans. C-1 of N-acetylgalactosamine is linked to the hydroxyl function of serine or threonine in O-linked glycans [10].
\n
With the increasing researches in glycoscience, many different roles of glycans in biological systems have been revealed in the last decades. Significant functions of glycans have been determined in numerous research areas such as immunity, development and differentiation, biopharmaceuticals, cancer, fertilization, blood types, infectious diseases, etc. Glycans are called as “cloths of cells” since they are present on the surface of the cell and responsible for the signaling and communications between cells. Glycans can be classified in several ways. Varki divided the biological roles of glycans into four main categories: (1) structural and modulatory roles, (2) extrinsic (interspecies) recognition of glycans, (3) intrinsic (intraspecies) recognition of glycans, and (4) molecular mimicry of host glycans. A total of 50 distinct roles are defined under these main categories [1].
\n
Glycans perform huge range of biological function due to the diversity of them, and they have significant roles in several physiological and pathological events, such as cell growth, cell signaling, cell-cell interactions, differentiation, and tumor growth [11, 12, 13]. In biological systems, information is carried by glycans, which are significant biomarker candidates for many diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, deficiencies of immune system, genetically inherited disorders, several cancer types, and neurodegenerative diseases [14, 15, 16]. Alteration of glycan expression is observed during the development and progression of these diseases, which is caused by misregulated enzymes such as glycosyltransferases and glycosidases. As a result, altered glycan structures have potential use for the identification of these diseases at an early stage. Besides significant role of glycans in diagnosis and management of disease, they can be used as therapeutics, markers for identification and isolation of special cell types, and targets in discovery of drugs [17, 18, 19]. Moreover, glycans can be considered as an ideal target for vaccines due to the presence of them on the surface of several different pathogens and malignant cells. High affinity and exquisite specificity of other molecules to recognize glycans are a vital point of developments in the research of glycans and related diagnostics and therapeutic applications.
\n
\n
\n
3. Glycomics
\n
Glycosylation plays significant roles in many biological processes including growth and development of cell, tumor growth and metastasis, immune recognition and response, intercommunication of cells, and microbial pathogenesis. As a result, glycosylation of proteins is the one of the most common and significant posttranslational modifications of proteins [20, 21]. Furthermore, more than half of proteins undergo glycosylation [6]. Many issues such as genetic factors, nucleotide levels of monosaccharides, cytokines, metabolites, hormones, and ecological factors can affect and change glycosylation process [20, 21, 22, 23, 24]. Thus, integration of omics approaches (e.g., proteomics, genomics, transcriptomics, and metabolomics) to the field of glycobiology is essential to view the big picture of the whole biological system [20, 21, 25]. Furthermore, for the analysis of glycans and glycosylation pathways, many glycoinformatics tools and databases are now accessible [6].
\n
Glycomics is one of the most recent types of omics area which is responsible for the structure and function evaluations of glycans in bio-systems [26]. Integrating glycomics to other fields of omics provides new system-scale insights in integrative biology [27].
\n
Moreover, glycomics informs other crucial scholarships such as systems glycobiology and personalized glycomedicine that collectively aim to explain the role of glycans in person-to-person and between population variations in disease susceptibility and response to health interventions such as drugs, nutrition, and vaccines. Glycosylation is present in both normal and diseased individuals [1]. Abnormal glycosylation is observed in a variety of diseases. Difference between glycosylation patterns of healthy and diseased individuals can be used as glycobiomarkers in personalized medicine [28]. As a result, many new medical implications will be enabled by glycobiology and glycopathology [29]. Development of glycomedicine can be contributed by holistic approach of functional and structural glycomics, which have applications in therapy development, fine-tuning immunological responses and the performance of therapeutic antibodies and boosting immune responses [28, 30]. Many applications of glycan arrays are present in many fields, from basic biochemical research to biomedical applications [31]. In addition to shotgun glycan microarrays [32], cell-based array resource has been developed [33]. These developments enable deeper understanding of the many biological roles of the glycome. Nevertheless, multiplatform and multiomics technologies are expected to further extend the knowledge of molecular mechanisms of glycans.
\n
\n
3.1 Major glycomics techniques
\n
Monosaccharides represent four free hydroxyl groups for the linkage of another monosaccharide. As a result of this, glycans have more complex structure compared to structure of peptides and nucleic acids. It is known that glycans are more than the sequential monosaccharides; monomer types, modifications, the position of modifications around the ring of sugar, glycopolymer branching, and linkages chirality are the factors that are responsible for the complexity. As a result, sequencing techniques used for peptides or DNA (Sanger or Edman sequencing) are not appropriate for glycans. Moreover, most of the glycans are present as a part of a glycoconjugate. Therefore, glycan part should be released from lipid or protein part, by the use of enzymatic or chemical methods and isolated for analysis.
\n
In the last decades, a number of techniques developed and applied to determine structure of the glycans with different degrees of detail [34]. A traditional method is to label the glycoconjugates radioactively and then apply anionic exchange, gel filtration, or paper chromatographic analyses prior and subsequent to enzymatic or chemical treatments. Still, it is difficult to figure out the definition of the actual structure; in consequence, in earlier studies, if adequate amounts were present, gas chromatography together with mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and/or nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) studies were performed. However, these analyses involve special expertise to perform the research and interpret the results, particularly if standards were unavailable to compare with results.
\n
HPLC and UPLC have superseded simple chromatography systems in recent years, and radioactive labeling has been replaced by fluorescent labeling. Nowadays, variable columns such as graphitized carbon, reversed-phase (RP), anion exchange, normal phase, or hydrophilic interaction resins can be used along with suitable enzymatic/chemical treatments. A less used alternative is to analyze glycans at elevated pH. As a result of this, the hydroxyl side chain deprotonation occurs, that enables the usage of anion exchange together with amperometric detection (HPAEC-PAD). On the other hand, glycan structure cannot be defined only by HPLC retention times, and for the unknown structure, analyses in the absence of standards should be interpreted with attention [35].
\n
With the improvements in the types and the sensitivity, contribution of mass spectrometer to studies of glycans and glycoconjugates has increased in the last decades [36, 37]. At first, for the analysis of variable types of glycopolymers from different sources, researchers used fast atom bombardment mass spectrometers (FAB-MS). For the analyses with FAB-MS, chemical modifications such as methylation and acetylation were required. As an alternative method, matrix-assisted laser-desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) was developed and analysis of both permethylated and native glycans can be performed with MALDI-TOF MS. Furthermore, current numerous electrospray techniques with many detector types have significance in glycomics. Mainly, a significant point in MS-based analysis is the capability to obtain glycan fragments. Besides, the preparation and separation techniques are of great importance to obtain the best results. As a consequence, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) in a number of forms is in general necessary since glycans with low abundancy or poor ionization capacity can be suppressed in the case of whole glycome examination. Moreover, reanalysis after the treatment of a chemical and an enzyme results in maximization of the ability to obtain clear results from the existing data.
\n
Glycan is generally a part of the glycoconjugate; thus, glycoproteomics and glycolipidomics that consider both peptide/lipid and glycan parts are significant fields. At this point, mass spectrometry technique comes into prominence [38]. Both glycan and polypeptide/lipid parts can be studied with this technique. On the other hand, glycan parts of glycoproteins and glycolipids can be in various forms even if the polypeptide/lipid part is same, defined as microheterogeneity. The nature of glycan modifications is non-template driven and that leads to mentioned microheterogeneity [39].
\n
Blotting technique can be used for simple screens. Reagents such as lectins and anti-carbohydrate antibodies with low specificity are often used for this technique; as a result, misleading results are often obtained [40]. Still, lectins, and antiserums have significance for immune responses in animals. New array-based systems can provide essential clues on proteins bounded to glycans [41].
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Systems glycobiology and integration of omics data sets
\n
Developments in integrative informatics and systems biology of glycans based on a holistic approach can make available a more comprehensive analysis. It elucidates annotation of glycans, enzyme levels, abundances of glycans biosynthesis pathways, and other omics data sets which are complementary. Though, several tools are developed for proteomics and genomics data sets and standard bioinformatics approaches are used in these tools, the complex relationships between diverse components (such as glycans, enzymes, transporters, and sugar nucleotides) of the glycosylation process are not considered by most of the existing bioinformatics tools. Consequently, the use of these tools for glycomics data sets has some limitations. The genome does not encode glycans directly and unlike proteins, interconnected action of many enzymes provides assembly of glycans. Due to mentioned limitations, developments in glycan analysis tools and methods have been delayed and most of the present glycoinformatics tools are special for single type data analysis [42, 43, 44, 45]. For instance, database matching between obtained MS results and specific glycans in a glycan library is used as a mutual method for MS-based glycoprofiling for the purpose of individual peak annotation [46, 47]. If the complexity of glycosylation is wanted to be considered, enzymes of the organism which synthesize the studied glycans should generate glycan structures used for the annotation of the spectrum [48]. Due to this alignment, activities of enzyme and those structures assigned to each peak in the same spectrum will be consistent.
