\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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Paranasal sinuses are located in the bones surrounding the nasal cavity; and they are called according to anatomical relations such as maxillary, ethmoid, frontal and sphenoid sinuses. The sinuses develop mostly after birth, and their degree of development varies greatly. It is controversial that paranasal sinuses have an aid to facial growth and development or persist as residual remnants of an evolutionary structure found in an additional role as an adjunct to the nasal cavity [1–5]. There are numerous results explaining the function of paranasal sinuses.
\nIn relation with their location, these sinuses contribute to the development of the facial structures, jaws, upper airway, some degree of warmth and humidification to inspired air, thermal isolation, resonance of voice, weight of the skull and expansion of olfactory surfaces.
\nThe paranasal sinuses can act to improve nasal function; they improve the production of nitric oxide and in aiding the immune defences of the nasal cavity [1]. Besides, the sinuses can show adaptability to environmental stress in relation to human facial morphology, for example, human paranasal sinuses have been shown to have higher volumes in individuals living in warmer climates [2, 3].
\nAdditionally, there are findings relating the paranasal sinuses with vascular thermal mechanism. The vascular mechanism in which the arterial blood destined for the brain is cooled by venous blood returning from the evaporating surfaces of the head is called the carotid rete [4]. However, in terms of missing the selective brain cooling mechanism temporarily or permanently, a vascular structure that facilitates counter‐current heat exchange is located at the base of the skull in some mammals. In case of lacking a vascular mechanism or an aid to the selective brain cooling system, larger paranasal sinuses and also broader nasal cavity would be providing more evaporating surfaces; such variations have been shown in individuals, especially living in hot climates [4].
\nParanasal sinuses may assure harmony in facial growth and make the skull lighter. They also can be seen as a protector of the brain. In prenatal growth and development, the facial cranium distinctly retracts, the maxillary sinus is enlarged because of the new osteogenic activity for erupting molar teeth. During embryogenic life, the functions of the sinuses such as air conditioning progress in harmony with the change in the dental arch and the enlargement of the masticatory muscles.
\nIn addition, the mucociliary apparatus has an important role in maintaining the integrity of the nasal airway and paranasal sinuses as well as that of the rest of the respiratory tract, that is, mucociliary transport relies not only on coordinated ciliary activity but also on mucus and its specific rheological properties.
The conventional imaging techniques have included Water’s (occipitomental view), Caldwell (occipitofrontal view), lateral (cephalometric), basal and oblique and submentovertex radiographies for the sinuses.
\nSinus X rays are still frequently used in the evaluation of paranasal sinuses. The conventional diagnostic tools of two‐dimensional X rays have shown various advantages such as low amount of radiation doses, simple and quick, noninvasive and low‐cost advantages. According to recent studies, a low‐dose high‐resolution three‐dimensional scans might be given more accurate diagnostic data for certain conditions such as surgical intervention, anatomic variations and nasal and osteomeatal unit evaluation. However, appearance of new digital two‐dimensional systems with numerous features of image enhancement, in addition to the mentioned advantages, might represent digital two‐dimensional radiography as a simple and acceptable modality in this field [5].
\nThe Water’s view is also known as the occipitomental view, where the Xray beam is angled at 37° to the canthomeatal line. The radiographic plate is placed positioning towards the face and perpendicular to the midsagittal plane. It is commonly used to view of maxillary sinuses.
\nLateral X‐ray images show the osteogenic border of maxillary, sphenoid and frontal sinuses. It specially is used to survey the skull and facial bones for evidence of disease, trauma and developmental anomalies in orthodontics. Lateral cephalograms is also used for assessing facial growth.
\nCaldwell’s view projects the osteogenic border of frontal sinus well. It has also included excellent capability in illustrating opasified frontal sinuses and ethmoidal air cells as well as nasal septum deviation [5].
\nSubmentovertex view often is used for evaluating fractures and displacement of fractured zygomatic arch. However, this view is contraindicated with the cases suspected for spinal injury. On the other hand, it reveals the position of the condyles, sphenoid sinus, and the lateral wall of maxillary sinuses, which is an obvious advantage of visualizing of paranasal sinuses’ air and fluid levels for sphenoid sinus. But, the view could be ineffective to reveal the degree of chronic inflammatory diseases especially for ethmoid sinuses [6]. Yet some findings such as opacification of the sphenoid sinus in mucocele, the radiographic identification is usually possible [7]. Such inconstancies emphasize the need for more detailed tomography [5–7].
Computed tomography (CT) is currently the modality of choice in the evaluation of paranasal sinuses. A variety of CT scans such as conventional and/or cone beam CT techniques offer certain advantages and disadvantages even in comparison with other imaging techniques. Therefore, a primary concern to the clinician evaluating the paranasal sinuses should be conceiving an effective methodology [6–8].
\nCT imaging of the sinuses has been acquired in the axial, antero‐posterior, and coronal planes as well as three‐dimensional visual images using contiguous scans [8]. Either two‐dimensional or three‐dimensional usage of CT scans brings various advantages such as displaying bone and soft tissue anatomy and extent of diseases related with paranasal sinuses and around the paranasal sinuses [6–8]. In contrast, the conventional X‐ray imaging methods, CT scans, can guide clearly visualization of the sinus anatomy, ostiomeatal channels, which is extremely useful in the pre‐operative planning and in post‐operative follow‐up in cases of surgical interventions. Thus, the combination of CT scans with additional imaging methods such as functional endoscopy will bring significant advantage to treat particular cases more effectively, facilitating reduced morbidity and complications.
\nIt is well stated that current multi‐slice multi‐channel CT scanners can acquire slices as thin as 0.5‐mm images in any desired plane [6]. In some special conditions, such as lack of availability of multi‐channel CT scan, scanning might be routinely finalized with contiguous 3‐mm‐thick images [6]. Although the diagnostic quality of CT scanning is accepted as sufficient, the radiation dose may be controversial [7, 8]. Therefore, numerous considerable reduction techniques in radiation exposure alternatives have been the most challenging issue for the manufacturer. Recently, cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) was introduced for dental and maxillofacial imaging [9]. CBCT has several advantages over traditional CT, including lower radiation dose, higher image resolution and lower cost of machine [10]. CBCT scans can be as thin as 0.125 mm, compared to 0.5–3 mm for CT.
CBCT was first described in 1980 and was first applied to dentomaxillofacial radiology in 1998 [11, 12]. CBCT is accepted as one of the pioneering tool assessing paranasal sinuses by dentists, maxillofacial radiologists and otolaryngologists [11]. The technique has several advantages as mentioned above such as higher resolution and lower radiation doses.
During the developmental process of the paranasal sinuses, ethmoid sinuses have a strategic central position. Especially, extramural and intramural expansion of the ethmoid cells causes highly variable anatomy in the nasal complex [13]. These anatomic variations may contribute to the occurrence of the paranasal sinus disease or cause operative complications when performing sinus surgery. While some of the anatomic variations such as concha bullosa, agger nasi cell (ANC), nasal septum deviation, pneumatization of the uncinate process and Haller’s cell compromise already narrow the drainage pathways and produce obstruction in the osteomeatal unit (OMU) and thereby recurrent sinusitis [14], others from the onodi cell, protrusion of the internal carotid artery (ICA), optic nerve (ON), vidian canal (VC) and maxillary nerve (MN) to the sphenoid sinus can cause complications such as fatal bleeding, blindness and neurologic sequelae [15]. Consequently, it is necessary to determine the anatomy and the variations of the sinuses, particularly when the patient needs functional endoscopic sinus surgery (FESS).
\nEmbryologically, the lateral nasal wall has five foetal ridges and six furrows. Each ridge has an ascending and descending part. While some of the ridges and furrows disappear or fuse, some of them compromise the nasal concha. No concha develops from the first ethmoturbinal, but the remnant of the ascending portion forms the ANC [16, 17].
\nExtramural migration of the anterior ethmoid cells to the frontal process of the maxilla is called ANC [18]. This cell is in a close relationship with the lacrimal bone and affects the shape and size of the frontal recess (FR) anteriorly (Figure 1) [16]. Coronal CT images provide the clear identification of the ANC; however, sagittal views demonstrate the relation between the frontal sinus ostium, FR and ANC (Figure 2) [19]. The reported prevalence of ANC ranges from 15 to 92% [17, 19–22]. Also, Scribano et al. [23] reported that ANC was seen in nearly all patients. If there is an extensive pneumatization, it is thought that an enlarged ANC may narrow the drainage pathway of the frontal sinus and result in a chronic sinusitis [19]. However, no significant relationship was found between the ANC and frontal sinusitis [17, 20, 21].