\n
Although many omics approaches have significant progress in the last decades, existing techniques of bioinformatics are still unsatisfactory for the integration of varied data sets [49, 50, 51]. For instance, relations between expression levels of gene and specific glycan linkages abundance are investigated by statistical database-driven approaches, and these approaches could not predict quantity of detailed glycan distributions [50, 51]. This indicates the necessity of glycoinformatics and systems biology tools integration for the identification of glycan structure and these should be also linked to the information of gene expression responsible for glycosylation enzymes which synthesize these glycans. In order to understand levels of mRNA which is related with the distribution and quantity of glycans present within healthy and diseased cells, mathematical modeling of glycosylation is considered as a promising method [48, 49, 52].
\n
Variability in the platform of analytical high-throughput experiments can be reduced by data integration approach. Increased confidence of biomarker predictions and recommendations can be obtained if different data from experiments such as glycogenes expression information or mass spectra profile confirm the results from integrative glycoinformatics and systems glycobiology tools. Although integrated glycoinformatics tools have limitations in analytical sensitivities, analysis and comparison of various results with various platforms are enabled by these tools [6].
\n
The integration of glycomics with other various omics data is promising for further innovation in diagnosis and treatment of diseases [30]. The start point of multiomics data integration is to sort the data based on the omics level. In the following part, association between glycomics and other omics levels will be represented.
\n
\n
4.1 Genomics
\n
Integration of glycomics with genetic sequence can be occur in a number of ways. For instance, glycosylation site can be gained or lost with the variation of sequence. A single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) affects glycosylation of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) and an altered function of it increases the risk of prostate cancer. Functional analysis indicated that the stability and structural conformation of PSA are affected by missense variant rs61752561, which causes an additional extra glycosylation site [53]. Furthermore, computational studies revealed that variations in cancer somatic cells have potential to cause gain or loss of glycosylation. In addition to SNP, variations in structure and abnormalities in cytogenetics could be integrated with glycomics. Cytogenetic abnormalities have been associated with glycome expression [54]. A particular glycosyltransferase can glycosylate numerous proteins, so genetic variants of it have extraordinary significance because function of many glycoproteins can be affected by a single difference in activity of enzyme. Several downstream pathways and cell metabolism can be affected by a genetic or epigenetic variant that is called pleiotropic effect of genetic or epigenetic variant on glycosylation [55].
\n
\n
\n
4.2 Transcriptomics
\n
Most of the glycomics research have been done at the level of transcriptome, which can be performed either at a particular locus or with a technology of microarray. In colorectal cancer (CRC), glycosyltransferase ST6GAL1 is associated with cancer, and altered ST6GAL1 expression was found by The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) mining [56]. Moreover, in order to identify differential expression of glycosylation-related genes Saravanan et al. [57] used GLYCOv2 glycogene microarray technology. In the further studies, myeloma was compared with normal plasma cell samples and 60 upregulated and 20 downregulated genes were found among 243 genes in glycan-biosynthesis pathway [54]. A novel molecular signature that is enriched for enzymes of glycosylation was revealed by meta-analysis performed for gene expression of prostate cancer [58]. Additionally, hepatocellular carcinoma was investigated by reviewing gene expressions that are related with core fucosylation of the disease [59]. More systematic reviews and meta-analyses are required to develop reliable biomarkers.
\n
\n
\n
4.3 Glycoproteomics
\n
Studies on glycoproteomics include peptide structures, glycan structures, and sites of glycosylation [30]. Single site on the peptide chain can be glycosylated by different glycans, and by this way, glycans can modulate function of the protein [60]. In the literature, diverse techniques were associated with different phenotypes, for instance, breast cancer, colon cancer, liver cancer, skin cancer, ovary cancer, bladder cancer, and neurodegenerative diseases, and additionally, a number of structural variations including sialylation, fucosylation, degree of branching, and specific glycosyltransferases expression [61, 62, 63]. For instance, cerebrospinal fluid N-glycoproteomics is of significant importance in early diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease. Glycosylation patterns were assessed in patients and therapeutics targets such as glycoenzymes were suggested [63]. For the diagnosis of pancreatic cancer, specific glycoforms together with protein levels should be measured to improve potential for diagnosis [64]. Glycoproteins constitute the majority of protein tumor markers approved by Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and they are also used currently in clinical practice. Many of these glycoproteins have alterations of glycosylation in cancer [60]. MUC-1 (CA15-3/CA27.29) [65] and plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI-1) [66] are biomarkers of breast cancer; beta-human chorionic gonadotropin (Beta-hCG) [67] is biomarker of colorectal cancer; alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) [68] is a biomarker of liver cancer and germ cell tumors; chromogranin A (CgA) [69] is a biomarker of neuroendocrine tumors; MUC16 (CA-125) [70] and HE4 [71] are biomarkers of ovarian cancer; and many other biomarkers are present for a variety type of cancer. Most of the results in the existing publications are heterogeneous; thus, systematic integrative reviews of the literature are required for further development of glycoproteomics.
\n
\n
\n
4.4 Metabolomics
\n
Metabolomics is the large-scale study of the small molecule substrates that investigates variations in the metabolites within cells, biofluids, tissues, or organism. Metabolomics and glycomics were investigated in the research of post-traumatic stress [72]. According to the researchers of this study, these biomarkers together with omics markers should be integrated to understand the biological differences responsible for this stress. For discovery of liver cancer biomarker, proteomics, glycomics, and metabolomics were integrated and this integration enhanced performance when compared to separate omics data [73]. Physiological and pathological conditions are reflected by metabolomic and glycomic data in individuals. Similar to metabolites, small glycans can be quantified easily [74]. Human Metabolome Database (HMDB) is the most inclusive metabolite source that offers significant resource for the discovery of biomarkers in glycomics [75].
\n
\n
\n
4.5 Glycolipidomics
\n
Glycolipidomics is a scientific field that identifies and quantifies glycolipids. For the determination of physiological and pathological conditions of individual, glycolipids can be used as a specific biomarker. They take role in development of neurological and neurodegenerative diseases, such as Lewy body dementia, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and frontotemporal dementia [30]. Furthermore, glycosphingolipids are associated with cancer and they are promising molecules for diagnosis as biomarkers and for malignant tumor immunotherapy as target [76]. More recently, Dehelean et al. [77] reviewed trends in the discovery of glycolipid biomarker by MS.
\n
\n
\n
4.6 Interactomics
\n
Interactomics is the research field that investigates whole set of interactions between molecules including glycans. Interaction of glycans with glycan-binding proteins (GBPs) is of significant importance in immune response, signaling, cell recognition, infections, neurodegenerative diseases, and cancer. High-throughput technologies ease studies also on interactomics [78]. UniLectin3D is a database that catalog lectins that are most studied GBPs. Database consists of curated information on 3D structures and interacting ligands [79]. Lectin-glycan interaction on surface of the cell is a significant factor for the regulation in corneal biology (i.e., corneal infection) and pathophysiology (i.e., inflammation) [80]. The whole protein-glycan interactome information has not been obtained yet [41]. For future studies, estimated number of interactions is of importance. GenProBiS is a bioinformatics tool that analyzes binding sites between peptide-peptide, peptide-nucleic acid, and peptide-compound and also sites of glycosylation and other posttranslational modifications. Furthermore, it provides maps between sequence variations and structure of protein. More developments of bioinformatics tools analyzing huge data will prioritize the objections for experimental verification and provide contribution to interactomics development.
\n
\n
\n
4.7 Other omics fields
\n
In future studies, many other omics fields should be associated with glycomics such as comparative genomics, epigenomics, regulomics, NcRNomics, MiRNomics, LncRNomics, etc. Although glycomics is the significant field related with molecular interactions, information about how these complex processes controlled by regulatory network is still inadequate. In addition to classic omics fields, omics applications such as iatromics, environmental omics, pharmacogenomics, and nutrigenomics should also be reviewed.