Sagittal CBCT images showing the large ANC (arrow) and its relation with the FR (line).
Coronal CBCT showing large ANC (arrow) on the left side which narrows the FR.
Haller’s cells are defined as extramural migration of the posterior ethmoid cells situated beneath the floor of the orbit (the roof of the maxillary sinus), below the ethmoid bulla, most inferior portion of the lamina papyracea, and lateral to the uncinate process [18, 24]. The frequency rates of Haller’s cell have been variously reported to be between 6 and 51% [17, 19–22, 24–27]. These cells are closely related with the maxillary sinus ostium, and according to its size, they may negatively affect the maxillary sinus ventilation (Figure 3). Although the presence of this anatomic variant was thought to be a predisposing factor for sinusitis, no statistically significant correlation was found in many studies [17, 20–22, 27]. However, Stackpole and Edelstein [26] classified Haller’s cell as small, medium and large, and they found a statistically significant increase in maxillary sinus mucosal disease in patients with medium and large cells than the small ones.
Bilateral huge infraorbital ethmoid cells.
Extension of the most posterior ethmoid cells into the sphenoid sinus is termed as the onodi cell. This cell is located in the superolateral wall of the sphenoid sinus and is closely associated with the optic nerve (Figure 4) [18]. The reported prevalence of onodi cells is highly variable in the studies. The importance of these cells comes from risk of injury to the optic nerve when performing the sphenoid sinus surgery or the transsphenoidal approach to the hypophyseal fossa and a potential cause of incomplete sphenoidectomy [28]. The mean minimum of bone thickness between the onodi cell and optic nerve was reported as 0.08 mm by Thanaviratananich et al. [29] in a cadaveric study. Therefore, these nerves are particularly vulnerable to injury, and orbital complications such as blindness may occur during the surgery. Although optic nerve injury is the most important surgical complication in patients with onodi cells, there are other risks to vision as well. During the transsphenoidal surgery, onodi cells may limit the exposure of the sellar floor and should be removed [30, 31].
Coronal CBCT images. Bilateral onodi cell and its close relation with the optic nerve.
Onodi cells are not the single factor of the sphenoid sinusitis; however, with other predisposing factors, they may increase the prevalence of the sphenoiditis [32]. On the other hand, isolated mucoceles in an onodi cell may comprise the optic nerve and cause optic neuropathy [33, 34].
Intramural migration of the posterior ethmoid cells to the middle turbinate is called concha bullosa (CB) [18]. This anatomic variation was divided into three groups according to extent of the pneumatization: lamellar type (pneumatization in the lamellar portion), bulbous type (pneumatization in the bulbous portion; Figure 5), and extensive type (pneumatization in the both vertical lamellar and inferior bulbous portion) [35]. The prevalence of the CB varies from 4.6 to 89.5% [17, 20–22, 36–39]. This may be due to the different definition criteria for CB. While some researchers defined the CB as any degree of pneumatization in the middle concha regardless of location, the others restricted CB to specific locations.
A bulbous type of the CB.
CB is often associated with contralateral deviation of the nasal septum [16, 37]. It is still debated in the literature whether CB has a role in sinusitis aetiology. However, in most of the studies, no statistical significant relationship is found between the CB and maxillary sinusitis [17, 20–22, 36–39].
\nPneumatization of the superior and inferior turbinate is also called superior and inferior concha bullosa. Superior and inferior CB are rare anatomic variations. If the pneumatization is extensive in the superior concha, it may cause headache with nasal obstruction and mucosal contact without any inflammation [19].
Pneumatization of the uncinate process is referred to as uncinate bulla (UB) (Figure 6). This anatomic variation is believed to be extension of the ANC into the anterosuperior portion of the uncinate process [18]. UB may cause functional blockage of the osteomeatal unit. If the uncinate process is medially displaced and comes in contact with the middle turbinate, it may cause obstruction in OMU [19, 27, 39].