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Bioinformatics tools and databases
\n
Glycoinformatics combines bioinformatics tools with glycome. Glycomics data is collected by the tools and databases to investigate, reveal, and associate with other repository of related data of proteomics, genomics, and interactomics. Commonly used tools and databases are summarized in Table 1.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
\n
Name
\n
Description
\n
Link
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Databases
\n
CAZY
\n
Describes the families of structurally related catalytic and carbohydrate binding modules (or functional domains) of enzymes that degrade, modify, or create glycosidic bonds
\n
\nhttp://www.cazy.org/\n
\n
\n
\n
KEGG GLYCAN
\n
The KEGG GLYCAN structure database is a collection of experimentally determined glycan structures. It contains all unique structures taken from CarbBank, structures entered from recent publications, and structures present in KEGG
\n
\nhttps://www.genome.jp/kegg/glycan/\n
\n
\n
\n
Glycan Library
\n
A list of approximately 830 lipid-linked sequence-defined glycan probes derived from diverse natural sources or chemically synthesized
An ion mobility-mass spectrometry collision cross-section database for glycomics
\n
\nhttp://www.glycomob.org\n
\n
\n
\n
GlycoBase 3.2
\n
A database of over 650 N- and O-linked glycan structures of HPLC, UPLC, exoglycosidase sequencing, and mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS, ESI-MS, ESI-MS/MS, LC-MS, LC-ESI-MS/MS) data
A portal of 3D structures of mono-, di-, oligo-, and polysaccharides and carbohydrate recognizing proteins (lectins, monoclonal antibodies, glycosyltransferases) and glycosaminoglycan binding proteins
\n
\nhttp://glyco3d.cermav.cnrs.fr/home.php\n
\n
\n
\n
GlyMAP
\n
An online resource mapping of the variational landscape of glycoactive enzymes
\n
\nhttp://glymap.glycomics.ku.dk/\n
\n
\n
\n
Glycosciences.de
\n
A collection of databases and bioinformatics tools for glycobiology and glycomics
\n
\nhttp://glycosciences.de/index.php\n
\n
\n
\n
UniProtKB
\n
The universal protein sequence database with information on glycosylated proteins
\n
\nhttp://www.uniprot.org/\n
\n
\n
\n
UniCarbKB
\n
UniCarbKB is a curated and annotated glycan database which curates information from the scientific literature on glycoprotein-derived glycan structures. It includes data previously available from GlycoSuiteDB
\n
http://www.unicarbkb.org/
\n
\n
\n
UniCarbDB
\n
UniCarbDB is a platform for presenting glycan structures and fragment data characterized by LC-MS/MS strategies. The database is annotated with high-quality datasets and is designed to extend and reinforce those standards and ontologies developed by existing glycomics databases
\n
\nhttp://unicarb-db.biomedicine.gu.se/\n
\n
\n
\n
UniPep
\n
A database for human N-linked glycosites: a resource for biomarker discovery
\n
\nhttp://www.unipep.org\n
\n
\n
\n
SugarBindDB
\n
SugarBindDB provides a collection of known carbohydrate sequences to which pathogenic organisms specifically adhere via lectins or adhesins. The data were compiled through an exhaustive search of literature published over the past 30 years by glycobiologists, microbiologists, and medical histologists
\n
http://sugarbind.expasy.org/
\n
\n
\n
Consortium for Functional Glycomics (CFG)
\n
The CFG serves to combine the expertise and glycomics resources to reveal functions of glycans and glycan-binding proteins (GBPs) that impact human health and disease. The CFG offers resources to the community, including glycan array screening services, a reagent bank, and access to a large glycomics database and data analysis tools
\n
\nhttp://www.functionalglycomics.org/\n
\n
\n
\n
GLYCONAVI
\n
A Website for carbohydrate research. It consists of the “GlycoNAVI database” for molecular information of carbohydrates, and chemical reactions of carbohydrate synthesis, the “Route Searching System for Glycan Synthesis,” and “GlycoNAVI tools” for editing two-dimensional molecular structure of carbohydrates
\n
\nhttp://www.glyconavi.org/GlycoNAVI\n
\n
\n
\n
GlycoGeneDataBase (GGDB)
\n
Glycogene includes genes associated with glycan synthesis such as glycosyltransferase, sugar nucleotide synthases, sugar-nucleotide transporters, sulfotransferases, etc.
\n
\nhttps://acgg.asia/ggdb2\n
\n
\n
\n
Carbohydrate Structure Data Base (CSDB)
\n
CSDB covers information on structures and taxonomy of natural carbohydrates published in the literature and mostly resolved by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). CSDB is composed of two parts: Bacterial and Archeal (BCSDB) and Plant and Fungal (PFCSDB)
This section of the ExPASy server gathers a toolbox for processing data as well as simulating, predicting, or visualizing information, relative to glycans, glycoproteins, and glycan-binding proteins
\n
http://www.expasy.org/glycomics
\n
\n
\n
TOOLS
\n
CASPER
\n
A tool for calculating NMR chemical shifts of oligo- and polysaccharides
\n
\nhttp://www.casper.organ.su.se/casper/\n
\n
\n
\n
Glycan Builder
\n
A software library and set of tools to allow the rapid drawing of glycan structures with support for all of the most common symbolic notation formats
\n
\nhttp://www.unicarbkb.org/builder\n
\n
\n
\n
GlycoDomainViewer
\n
An online resource to study site glycosylation with respect to protein context and conservation
\n
\nhttp://glycodomain.glycomics.ku.dk/\n
\n
\n
\n
Glynsight
\n
Glynsight offers visualization and interactive comparison of glycan expression profiles. The tool was initially developed with a focus on IgG N-glycan profiles but it was extended to usage with any experiment, which produces N- or O-linked glycan expression data
\n
\nhttps://glycoproteome.expasy.org/glynsight/\n
\n
\n
\n
GlycoMinestruct
\n
A new bioinformatics tool for highly accurate mapping of the human N-linked and O-linked glycoproteomes by incorporating structural features
An online resource mapping out the variational landscape of glycoactive enzymes
\n
\nhttp://glymap.glycomics.ku.dk/\n
\n
\n
\n
GlycoMod
\n
An online tool to predict oligosaccharide structures on proteins from experimentally determined masses
\n
\nhttp://web.expasy.org/glycomod/\n
\n
\n
\n
GlycoMiner/GlycoPattern
\n
Software tools designed to detect, characterize, and perform relative quantitation of N-glycopeptides based on LC-MS runs
\n
\nhttp://www.szki.ttk.mta.hu/ms/glycominer/\n
\n
\n
\n
Glycosciences.de
\n
A collection of databases and bioinformatics tools for glycobiology and glycomics
\n
\nhttp://glycosciences.de/index.php\n
\n
\n
\n
RINGS
\n
A Web resource providing algorithmic and data mining tools to aid glycobiology research
\n
\nhttp://rings.t.soka.ac.jp/\n
\n
\n
\n
MonosaccharideDB
\n
A comprehensive reference source for monosaccharide notation
\n
\nhttp://www.monosaccharidedb.org/start.action\n
\n
\n
\n
NetOGlyc
\n
Next generation prediction of O-glycosylation sites on proteins
\n
\nhttp://www.cbs.dtu.dk/services/NetOGlyc/\n
\n
\n
\n
GlycoSpectrumScan
\n
A Web-based bioinformatic tool designed to link glycomics and proteomics analyses for the characterization of glycopeptides. GlycoSpectrumScan is a MS platform which is independent, freely accessible, and profiles glycopeptide MS data using beforehand separately acquired released glycan and proteomics information. Both N- and O-glycosylated peptides as well as multiply glycosylated peptides can be analyzed
\n
\nhttps://github.com/wliu1197/glycospectrumscan\n
\n
\n
\n
SimGlycan
\n
A predictive carbohydrate analysis tool for MS/MS data
\n
\nhttp://www.premierbiosoft.com/glycan\n
\n
\n
\n
SugarQb
\n
SugarQb enables genome-wide insights into protein glycosylation and glycan modifications in complex biological systems. This is a collection of software tools (Nodes) which enable the automated identification of intact glycopeptides from HCD‐MS/MS data sets, using commonly use peptide-centric MS/MS search engines
\n
\nhttp://www.imba.oeaw.ac.at/SugarQb\n
\n
\n
\n
GlycoDigest
\n
GlycoDigest is a tool that simulates exoglycosidase digestion based on controlled rules acquired from expert knowledge and experimental evidence available in GlycoBase
\n
\nwww.glycodigest.org/\n
\n
\n
\n
Virtual Glycome
\n
This Website is focused on presenting selected computational tools and experimental resources that can be used to better understand the processes regulating cellular glycosylation at multiple levels
\n
\nhttps://virtualglycome.org/\n
\n
\n
\n
SweetUnityMol
\n
Software to display 3-D structures of carbohydrates, polysaccharides, and glycoconjugates
System-based analyses applied smoothly to network of signaling, metabolic processes, and physiological modeling; however, applications in systems glycobiology still have problems in computational and analytical studies and this situation arises from prominent bottlenecks [81]: (i) there is no accepted standard for model building; (ii) glycoinformatics databases are underdeveloped; (iii) and insufficient quantitative data are from glycoproteomics experiments.
\n
In recent years, many systems based models have been developed to simulate biosynthesis of glycans. Nevertheless, difficulty in the incorporation of glycan structure and specificity data of enzymes related with glycosylation into mathematical models. As a result of this difficulty, systematic model building is still not present in this field. Moreover, limited number of the current models is available in Systems Biology Markup Language (SBML) format [82], which is the obstacle to develop, share, and validate computational models.
\n
In the last decades, many databases related to glycoscience have emerged. Nevertheless, functional information is limited when compared to glycan structure and taxonomy data. In the future, relation of glycan structure to specific enzymes that synthesize them, the rates of their synthesis, and also their function are required in order to build model.
\n
For the measurement of glycome, two main approaches are common. In the first approach, enzymes or mild hydrolysis is used to separate the glycans from the peptide backbone. Next, to obtain information about the composition and relative abundance of the carbohydrate structures, permethylation of glycans and MS analysis are used [83]. The bottleneck is the lack of well-developed software. For the data analysis of glycoproteomics and correspondingly acceleration of system-based model building and validation, more sophisticated computational tools are required.
\n
\n
\n
7. Mathematical modeling of biochemical reaction networks
\n
Mathematical models of glycosylation are developed in three main stages: (i) biological information gathering; (ii) model formulation; (iii) and simulation and postsimulation analysis. First step includes definition of components (enzyme, substrate, and product) crucial for the model. All of the components present in the biochemical network and connections between them are cataloged in this step. The process relies on information of biochemistry and cell biology, and analytical tools. In the next step, behavior in the steady state of the system is investigated by using simple linear algebra and principles of optimization. If time is a variable, the computer model can incorporate ordinary differential equations (ODEs) or Boolean networks. Proper kinetic/thermodynamic/stochastic/optimization parameters are collated depending on the formulation nature of the model and processes which are specified by enzymatically/nonenzymatically. The last step is performed to simulate the experimental system in the computer and to define unknown parameters of model by the help of fitting experimental data [81]. Visualization of multidimensional results is significant because numerous diverse models may attempt to fit one data set obtained from time labor and concentration-dependent experiments. As a result, consolidation of the findings obtained by simulations of complex reaction network and generation of hypotheses that can be tested experimentally require network analysis strategies.
\n
\n
\n
8. Conclusions
\n
Glycomics is a very comprehensive research area of science and interacts with several different omics fields. As many other omics types, it consists of a huge number of genomics components. In the future, techniques in high-throughput analysis and bioinformatics will be developed and enable the integration of all available data of glycomics into a particular diagram and by this way, it will be possible to develop biomarker and identify potential new therapeutic targets. Moreover, progresses in the field reveal that integrative multiomics approach should include glycomics in order to develop new biomarkers for robust diseases. One of the specific fields of systems biology is the systems glycobiology. It is based on a holistic approach that indicates process of complex glycosylation and associations between its constituents. A more complete glycome overview is targeted by using enzyme levels, abundances of glycans, pathways for biosynthesis, glycan annotation, and related omics data sets.
\n
An approach of systems glycobiology is constructed in combination of various data sets of glycomics with that of other omics fields by the use of glycoinformatics tools to clarify understanding on process of glycosylation from various data sets. With the presented chapter, main aspects of glycobiology, glycomics, and systems glycobiology are summarized. However, these fields are still developing and further developments provide more insight to this specific research area.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"glycan, glycobiology, glycome, systems biology, systems glycobiology",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/72019.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/72019.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72019",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72019",totalDownloads:200,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"November 1st 2019",dateReviewed:"March 25th 2020",datePrePublished:"May 2nd 2020",datePublished:"December 23rd 2020",dateFinished:"May 2nd 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Glycobiology is a glycan-based field of study that focuses on the structure, function, and biology of carbohydrates, and glycomics is a sub-study of the field of glycobiology that aims to define structure/function of glycans in living organisms. With the popularity of the glycobiology and glycomics, application of computational modeling expanded in the scientific area of glycobiology over the last decades. The recent availability of progressive Wet-Lab methods in the field of glycobiology and glycomics is promising for the impact of systems biology on the research area of the glycome, an emerging field that is termed “systems glycobiology.” This chapter will summarize the up-to-date leading edge in the use of bioinformatics tools in the field of glycobiology. The chapter provides basic knowledge both for glycobiologists interested in the application of bioinformatics tools and scientists of computational biology interested in studying the glycome.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/72019",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/72019",signatures:"Songül Yaşar Yıldız",book:{id:"9346",title:"Computational Biology and Chemistry",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Computational Biology and Chemistry",slug:"computational-biology-and-chemistry",publishedDate:"December 23rd 2020",bookSignature:"Payam Behzadi and Nicola Bernabò",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9346.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"45803",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Payam",middleName:null,surname:"Behzadi",slug:"payam-behzadi",fullName:"Payam Behzadi"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"169329",title:"Dr.",name:"Songul",middleName:null,surname:"Yasar Yildiz",fullName:"Songul Yasar Yildiz",slug:"songul-yasar-yildiz",email:"songul.yasar@marmara.edu.tr",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Glycans",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Glycomics",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Major glycomics techniques",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"4. Systems glycobiology and integration of omics data sets",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.1 Genomics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.2 Transcriptomics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.3 Glycoproteomics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.4 Metabolomics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.5 Glycolipidomics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.6 Interactomics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.7 Other omics fields",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"5. Bioinformatics tools and databases",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"6. Current bottlenecks for systems glycobiology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"7. Mathematical modeling of biochemical reaction networks",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"8. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nVarki A. Biological roles of glycans. Glycobiology. 2017;27(1):3-491\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nOhtsubo K, Marth JD. Glycosylation in cellular mechanisms of health and disease. Cell. 2006;126(5):855-867\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nYork WS, Kochut KJ, Miller JA. Integration of Glycomics Knowledge and Data. Handbook of Glycomics. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier; 2010. pp. 177-195\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nFerreira CR, Turco L, Guimarães E, Saraiva SA, Bertolla RP, Perecin F, et al. Proteomics, metabolomics and lipidomics in reproductive biotechnologies: The MS solutions. Acta Scientiae Veterinariae. 