Bilateral uncinate process pneumatization.
Secondary inferior, middle, or superior turbinate (Figure 7) are very rare anatomical variations. Embryologically, extra turbinates are consisted of secondary invagination and evaginations from the lateral nasal wall [40]. The incidence of the secondary middle turbinate is reported to be between the 2 and 14.3% [17, 19, 40, 41]. Secondary middle turbinate originates from the lateral nasal wall, and posterior part of the middle meatus and lamina papyracea may be damaged during the surgical operation for it [41].
Coronal CBCT images showing the bifid superior turbinate.
Extension of an enlarged posterior ethmoid cell above the maxillary sinus is called ethmomaxillary sinus (EMS). It is important to differentiate the maxillary sinus with septa and EMS [42–44]. While septate maxillary sinus drains into the middle meatus, EMS drains into the superior meatus (Figure 8) [43]. EMS is a rare anatomic variation, and the reported incidence of this anatomic variation ranges from 0.7 to 2% [42–44].
Left‐side ethmomaxillary sinus and its drainage into the superior meatus.
The partition between the ethmoid and maxillary sinus is called ethmomaxillary plate which is triangular in shape. In case of extensive pneumatization as a continuation of the ethmomaxillary plate, a thin‐walled separating partition between the sphenoid and maxillary sinus is called sphenomaxillary plate (SMP) (Figure 9) [25, 45, 46]. It is important to identify this anatomic variation which may be mistaken for posterior ethmoid cells during transantral ethmoidectomy and increases the risk of inadvertent entry to the sphenoid sinus [45]. Reported incidence of the SMP was 11 [45], 14 [46], and 15% [19].
Left‐side SMP.
Sphenoid sinus is located within the body of the sphenoid bone and closely related with the numerous neurovascular structures. ICA and MN lie adjacent to the lateral wall of the sphenoid sinus and during their passage may produce variable bulging into the sinus [18]. These neurovascular structures are covered by a thin bone separating the ICA and MN from the sphenoid sinus mucosa. Sometimes, this bony canal covering is found to be partially dehiscent, and ICA and MN are only covered by the mucoperiosteum. In this situation, neurovascular structures become vulnerable to infection and damage [15, 47].
\nThe prevalence of the ICA bulging (Figure 10) into the sphenoid sinus varies from 3 to 41% [15, 47–51]. In case of bulging, an ICA injury may occur due to a trauma or a complication of sinus disease. If the surgeon is not aware of this variation, fatal haemorrhage can occur; it is hardly possible to control the bleeding from this artery, and neurological sequelae are inevitable [15, 51]. Another complication during the surgery is if the septum in the sphenoid sinus (Figure 11) adheres to the wall of the ICA, the surgeon must be careful about not fracturing it to avoid the artery damage [18, 50].
ICA protrusion into the sphenoid sinus bilaterally.
Axial CBCT images. Sphenoid sinus septum adheres to the ICA wall bilaterally.
The frequency rates of MN bulging (Figure 12) have been reported to be between 14.2 and 30.3% [47, 50, 51]. MN is also at risk during sphenoid sinus surgery, and sinus pathology may be related with the trigeminal neuralgia [52].
Bilateral MN protrusion into the sphenoid sinus.
There are two definitions about the pterygoid process (PP) pneumatization (Figure 13) in the literature. If there is an extensive sphenoid sinus pneumatization that extends beyond a horizontal plane crossing the VC [51], or a plane between the VC and FR [15, 47], it is considered that patient has PP pneumatization. If the sinus expands to the pterygoid processes, the sinus floor creates a definite ridge where the vidian channel is located. PP pneumatization may lead to the formation of a potential cavity for the accumulation of sinus‐associated purulent exudate [47]. PP pneumatization is a very important surgical route for access to the middle part of the skull base without brain retraction. This route can be used in the endoscopic repair of the leak of cerebrospinal fluid and endoscopic biopsy of skull‐base lesions [53].
Coronal CBCT images show the bilateral remarkable PP pneumatization.
Pneumatization of the sphenoid sinus may extend into the anterior (Figure 14) or posterior clinoid (Figure 15) process. In most of the study, ACP pneumatization was found to be significantly associated with the optic nerve protrusion [15, 47, 48, 51].