2010;38:s591-s603\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nVarki A. Evolutionary forces shaping the Golgi glycosylation machinery: Why cell surface glycans are universal to living cells. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology. 2011;3(6):a005462\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nBennun SV, Hizal DB, Heffner K, Can O, Zhang H, Betenbaugh MJ. Systems glycobiology: Integrating glycogenomics, glycoproteomics, glycomics, and other ‘omics data sets to characterize cellular glycosylation processes. Journal of Molecular Biology. 2016;428(16):3337-3352\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nYildiz SY, Erginer M, Demirci T, Hemberger J, Oner ET. Glycan-Based Nanocarriers in Drug Delivery. Drug Delivery Approaches and Nanosystems. Vol. 2. Florida (USA): Apple Academic Press; 2017. pp. 167-203\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nPanitch A, Paderi JE, Sharma S, Stuart KA, Vazquez-Portalatin NM. Extracellular Matrix-Binding Synthetic Peptidoglycans. IN (US): Google Patents; 2018\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nDwek RA. Glycobiology: Toward understanding the function of sugars. Chemical Reviews. 1996;96(2):683-720\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nGorelik E, Galili U, Raz A. On the role of cell surface carbohydrates and their binding proteins (lectins) in tumor metastasis. Cancer and Metastasis Reviews. 2001;20(3–4):245-277\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nTommasone S, Allabush F, Tagger YK, Norman J, Köpf M, Tucker JH, et al. The challenges of glycan recognition with natural and artificial receptors. Chemical Society Reviews. 2019;48(22):5488-5505\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nLau KS, Partridge EA, Grigorian A, Silvescu CI, Reinhold VN, Demetriou M, et al. Complex N-glycan number and degree of branching cooperate to regulate cell proliferation and differentiation. Cell. 2007;129(1):123-134\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nTian Y, Zhang H. Glycoproteomics and clinical applications. Proteomics – Clinical Applications. 2010;4(2):124-132\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nHwang H, Zhang J, Chung KA, Leverenz JB, Zabetian CP, Peskind ER, et al. Glycoproteomics in neurodegenerative diseases. Mass Spectrometry Reviews. 2010;29(1):79-125\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nLowe JB, Marth JD. A genetic approach to mammalian glycan function. Annual Review of Biochemistry. 2003;72(1):643-691\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nAdamczyk B, Tharmalingam T, Rudd PM. Glycans as cancer biomarkers. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects. 2012;1820(9):1347-1353\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nHudak JE, Bertozzi CR. Glycotherapy: New advances inspire a reemergence of glycans in medicine. Chemistry & Biology. 2014;21(1):16-37\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nLanctot PM, Gage FH, Varki AP. The glycans of stem cells. Current Opinion in Chemical Biology. 2007;11:373-380\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nVasconcelos-dos-Santos A, Oliveira IA, Lucena MC, Mantuano NR, Whelan SA, Dias WB, et al. Biosynthetic machinery involved in aberrant glycosylation: Promising targets for developing of drugs against cancer. Frontiers in Oncology. 2015;5:138\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nRaman R, Raguram S, Venkataraman G, Paulson JC, Sasisekharan R. Glycomics: An integrated systems approach to structure-function relationships of glycans. Nature Methods. 2005;2(11):817\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nLiu L, Telford JE, Knezevic A, Rudd PM. High-Throughput Glycoanalytical Technology for Systems Glycobiology. London, UK: Portland Press Limited; 2010\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nButler M, Quelhas D, Critchley AJ, Carchon H, Hebestreit HF, Hibbert RG, et al. Detailed glycan analysis of serum glycoproteins of patients with congenital disorders of glycosylation indicates the specific defective glycan processing step and provides an insight into pathogenesis. Glycobiology. 2003;13(9):601-622\n'},{id:"B23",body:'\nLauc G, Rudan I, Campbell H, Rudd PM. Complex genetic regulation of protein glycosylation. Molecular BioSystems. 2010;6(2):329-335\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nSoo EC, Hui JP. Metabolomics in glycomics. In: Functional Glycomics. Berlin, Germany: Springer; 2010. pp. 175-186\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nZhang W, Li F, Nie L. Integrating multiple ‘omics’ analysis for microbial biology: Application and methodologies. Microbiology. 2010;156(2):287-301\n'},{id:"B26",body:'\nAdua E, Russell A, Roberts P, Wang Y, Song M, Wang W. Innovation analysis on postgenomic biomarkers: Glycomics for chronic diseases. OMICS: A Journal of Integrative Biology. 2017;21(4):183-196\n'},{id:"B27",body:'\nLy M, Laremore TN, Linhardt RJ. Proteoglycomics: Recent progress and future challenges. OMICS: A Journal of Integrative Biology. 2010;14(4):389-399\n'},{id:"B28",body:'\nReily C, Stewart TJ, Renfrow MB, Novak J. Glycosylation in health and disease. Nature Reviews Nephrology. 2019;1\n'},{id:"B29",body:'\nGabius H-J, Kayser K. Introduction to glycopathology: The concept, the tools and the perspectives. Diagnostic Pathology. 2014;9(1):4\n'},{id:"B30",body:'\nKunej T. Rise of systems Glycobiology and personalized Glycomedicine: Why and how to integrate Glycomics with multiomics science? OMICS. 2019;23(12):615-622\n'},{id:"B31",body:'\nGeissner A, Seeberger PH. Glycan arrays: From basic biochemical research to bioanalytical and biomedical applications. Annual Review of Analytical Chemistry. 2016;9:223-247\n'},{id:"B32",body:'\nSmith DF, Cummings RD, Song X. History and future of shotgun glycomics. Biochemical Society Transactions. 2019;47(1):1-11\n'},{id:"B33",body:'\nNarimatsu Y, Joshi HJ, Nason R, Van Coillie J, Karlsson R, Sun L, et al. An atlas of human glycosylation pathways enables display of the human glycome by gene engineered cells. Molecular Cell. 2019;75(2):394-407. e5\n'},{id:"B34",body:'\nGeyer H, Geyer R. Strategies for analysis of glycoprotein glycosylation. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA)-Proteins and Proteomics. 2006;1764(12):1853-1869\n'},{id:"B35",body:'\nWilson IB. Molecular parasitology. In: Glycomics. Berlin, Germany: Springer; 2016. pp. 75-89\n'},{id:"B36",body:'\nAlley WR Jr, Novotny MV. Structural glycomic analyses at high sensitivity: A decade of progress. Annual Review of Analytical Chemistry. 2013;6:237-265\n'},{id:"B37",body:'\nHaslam SM, Morris HR, Dell A. Mass spectrometric strategies: Providing structural clues for helminth glycoproteins. Trends in Parasitology. 2001;17(5):231-235\n'},{id:"B38",body:'\nThaysen-Andersen M, Packer NH. Advances in LC–MS/MS-based glycoproteomics: Getting closer to system-wide site-specific mapping of the N-and O-glycoproteome. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA)-Proteins and Proteomics. 2014;1844(9):1437-1452\n'},{id:"B39",body:'\nSchachter H. Biosynthetic controls that determine the branching and microheterogeneity of protein-bound oligosaccharides. Biochemistry and Cell Biology. 1986;64(3):163-181\n'},{id:"B40",body:'\nIskratsch T, Braun A, Paschinger K, Wilson IB. Specificity analysis of lectins and antibodies using remodeled glycoproteins. Analytical Biochemistry. 2009;386(2):133-146\n'},{id:"B41",body:'\nCummings RD, Pierce JM. The challenge and promise of glycomics. Chemistry & Biology. 2014;21(1):1-15\n'},{id:"B42",body:'\nCeroni A, Maass K, Geyer H, Geyer R, Dell A, Haslam SM. GlycoWorkbench: A tool for the computer-assisted annotation of mass spectra of glycans. Journal of Proteome Research. 2008;7(4):1650-1659\n'},{id:"B43",body:'\nMaass K, Ranzinger R, Geyer H, von der Lieth CW, Geyer R. “Glyco-peakfinder”–De novo composition analysis of glycoconjugates. Proteomics. 2007;7(24):4435-4444\n'},{id:"B44",body:'\nGoldberg D, Sutton-Smith M, Paulson J, Dell A. Automatic annotation of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization N-glycan spectra. Proteomics. 2005;5(4):865-875\n'},{id:"B45",body:'\nKawano S, Hashimoto K, Miyama T, Goto S, Kanehisa M, editors. Prediction of glycan structures from DNA microarray data. In: Glycobiology. NC, USA: Journals Department, Oxford University Press; 2004\n'},{id:"B46",body:'\nAn HJ, Lebrilla CB. A glycomics approach to the discovery of potential cancer biomarkers. In: Functional Glycomics. Berlin, Germany: Springer; 2010. pp. 199-213\n'},{id:"B47",body:'\nJoshi HJ, Harrison MJ, Schulz BL, Cooper CA, Packer NH, Karlsson NG. Development of a mass fingerprinting tool for automated interpretation of oligosaccharide fragmentation data. Proteomics. 2004;4(6):1650-1664\n'},{id:"B48",body:'\nKrambeck FJ, Betenbaugh MJ. A mathematical model of N-linked glycosylation. Biotechnology and Bioengineering. 2005;92(6):711-728\n'},{id:"B49",body:'\nBennun SV, Yarema KJ, Betenbaugh MJ, Krambeck FJ. Integration of the transcriptome and glycome for identification of glycan cell signatures. PLoS Computational Biology. 2013;9(1): e1002813\n'},{id:"B50",body:'\nKawano S, Hashimoto K, Miyama T, Goto S, Kanehisa M. Prediction of glycan structures from gene expression data based on glycosyltransferase reactions. Bioinformatics. 2005;21(21):3976-3982\n'},{id:"B51",body:'\nSuga A, Yamanishi Y, Hashimoto K, Goto S, Kanehisa M. An improved scoring scheme for predicting glycan structures from gene expression data. Genome Informatics. 2007;18:237-246\n'},{id:"B52",body:'\nKrambeck FJ, Bennun SV, Narang S, Choi S, Yarema KJ, Betenbaugh MJ. A mathematical model to derive N-glycan structures and cellular enzyme activities from mass spectrometric data. Glycobiology. 2009;19(11):1163-1175\n'},{id:"B53",body:'\nSrinivasan S, Stephens C, Wilson E, Panchadsaram J, DeVoss K, Koistinen H, et al. Prostate cancer risk-associated single-nucleotide polymorphism affects prostate-specific antigen glycosylation and its function. Clinical Chemistry. 2019;65(1):e1-e9\n'},{id:"B54",body:'\nMoehler TM, Seckinger A, Hose D, Andrulis M, Moreaux J, Hielscher T, et al. The glycome of normal and malignant plasma cells. PLoS One. 2013;8(12):e83719\n'},{id:"B55",body:'\nVojta A, Samaržija I, Bočkor L, Zoldoš V. Glyco-genes change expression in cancer through aberrant methylation. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects. 2016;1860(8):1776-1785\n'},{id:"B56",body:'\nVenturi G, Gomes Ferreira I, Pucci M, Ferracin M, Malagolini N, Chiricolo M, et al. Impact of sialyltransferase ST6GAL1 overexpression on different colon cancer cell types. Glycobiology. 2019;29(10):684-695\n'},{id:"B57",body:'\nSaravanan C, Cao Z, Head SR, Panjwani N. Analysis of differential expression of glycosyltransferases in healing corneas by glycogene microarrays. Glycobiology. 2010;20(1):13-23\n'},{id:"B58",body:'\nBarfeld SJ, East P, Zuber V, Mills IG. Meta-analysis of prostate cancer gene expression data identifies a novel discriminatory signature enriched for glycosylating enzymes. BMC Medical Genomics. 2014;7(1):513\n'},{id:"B59",body:'\nNorton PA, Mehta AS. Expression of genes that control core fucosylation in hepatocellular carcinoma: Systematic review. World Journal of Gastroenterology. 2019;25(23):2947\n'},{id:"B60",body:'\nLauc G, Pezer M, Rudan I, Campbell H. Mechanisms of disease: The human N-glycome. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects. 2016;1860(8):1574-1582\n'},{id:"B61",body:'\nAzevedo R, Peixoto A, Gaiteiro C, Fernandes E, Neves M, Lima L, et al. Over forty years of bladder cancer glycobiology: Where do glycans stand facing precision oncology? Oncotarget. 2017;8(53):91734\n'},{id:"B62",body:'\nChristiansen MN, Chik J, Lee L, Anugraham M, Abrahams JL, Packer NH. Cell surface protein glycosylation in cancer. Proteomics. 2014;14(4–5):525-546\n'},{id:"B63",body:'\nPalmigiano A, Barone R, Sturiale L, Sanfilippo C, Bua RO, Romeo DA, et al. CSF N-glycoproteomics for early diagnosis in Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Proteomics. 2016;131:29-37\n'},{id:"B64",body:'\nLlop E, Guerrero PE, Duran A, Barrabés S, Massaguer A, Ferri MJ, et al. Glycoprotein biomarkers for the detection of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma. World Journal of Gastroenterology. 2018;24(24):2537\n'},{id:"B65",body:'\nBrockhausen I, Yang JM, Burchell J, Whitehouse C, Taylor-Papadimitriou J. Mechanisms underlying aberrant glycosylation of MUC1 mucin in breast cancer cells. European Journal of Biochemistry. 1995;233(2):607-617\n'},{id:"B66",body:'\nGils A, Pedersen KE, Skottrup P, Christensen A, Naessens D, Deinum J, et al. Biochemical importance of glycosylation of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1. Thrombosis and Haemostasis. 2003;90(08):206-217\n'},{id:"B67",body:'\nLempiäinen A, Hotakainen K, Blomqvist C, Alfthan H, Stenman U-H. Hyperglycosylated human chorionic gonadotropin in serum of testicular cancer patients. Clinical Chemistry. 2012;58(7):1123-1129\n'},{id:"B68",body:'\nSato Y, Nakata K, Kato Y, Shima M, Ishii N, Koji T, et al. Early recognition of hepatocellular carcinoma based on altered profiles of alpha-fetoprotein. The New England Journal of Medicine. 1993;328(25):1802-1806\n'},{id:"B69",body:'\nGadroy P, Stridsberg M, Capon C, Michalski J-C, Strub J-M, van Dorsselaer A, et al. Phosphorylation and O-glycosylation sites of human chromogranin a (CGA79–439) from urine of patients with carcinoid tumors. The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 1998;273(51):34087-34097\n'},{id:"B70",body:'\nJankovic MM, Milutinovic BS. Glycoforms of CA125 antigen as a possible cancer marker. Cancer Biomarkers. 2008;4(1):35-42\n'},{id:"B71",body:'\nHua L, Liu Y, Zhen S, Wan D, Cao J, Gao X. Expression and biochemical characterization of recombinant human epididymis protein 4. Protein Expression and Purification. 2014;102:52-62\n'},{id:"B72",body:'\nKonjevod M, Tudor L, Strac DS, Erjavec GN, Barbas C, Zarkovic N, et al. Metabolomic and glycomic findings in posttraumatic stress disorder. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry. 2019;88:181-193\n'},{id:"B73",body:'\nWang M, Yu G, Ressom HW. Integrative analysis of proteomic, glycomic, and metabolomic data for biomarker discovery. IEEE Journal of Biomedical and Health Informatics. 2016;20(5):1225-1231\n'},{id:"B74",body:'\nAn HJ, Kronewitter SR, de Leoz MLA, Lebrilla CB. Glycomics and disease markers. Current Opinion in Chemical Biology. 2009;13(5–6):601-607\n'},{id:"B75",body:'\nWishart DS, Tzur D, Knox C, Eisner R, Guo AC, Young N, et al. HMDB: The human metabolome database. Nucleic Acids Research. 2007;35(suppl_1):D521-D5D6\n'},{id:"B76",body:'\nFurukawa K, Ohmi Y, Ohkawa Y, Bhuiyan RH, Zhang P, Tajima O, et al. New era of research on cancer-associated glycosphingolipids. Cancer Science. 2019;110(5):1544\n'},{id:"B77",body:'\nDehelean L, Sarbu M, Petrut A, Zamfir AD. Trends in glycolipid biomarker discovery in neurodegenerative disorders by mass spectrometry. In: Advancements of Mass Spectrometry in Biomedical Research. Springer; 2019. pp. 703-729\n'},{id:"B78",body:'\nKitov PI, Kitova EN, Han L, Li Z, Jung J, Rodrigues E, et al. A quantitative, high-throughput method identifies protein–glycan interactions via mass spectrometry. Communications Biology. 2019;2(1):1-7\n'},{id:"B79",body:'\nBonnardel F, Mariethoz J, Salentin S, Robin X, Schroeder M, Perez S, et al. UniLectin3D, a database of carbohydrate binding proteins with curated information on 3D structures and interacting ligands. Nucleic Acids Research. 2019;47(D1):D1236-D1D44\n'},{id:"B80",body:'\nAbuSamra DB, Argüeso P. Lectin-glycan interactions in corneal infection and inflammation. Frontiers in Immunology. 2018;9:2338\n'},{id:"B81",body:'\nLiu G, Neelamegham S. Integration of systems glycobiology with bioinformatics toolboxes, glycoinformatics resources, and glycoproteomics data. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Systems Biology and Medicine. 2015;7(4):163-181\n'},{id:"B82",body:'\nHucka M, Finney A, Sauro HM, Bolouri H, Doyle JC, Kitano H, et al. The systems biology markup language (SBML): A medium for representation and exchange of biochemical network models. Bioinformatics. 2003;19(4):524-531\n'},{id:"B83",body:'\nMondal N, Buffone A Jr, Stolfa G, Antonopoulos A, Lau JT, Haslam SM, et al. ST3Gal-4 is the primary sialyltransferase regulating the synthesis of E-, P-, and L-selectin ligands on human myeloid leukocytes. Blood: The Journal of the American Society of Hematology. 2015;125(4):687-696\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Songül Yaşar Yıldız",address:"songul.yildiz@medeniyet.edu.tr",affiliation:'
Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Department of Bioengineering, İstanbul Medeniyet University, İstanbul, Turkey