\nThe posterior clinoid process pneumatization prevalence is reported to be 1% by Lu et al. [54].
Extensive pneumatization of the sphenoid sinus to the bilateral ACP.
Posterior clinoid process pneumatization on the left side.
Congenital or acquired deviation could be seen in the nasal septum (Figure 16). Deviated nasal septum may compress the middle turbinate laterally and narrow the middle meatus [52]. The reported prevalence of nasal septum deviation ranges from 18 to 75.9% [20, 21, 25, 27, 29, 55].
Nasal septum deviation to the right side with a septal spur.
Air cells are usually located within the posterosuperior portion of the nasal septum (Figure 17) and related with the sphenoid sinus. These cells may also be affected by any inflammation within the paranasal sinus [18]. This anatomic variation is generally not important but sometimes may narrow the sphenoethmoid recess [52].
Nasal septum pneumatization.
Interfrontal sinus septa cells (IFSSCs) are defined as discrete air cells in the frontal sinus septum (Figure 18) [56]. These cells drain into the one of the FR and are well defined in the coronal and axial scans [57]. The incidence rate in the literature is reported as 12.4 [56] and 14% [58].
The coronal image shows the IFSSC.
Supraorbital ethmoid cell (SOEC) is formed by anterior ethmoid cells that pneumatize the roof of the orbit behind the posterior wall of the frontal sinus (Figure 19) [25]. If the pathology in these cells cannot be determined, it may lead to failure of operations performed on the frontal sinus. On coronal images, the presence of bony septum between the ethmoid complex and the recess separates the frontal sinus from the SOEC [18]. These cells drain into the lateral aspect of the FR [57]. Because of the close relation between the SOEC and anterior ethmoidal artery, enlarging the SOEC could risk damage to the artery [59].
Bilateral supraorbital ethmoid cells.
Paranasal sinus variations are very common. Before the sinus surgery, CBCT is the best imaging method with lower radiation dose for the determination of sinonasal anatomy.
Mite complex is worldwide in its distribution in all regions of globe and more prominent in tropical a well as subtropical climates. Mites can be either inflicting damage to humans and animals [1, 2], or pestilent that feed on plants [3] and stored commodities [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23], otherwise predacious which are the carnivorous of leaf-feeding mites and other pests [24]. All harmful types of mites are able to devastate agricultural crops, fruits and vegetables [25, 26]. During the previous few decades, owing to increasing concerns over health, environment and pest resistance risks accompanying with chemical control, and the use of alternate pest management strategies has received considerable attention [27, 28]. In this context, the uses of generalist predators that can perform as a broad spectrum fighters against pests have been greatly encouraged [29, 30, 31].
Currently, mites belonging to the family Phytoseiidae (Arachnida: Mesostigmata) are economically important predators of some phytophagous mites and insects in greenhouses or field crops. Amongst others predators, mass reared phytoseiid mites are commercially available and used, against spider mites, thrips and whiteflies infestations on plants. Phytoseiid mites use odors (kairomones) associated with mite-infested plants to locate their prey or when predators contact spider mite webbing, these intensify their search for prey and may identify prey eggs and distinguish these from non-prey objects. The existence of a water-soluble feeding stimulant on prey eggs as well is postulated [32].
Predator mites which fit to the family Phytoseiidae, are categorized by long legs, with the front pair pointing frontward and comparatively have few hairs (<20 pairs) on their back. The color of mites can differ from deep red to pale yellow liable to the prey items eaten. Mites that feed on whiteflies and thrips are commonly pale yellow to pale tan. Phytoseiid mites have five life stages in life cycle like egg, larva, protonymph, deutonymph and adult. Most mites of this family are free-living predators in the deutonymphal and adult stages on a variety of arthropods in plants or crops. This chapter presents broad-spectrum ideas of the findings in research focusing on rhetorical aspects of biology and ecology of some predacious as well as harmful mites with particular reference to their possible role in biological control [33, 34].
Beneficial mites are excellent biological control agents and have been used in controlling of tiny mite pests and insect pests that cause a serious damage to many economically important crops.