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"9346",title:"Computational Biology and Chemistry",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Computational Biology and Chemistry",slug:"computational-biology-and-chemistry",publishedDate:"December 23rd 2020",bookSignature:"Payam Behzadi and Nicola Bernabò",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9346.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"45803",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Payam",middleName:null,surname:"Behzadi",slug:"payam-behzadi",fullName:"Payam Behzadi"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"204621",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhu",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",email:"zhangchu2002@sjtu.edu.cn",fullName:"Zhu Zhang",slug:"zhu-zhang",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Introductory Review on an Engineering Approach for Fast‐Bed Modeling in Mimic to Bubbling Bed Practice",slug:"introductory-review-on-an-engineering-approach-for-fast-bed-modeling-in-mimic-to-bubbling-bed-practi",abstract:"Based on the downward‐penetrating particle flow through clusters and the analogy between a falling cluster and a rising bubble identified by the authors, a “type‐A‐choking‐oriented separate‐phase‐coexistence model” for the upper dilute region of fast beds was established first. Without any model parameter adjustment, the unified model predicted successfully the type C choking, the solids holdup of upper dilute region, and transitions to the high‐density fast bed and the dense suspension up‐flow.",signatures:"Ming‐Chuan Zhang and Chu Zhang",authors:[{id:"196301",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Ming-Chuan",surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Ming-Chuan Zhang",slug:"ming-chuan-zhang",email:"mczhang@sjtu.edu.cn"},{id:"204621",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhu",surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Zhu Zhang",slug:"zhu-zhang",email:"zhangchu2002@sjtu.edu.cn"}],book:{title:"Thermal Power Plants",slug:"thermal-power-plants-new-trends-and-recent-developments",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"11256",title:"Dr.",name:"Youjun",surname:"Lu",slug:"youjun-lu",fullName:"Youjun Lu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"144895",title:"Prof.",name:"Kw",surname:"Guo",slug:"kw-guo",fullName:"Kw Guo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"179942",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Nabagło",slug:"daniel-nabaglo",fullName:"Daniel Nabagło",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"196301",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Ming-Chuan",surname:"Zhang",slug:"ming-chuan-zhang",fullName:"Ming-Chuan Zhang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shanghai Jiao Tong University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"201108",title:"Dr.",name:"Liping",surname:"Wei",slug:"liping-wei",fullName:"Liping Wei",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201109",title:"Dr.",name:"Jikai",surname:"Huang",slug:"jikai-huang",fullName:"Jikai Huang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"212957",title:"Dr.",name:"Teresa",surname:"Kurek",slug:"teresa-kurek",fullName:"Teresa Kurek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"226919",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Maciej",surname:"Zyrkowski",slug:"maciej-zyrkowski",fullName:"Maciej Zyrkowski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"226920",title:"MSc.",name:"Piotr",surname:"Zymelka",slug:"piotr-zymelka",fullName:"Piotr Zymelka",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"227184",title:"MSc.",name:"Maciej",surname:"Bujalski",slug:"maciej-bujalski",fullName:"Maciej Bujalski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"WIS-cost",title:"What Does It Cost?",intro:"
Open Access publishing helps remove barriers and allows everyone to access valuable information, but article and book processing charges also exclude talented authors and editors who can’t afford to pay. The goal of our Women in Science program is to charge zero APCs, so none of our authors or editors have to pay for publication.
",metaTitle:"What Does It Cost?",metaDescription:"Open Access publishing helps remove barriers and allows everyone to access valuable information, but article and book processing charges also exclude talented authors and editors who can’t afford to pay. The goal of our Women in Science program is to charge zero APCs, so none of our authors or editors have to pay for publication.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We are currently in the process of collecting sponsorship. If you have any ideas or would like to help sponsor this ambitious program, we’d love to hear from you. Contact us at info@intechopen.com.
\\n\\n
All of our IntechOpen sponsors are in good company! The research in past IntechOpen books and chapters have been funded by:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
European Commission
\\n\\t
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
\\n\\t
Wellcome Trust
\\n\\t
National Institute of Health (NIH)
\\n\\t
National Science Foundation (NSF)
\\n\\t
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
We are currently in the process of collecting sponsorship. If you have any ideas or would like to help sponsor this ambitious program, we’d love to hear from you. Contact us at info@intechopen.com.
\n\n
All of our IntechOpen sponsors are in good company! The research in past IntechOpen books and chapters have been funded by:
\n\n
\n\t
European Commission
\n\t
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
\n\t
Wellcome Trust
\n\t
National Institute of Health (NIH)
\n\t
National Science Foundation (NSF)
\n\t
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
\n\t
Research Councils United Kingdom (RCUK)
\n\t
Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT)
\n\t
Chinese Academy of Sciences
\n\t
Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC)
\n\t
German Research Foundation (DFG)
\n\t
Max Planck Institute
\n\t
Austrian Science Fund (FWF)
\n\t
Australian Research Council (ARC)
\n
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5775},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5239},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1721},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10411},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15810}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118378},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateendthirdsteppublish",topicid:"11"},books:[],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:20},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:25},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5249},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9669",title:"Recent Advances in Rice Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12b06cc73e89af1e104399321cc16a75",slug:"recent-advances-in-rice-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur- Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-Ur-",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-Ur- Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"962",title:"Rheology",slug:"rheology",parent:{title:"Surface Science",slug:"surface-science"},numberOfBooks:3,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:61,numberOfWosCitations:173,numberOfCrossrefCitations:60,numberOfDimensionsCitations:177,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"rheology",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"6702",title:"Polymer Rheology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c24234818cd4b2ce3ed569c2b29f714c",slug:"polymer-rheology",bookSignature:"Jose Luis Rivera-Armenta and Beatriz Adriana Salazar Cruz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6702.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"107855",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rivera Armenta",slug:"jose-luis-rivera-armenta",fullName:"Jose Luis Rivera Armenta"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3489",title:"Rheology",subtitle:"New Concepts, Applications and Methods",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"35387b72b92ad7d46c48fc716907f286",slug:"rheology-new-concepts-applications-and-methods",bookSignature:"Rajkumar Durairaj",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3489.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"160498",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Rajkumar",middleName:null,surname:"Durairaj",slug:"rajkumar-durairaj",fullName:"Rajkumar Durairaj"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1601",title:"Rheology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6d8f58fa731fd2eaa54c4175944d5f5f",slug:"rheology",bookSignature:"Juan De Vicente",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1601.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99801",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"De Vicente",slug:"juan-de-vicente",fullName:"Juan De Vicente"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:3,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"30968",doi:"10.5772/36975",title:"Polymer Gel Rheology and Adhesion",slug:"rheology-and-adhesion-of-polymer-gels",totalDownloads:15177,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:60,book:{slug:"rheology",title:"Rheology",fullTitle:"Rheology"},signatures:"Anne M. Grillet, Nicholas B. Wyatt and Lindsey M. Gloe",authors:[{id:"110676",title:"Dr.",name:"Anne",middleName:null,surname:"Grillet",slug:"anne-grillet",fullName:"Anne Grillet"},{id:"138225",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicholas",middleName:null,surname:"Wyatt",slug:"nicholas-wyatt",fullName:"Nicholas Wyatt"},{id:"138226",title:"Ms.",name:"Lindsey",middleName:null,surname:"Gloe",slug:"lindsey-gloe",fullName:"Lindsey Gloe"}]},{id:"30975",doi:"10.5772/36619",title:"Solution Properties of κ-Carrageenan and Its Interaction with Other Polysaccharides in Aqueous Media",slug:"solution-properties-of-k-carrageenan-and-its-interaction-with-other-polysaccharides-in-aqueous-media",totalDownloads:7152,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:23,book:{slug:"rheology",title:"Rheology",fullTitle:"Rheology"},signatures:"Alberto Tecante and María del Carmen Núñez Santiago",authors:[{id:"109087",title:"Prof.