Cucumeris predatory mite
Cucumeris populations have somewhat more females than males (64% females). Mite develops through one larval stage and two nymphal stages (protonymph and deutonymph) before becoming adults. The non-feeding larvae emerge from eggs in about 3 days and molt into protonymphs 2 days later. The two nymphal stages last for 7–10 days before developing into adults. Adults live for up to 30 days and eat an average of 1 thrips/day. Cucumeris has a life cycle of 10–12 days at 20°C, while development time at 75°F is 6–9 days and development takes from 8 to 11 days (at 20–25°C). Cucumeris prefers environment with >65% relative humidity (R. H.), but eggs can survive at as low as 40% R. H. Greenhouse
For studying food habits of predatory mite
Cucumeris is an aggressive predator of several soft-bodied pests and generally microclimates inside the greenhouse crop seem to be significant for their existence. Cucumeris feeds on little (first and second instar) thrips on foliage and flowers, and does not nourish on big larvae or adult thrips. The prime targets of Cucumeris are thrips species including western flower thrips (
Cucumeris is an appropriate enemy for many tiny pests of greenhouse crops, and both outdoor and indoor strawberry crop. This is able to live on pollen in the absence of pest and as a result might be used precautionary in crops such as strawberries or capsicums that produce pollen. Cucumeris has been efficaciously used for thrips control in capsicums, cucumbers, berry fruits and eggplants as well as in ornamental crops such as rose and gerbera, and other potted plants. In circumstances having very huge thrips pressure, Cucumeris ought to be always used in combination with the predatory pirate bug
In recent years, various delivery systems (formulations) of
Mite
Adults of
Growth from egg to adult takes place in 7–9 days at 70°F, 3 days at 85°F and at 78°F a fourfold rise in numbers can occur within 4 days. Under optimum conditions in the field, densities may increase from 10 predators per 100 leaves to 200–500 predators per 100 leaves in just 2 weeks. Adult mated females enter diapause in response to the short days in the fall (<14 hours of daylight) in plant crevices or other protected areas. As a result, these stop reproducing and move into sheltered areas, such as under bark or ground cover. But, these do not enter diapause in greenhouses or interior plantscapes if the temperature is 64°F (18°C) or above. These emerge as early as bloom, but in reduced numbers due to heavy winter mortality. Fallacis increases in number rapidly and adults become numerous by July or August, and on an average 40–60 eggs are laid. Warmer or cooler conditions accelerate or slow down reproduction/feeding, respectively, and these live about 20 days [46, 47].
Mite predator
Predator mite
Larvae do not attempt to feed and remain inactive near the old egg shell. Although the larval stage does not feed, yet the subsequent nymphs and adults feed on all stages of prey. Both males and females remained in the larval stage for an average of 1.0 ± 0.1 days. Immatures are normally pale salmon in color. The male and female protonymphal stages lasted 1.7 and 1.6 days, respectively. During this time both males and females ate an average of 4–4 eggs of
Due to its tropical origin,
Predaceous mite
Mite
Predator
Californicus works in the superlative form while used preventatively, or else when spider mites are initially observed in the crop. It establishes the best early in the crop and when is permitted to build up prior to spider mites found. Predator
Californicus are primarily sent in a loose, vermiculite-based medium and the predator should be distributed evenly through the crop on foliage, with additional material at ends of rows and in hotter areas prone to spider mites. Rates will vary depending on the crop and infestation level, however, the subsequent rates have been determined as preventative @ 25/m2 (2.5 L/ha) releasing 2 weeks apart for 2–3 releases, and after spider mite detection 100–200/m2 (10 L/ha) weekly for at least three applications.
The species
Adults are pear-shaped, 0.5 mm in length with an unsegmented body and four pairs of long legs, and males may be slightly smaller than females (Figure 5). The eggs are round and transparent white and measure approximately 0.15 mm in diameter. These mites lay their eggs on leaf hairs (trichomes) and along the veins on the inner surface of leaves mainly at the intersection of main and lateral ribs. Females prefer to lay eggs on leaf hairs on the underside of plant leaves near plant domatia (small hairy tufts or pockets found on the lower surface of some leaves), which may be an adaptation to avoid egg from predators. The eggs hatch in about 3 days later. Larvae are pale white to nearly transparent in color and only have three pairs of legs. Mobile stages are beige-pink, droplet shaped and ‘pushed down’ position on short legs. The protonymph (second stage) and deutonymph (third stage) have four pairs of legs and are darker than the larvae. All stages can be found in the corner of main vein and lateral veins, and in the flowers [65, 66].