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Tecante",slug:"alberto-tecante",fullName:"Alberto Tecante"},{id:"109098",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Nunez-Santiago",slug:"maria-del-carmen-nunez-santiago",fullName:"Maria Del Carmen Nunez-Santiago"}]},{id:"30973",doi:"10.5772/35715",title:"Measurement and Impact Factors of Polymer Rheology in Porous Media",slug:"polymer-rheology-in-porous-media",totalDownloads:7413,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:16,book:{slug:"rheology",title:"Rheology",fullTitle:"Rheology"},signatures:"Yongpeng Sun, Laila Saleh and Baojun Bai",authors:[{id:"105585",title:"Prof.",name:"Baojun",middleName:null,surname:"Bai",slug:"baojun-bai",fullName:"Baojun Bai"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"30968",title:"Polymer Gel Rheology and Adhesion",slug:"rheology-and-adhesion-of-polymer-gels",totalDownloads:15180,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:60,book:{slug:"rheology",title:"Rheology",fullTitle:"Rheology"},signatures:"Anne M. Grillet, Nicholas B. Wyatt and Lindsey M. Gloe",authors:[{id:"110676",title:"Dr.",name:"Anne",middleName:null,surname:"Grillet",slug:"anne-grillet",fullName:"Anne Grillet"},{id:"138225",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicholas",middleName:null,surname:"Wyatt",slug:"nicholas-wyatt",fullName:"Nicholas Wyatt"},{id:"138226",title:"Ms.",name:"Lindsey",middleName:null,surname:"Gloe",slug:"lindsey-gloe",fullName:"Lindsey Gloe"}]},{id:"42082",title:"Unsteady Axial Viscoelastic Pipe Flows of an Oldroyd B Fluid",slug:"unsteady-axial-viscoelastic-pipe-flows-of-an-oldroyd-b-fluid",totalDownloads:1535,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"rheology-new-concepts-applications-and-methods",title:"Rheology",fullTitle:"Rheology - New Concepts, Applications and Methods"},signatures:"A. Abu-El Hassan and E. M. El-Maghawry",authors:[{id:"161332",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Abu-El Hassan",slug:"abu-el-hassan",fullName:"Abu-El Hassan"}]},{id:"60426",title:"Applications of Viscoelastic Fluids Involving Hydrodynamic Stability and Heat Transfer",slug:"applications-of-viscoelastic-fluids-involving-hydrodynamic-stability-and-heat-transfer",totalDownloads:592,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"polymer-rheology",title:"Polymer Rheology",fullTitle:"Polymer Rheology"},signatures:"Ildebrando Pérez-Reyes, René Osvaldo Vargas-Aguilar, Samuel\nBernardo Pérez-Vega and Alejandro Sebastián Ortiz-Pérez",authors:[{id:"183938",title:"Dr.",name:"Samuel",middleName:null,surname:"Perez-Vega",slug:"samuel-perez-vega",fullName:"Samuel Perez-Vega"},{id:"186659",title:"Prof.",name:"Ildebrando",middleName:null,surname:"Pérez-Reyes",slug:"ildebrando-perez-reyes",fullName:"Ildebrando Pérez-Reyes"},{id:"242858",title:"Prof.",name:"Rene Osvaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Vargas-Aguilar",slug:"rene-osvaldo-vargas-aguilar",fullName:"Rene Osvaldo Vargas-Aguilar"},{id:"242859",title:"Prof.",name:"Alejandro Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ortiz-Perez",slug:"alejandro-sebastian-ortiz-perez",fullName:"Alejandro Sebastian Ortiz-Perez"}]},{id:"61757",title:"Viscoelasticity of a Supramolecular Polymer Network and its Relevance for Enhanced Oil Recovery",slug:"viscoelasticity-of-a-supramolecular-polymer-network-and-its-relevance-for-enhanced-oil-recovery",totalDownloads:552,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"polymer-rheology",title:"Polymer Rheology",fullTitle:"Polymer Rheology"},signatures:"Laura Romero-Zerón and Saran Banthong",authors:[{id:"109465",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Romero-Zerón",slug:"laura-romero-zeron",fullName:"Laura Romero-Zerón"},{id:"248778",title:"MSc.",name:"Saran",middleName:null,surname:"Banthong",slug:"saran-banthong",fullName:"Saran Banthong"}]},{id:"30966",title:"Polymer Rheology by Dielectric Spectroscopy",slug:"polymer-rheology-by-dielectric-spectroscopy",totalDownloads:4195,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"rheology",title:"Rheology",fullTitle:"Rheology"},signatures:"Clement Riedel, Angel Alegria, Juan Colmenero and Phillipe Tordjeman",authors:[{id:"103159",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:null,surname:"Riedel",slug:"clement-riedel",fullName:"Clement Riedel"},{id:"108820",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Colmenero",slug:"juan-colmenero",fullName:"Juan Colmenero"},{id:"108821",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Alegria",slug:"angel-alegria",fullName:"Angel Alegria"},{id:"108822",title:"Prof.",name:"Philippe",middleName:null,surname:"Tordjeman",slug:"philippe-tordjeman",fullName:"Philippe Tordjeman"}]},{id:"61369",title:"Polymeric Additive Manufacturing: The Necessity and Utility of Rheology",slug:"polymeric-additive-manufacturing-the-necessity-and-utility-of-rheology",totalDownloads:613,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"polymer-rheology",title:"Polymer Rheology",fullTitle:"Polymer Rheology"},signatures:"Mohammed Elbadawi",authors:[{id:"248255",title:"Mr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Elbadawi",slug:"mohamed-elbadawi",fullName:"Mohamed Elbadawi"}]},{id:"61430",title:"Effect of Maltodextrin Reduction and Native Agave Fructans Addition on the Rheological Behavior of Spray-Dried Juices",slug:"effect-of-maltodextrin-reduction-and-native-agave-fructans-addition-on-the-rheological-behavior-of-s",totalDownloads:499,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"polymer-rheology",title:"Polymer Rheology",fullTitle:"Polymer Rheology"},signatures:"Darvin Ervey Jimenez-Sánchez, Montserrat Calderón-Santoyo,\nLaetitia Picart-Palmade, Pedro Ulises Bautista Rosales, Julio Cesar\nBarros-Castillo and Juan Arturo Ragazzo-Sánchez",authors:[{id:"234138",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Ragazzo-Sanchez",slug:"juan-ragazzo-sanchez",fullName:"Juan Ragazzo-Sanchez"},{id:"234139",title:"Dr.",name:"Darvin Ervey",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Sánchez",slug:"darvin-ervey-jimenez-sanchez",fullName:"Darvin Ervey Jimenez-Sánchez"},{id:"234140",title:"Prof.",name:"Montserrat",middleName:null,surname:"Calderón-Santoyo",slug:"montserrat-calderon-santoyo",fullName:"Montserrat Calderón-Santoyo"},{id:"234143",title:"Prof.",name:"Laetitia",middleName:null,surname:"Picart-Palmade",slug:"laetitia-picart-palmade",fullName:"Laetitia Picart-Palmade"},{id:"234144",title:"MSc.",name:"Julio",middleName:null,surname:"Barros-Castillo",slug:"julio-barros-castillo",fullName:"Julio Barros-Castillo"},{id:"257866",title:"Dr.",name:"Pedro Ulises",middleName:null,surname:"Bautista-Rosales",slug:"pedro-ulises-bautista-rosales",fullName:"Pedro Ulises Bautista-Rosales"}]},{id:"30969",title:"Fracture Behaviour of Controlled-Rheology Polypropylenes",slug:"fracture-behaviour-of-controlled-rheology-polypropylenes-",totalDownloads:3816,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"rheology",title:"Rheology",fullTitle:"Rheology"},signatures:"Alicia Salazar and Jesús Rodríguez",authors:[{id:"107870",title:"Dr.",name:"Alicia",middleName:null,surname:"Salazar",slug:"alicia-salazar",fullName:"Alicia Salazar"},{id:"108505",title:"Prof.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez",slug:"jesus-rodriguez",fullName:"Jesus Rodriguez"}]},{id:"60436",title:"Rheology of Highly Filled Polymers",slug:"rheology-of-highly-filled-polymers",totalDownloads:862,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"polymer-rheology",title:"Polymer Rheology",fullTitle:"Polymer Rheology"},signatures:"Christian Kukla, Ivica Duretek, Joamin Gonzalez-Gutierrez and\nClemens Holzer",authors:[{id:"237561",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Kukla",slug:"christian-kukla",fullName:"Christian Kukla"},{id:"237564",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivica",middleName:null,surname:"Duretek",slug:"ivica-duretek",fullName:"Ivica Duretek"},{id:"237566",title:"Dr.",name:"Joamin",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez-Gutierrez",slug:"joamin-gonzalez-gutierrez",fullName:"Joamin Gonzalez-Gutierrez"},{id:"237569",title:"Prof.",name:"Clemens",middleName:null,surname:"Holzer",slug:"clemens-holzer",fullName:"Clemens Holzer"}]},{id:"60958",title:"Magnetorheology of Polymer Systems",slug:"magnetorheology-of-polymer-systems",totalDownloads:488,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"polymer-rheology",title:"Polymer Rheology",fullTitle:"Polymer Rheology"},signatures:"Sergey Vshivkov and Elena Rusinova",authors:[{id:"233365",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergey",middleName:"Anatol\\'Evich",surname:"Vshivkov",slug:"sergey-vshivkov",fullName:"Sergey Vshivkov"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"rheology",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"book.detail",path:"/books/menstrual-cycle",hash:"",query:{},params:{book:"menstrual-cycle"},fullPath:"/books/menstrual-cycle",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()