In addition to arthropod prey,
Species
The predatory mite
The eggs are oval, transparent white and around 0.15 mm in diameter. All stages can be mainly found in the corner of main vein and lateral veins, and in the flowers. When fed on
The predacious mite
It is used against various thrips species and broad mite as well as other tarsonemid mites in greenhouses and indoor plantscapes. It works well on
Mite species
Predatory mite
This predator works well on both inside protected crops and outside in ornamental crops, fruit trees, horticulture, nurseries and seedbeds. The invasion of the predator is realized under the low mass and the average density of 0.25–1 individual per 1 m2of pest population in amounts. Based on the focuses of pest populations, the rate of predator application is increased. This predatory mite is suitable for biologically controlling of some mites. For scouting, if some agile-looking mites are seen running quickly across the leaf’s undersurface, these are probably predators. One predatory mite per every 6 feet of crop row or 2–3 mites per 10–11 square feet are used. For best results, apply the
Mite
Research on the biology of predator
The effectiveness of hunter
A fenvalerate-resistant strain of
Among the effects of different developmental stages of two spider mite species, for instance,
Predatory mite
The average adult’s body length of
Eggs are laid in clusters and the eggs have a gluey surface, even though these are not very definitely fixed down, but are lightly bound together with silky strands. Development and fecundity are affected by prey type and environmental situations. Per female, the total number of eggs laid ranges from about 19 to 317. The time taken for an egg to develop to an adult within the temperature range of 12–30°C, decreased with an increasing in temperature. It took 33.8 days at 18.5°C, and at 25°C acquired 15.4 days. At 76% relative humidity and with
It is widespread and abundant in grain stores especially those that have significant storage mite problems. Maximum accounts of
The maximum frequently faced ectoparasite in captive snakes is the hematophagous snake mite (
It can be reared in large numbers and this makes it useful in the biocontrol of pest mites that infest harvested cereal and cereal products. For bulk rearing of the predator
Although mites are tiny creatures, these could be extremely harmful to cause great trouble for peoples or in other ways inflicting a variety of problems associated to plants.
Spider mites (Acari: Tetranychidae), belong to the superfamily Tetranychoidea that comprises five families, of which Tetranychidae is the largest. The common name ‘spider mites’ is so-called because of their ability to produce silken strands as do spiders, which is used to spin webs under that to reproduce and feed. Conversely, the silk glands in mites are situated close to mouth and allied with the mouthparts. From an applied opinion, the silk-producing habit has two vital uses for mites, firstly, falling from foliage and being adjourned from the host on a silk strand permits easy spread by wind and convection currents. Secondly, mats or tents of webbing around the mite colonies provide some degree of protection from natural enemies and treatments with pesticides.
Spider mites appear as tiny moving dots on their hosts by the naked eye. Spider mites are established on a wide variety of vascular plants, comprising shrubs, trees and herbaceous plants, from entirely all over the biosphere. Several horticultural and agricultural crops are affected by these pests, together with greenhouses and field crops, extending from low-growing bushes to fruit trees. Generally, spider mites forage on the lower side of foliage, however will cover the whole leaf surface while their densities are extraordinary. These puncture the plant cells and extract the cell contents. Their nourishing results in tiny clumps of dead cells and a spotted look of infested foliage. Wilting, leaf distortion, dryness and abscission take place with extended and high population invasions. Disturbance of photosynthesis results in plant growth checking and decrease in produce [100, 101]. Two widely distributed spider mites found on a broad range of plants are mention in the ensuing section.
Two-spotted spider mite
If a female has mated, the fertilized eggs develop into both male and female mites, if not mated, the unfertilized eggs develop into males. Eggs are shiny spheres, clear to pale green in color, pearl-like and about 0.14 mm in diameter. Eggs are laid singularly, with females depositing 5–6 eggs per day, with a total of 60–100 eggs per female. Eggs hatch in 3–6 days depending on temperature. Eggs hatch into six-legged larvae, then progress through protonymph and deutonymph stages before becoming to adults. Larvae are about the same size as eggs and the only life stage with six legs (protonymphs, deutonymphs and adults are all eight-legged). The octopods deutonymph is generally larger than the protonymph, although similar in color pattern. Larvae and nymphs complete development in 4–9 days depending on temperature and the females have a pre-oviposition period of 1–2 days. Since generations overlap, all life stages can usually be found simultaneously. There can be nine or more generations per year and adults live about 30 days [104, 105, 106].
Generally, the earlier a foliage is injured by mites, the more detrimental the damage will be to tree health. Midseason injury is less significant, but can combine with other stresses to cause fruit drop, poor fruit color, or reduced effectiveness of growth regulating chemicals. Some steps for spider mites controlling are scouting for the presence of pest, and noting damage and other signs of growing populations, looking for direct damage and other signs of pest, deciding if and when to take control action, choosing the best tool or tools to treat spider mites in growing situation, making spider mite treatments, and applications of biocontrol agents following the label and producer’s instructions [107, 108].
One of the studies investigated the development, fecundity and population density of
The carmine spider mite
The carmine spider mite is closely related to two-spotted spider mite
Development times of the carmine spider mite
The major natural predator of the carmine spider mite is a ladybird beetle
In a study, the populations of
Mould mite or cheese mite
This mite is 0.2–0.5 mm in length and has a minute translucent body with nearly colorless legs and mouthparts. These besides have a scale on the last terminating segment of the legs. To a certain degree, their slim bodies endure a sequence of hairs, which are more frequent and lengthier than those on
Under optimum conditions, a generation can be completed in 8–21 days. As the temperature falls, the length of the life cycle increases greatly. This mite will tolerate high temperatures, and the larval stage is particularly susceptible to low and high temperatures with 93.6 and 54% mortality at 10 and 34°C, respectively. Unlike
Laboratory investigations on the biology of
An IPM strategy has been developed to manage infestations of mould mite in stored animal feed, due to the increasing importance as pest of storage facilities and feed processing. This approach includes some features such as adopting striking hygiene practice in and around the processing and storage facility, controlling the moistness content of the processed feed to 12%, rejection of infested grain at the receiving point, and admixing vegetable oil to some feed (2% w/w). Moreover, seven contact insecticides and phosphine fumigant for their effectiveness against the mould mite have been evaluated to measure their potential integration into the IPM tactic. Amongst these, pyrethrin synergized with a newly developed bacterium-based material spinosad, piperonyl butoxide and insect growth regulator s-methoprene controlled the mites. Moreover, the fumigant phosphine at 1 mg/L over a 6 days exposure period also controlled these mites. Until now, the IPM tactic, has resulted in a complete eradication of the mite population in this particular case of stored animal feed [127].
Even though, the predatory mites aggressively feed on many pest species, their reproduction and dispersion to cover the affected area and time spent in prey searching can slow the mites management. Because of this limitation,
In the case of multiple pests inhabiting different plant parts, a higher rate or multiple predator releases may be required to achieve the desired level of control. In some natural pest control programs, various predator species are released to manage a single prey species. Whereas, in some circumstances, release of multiple species may offer a well control, while in other cases species may interact with each other for a possible negative outcome on biological control package. In a study, intraguild predation has been evaluated between three phytoseiid species,
Predator mites are most effective when applied at the first sign of a mites or insect pests infestations. These will typically turn out to be established in the crop afterward one introduction, wherever there persist either mites or pollen for diet. When prey become infrequent, for example,
Ongoing studies include the biology and ecology of some mite predators along with pest mites and how biotic and abiotic factors affect pests and their natural enemies. To cut a long story into short, from lookout of biological control of pest mites or insect pests, the knowledge on biology and ecology of some predacious as well as harmful mites is undoubtedly important. A successful management plan requires information about a species biology including its diet, lifecycle and mass releases of predator, how it interacts with the environment and with other species as well as species behavior and how the behavior of both pests and beneficial enemies can be manipulated to reduce or prevent yield losses. Information of the biology and ecology of mite pests and their natural enemies contained in the chapter is a prerequisite to keep a minimum economic impact of pests, eliminate pest menaces by organic pest controlling and implement efficient plantation protection practices with modern thinking on environmental problems.
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