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1. History and current status of the breed (census)
Black Slavonian (Crna slavonska) pig is an autochthonous pig breed in the Republic of Croatia. It was created during the second part of the nineteenth century on the estate of Count Pfeifer, Orlovnjak, near Osijek. It is also known by the name “Fajferica”. It is a result of planned crossing between four pig breeds: Mangalitsa, Berkshire, Poland China and Large Black pig. This crossing aimed to create a pig with better meat and fertility traits. The first phase of crossing includes ten gilts of Mangalitsa and Berkshire boars. Additionally, Poland China boars were included in crossing schemes every 10 years. These systematic crossings were carried out from 1870 to 1910 [1]. The final phase of creation of Black Slavonian breed was during 1920 when crossing with English black breed-large black occurred. The success of crossing and breeding was confirmed in 1873 by winning gold medals at the Vienna Agricultural Fair [2]. At the end of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Black Slavonian pig was the most common and, from an economic standpoint, the most important pig in what is now eastern Croatia. Thus, it is nowadays rightly considered an indigenous breed. Census of Black Slavonian pig breed is presented in Figure 1. Presently there about 209 registered farms with 1930 breeding sows and 242 boars of Black Slavonian pig breed in the latest available status ([3], December 2017).
Figure 1.
Census of Black Slavonian pig breed, presenting number of sows and boars per year.
2. Exterior phenotypic characteristics
The Black Slavonian pig breed morphology information is summarised in Table 1. By morphological characteristics, Black Slavonian pig breed is similar to Mangalitsa, although regarding physiological characteristics it is more similar to the Berkshire and Poland China pig breed. The most important characteristic of Black Slavonian pig breed is its black coat colour. The peas and snout are also dark. Black Slavonian pig is a medium-sized pig. The height of the ridge is 65 to 70 cm. The head is medium long with a dense profile and with medium-sized and semi-circular drooping ears. The muscular neck is medium wide and medium in length. The chest is deep and wide. The body and legs are relatively short, whereas the hips are wide and fallen [3] (Figures 2 and 3).
Summary of morphology information on Black Slavonian pig breed.
Measured from the tip of the nose to the starting point of the tail.
Figure 2.
Black Slavonian sow with piglets.
Figure 3.
Black Slavonian boar.
3. Geographical location and production system
Black Slavonian pig is bred in the area of Slavonian counties: Brodsko-Posavska, Požeško-Slavonska, Osječko-Baranjske and Vukovarsko-Srijemska. Today the Black Slavonian pig is bred, also, in the area of Sisak-Moslavačka County. Black Slavonian pig breed is suitable for keeping under extensive, intensive and semi-intensive conditions. Breeding under semi-intensive conditions is the traditional production system for Black Slavonian pig [4, 5]. In this system, pigs are kept in pastures and woods where they exploit the food they find. On 1 ha of pasture area, 15 to 20 sows can be reared, depending on available nutrition and amount of the soil. To emphasise the traditional meaning of Black Slavonian pig, it is advisable to build facilities in a traditional style typical for the breeding area. Facilities for gilts and sows should be semi-open object (30 m2). Size of farrowing pen should be at least 6 × 1.5 m. After the farrowing, piglets should be placed together. Fattening period is a final stage of production system. This period must last at least 18 months and during this period pigs can reach from 130 to 150 kg [6]. Under extensive rearing conditions, pigs are kept on pastures where all the food is available to the pigs. The basis of nutrition in the system is acorn with additional feeding during the winter period [7]. Exceptionally before farrowing, sows are placed in semi-open facilities whose floors are filled up with straw. Sows and piglets in such facilities remain until weaning [2].
4. Organisations for breeding, monitoring and conservation
The conservation and breeding programme began in 1994 and is carried out by the Croatian Agricultural Agency (Hrvatska poljoprivredna agencija, HPA). The agency is in charge of keeping the register, marking the pigs and assessing the breeding value of breeding male and female animals. Monetary funds support the breeding of Black Slavonian pigs (150 EUR per year per breeding animal). The pedigree issuance is carried out in cooperation with the association of breeders of Black Slavonian pig “Fajferica”, which is also responsible for the implementation of the breeding programme (Table 2).
Name of organisation
Address
Web address
Hrvatska poljoprivredna agencija/Croatian Agricultural Agency
Udruga uzgajivača crne slavonske svinje Slavonije, Baranje i zapadnog Srijema/Association of breeders of Black Slavonian pig
Vladimira Nazora 1, 31,400 Đakovo, Croatia
www.fajferica.hr
Table 2.
Contact details of breeding organisation for Black Slavonian pig breed.
5. Productive performance
5.1 Reproductive traits
Basic data obtained on reproductive traits in this review are presented in Table 3. The average age of sows at first parturition is 15 months [13, 15]. According to the collected literature, sows of Black Slavonian pig breed have 1.1 to 2.2 litters per year [3, 9, 13, 17, 18] with 5.0 to 7.4 piglets [3, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23] of approximately 1.3 kg live body weight [13, 15, 19, 20]. Stillborn percentage of piglets is very variable and ranges from 1.0 to 15.9% [3, 10, 13, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21]; similarly piglet mortality rate until weaning spans from 5.4 to 15.9% [3, 8, 9, 10, 13, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21]. Duration of lactation is prolonged in comparison with modern intensive systems up to 57 days [21], which leads to a longer farrowing interval (165 to 326 days [9, 13, 17, 18]) and also higher weaning weight (9.5 to 11.3 [13, 15, 19, 20]). According to Uremović et al. [8], the number of live-born piglets in litter is determined by the number of farrowings, breeding system and characteristics of the boar, while the number of weaned piglets depends on seasonality, breeding system and boar characteristics. Sows have good motherly characteristics. It can be concluded that the reproduction traits of Black Slavonian pig breed are modest, but sows have good motherly characteristics. Uremović et al. [9] suggest that increasing of fertility can be achieved by crossbreeding with Duroc.
Summary of collected literature data on reproduction traits in Black Slavonian pig breed.
No. = number, mth = month, d = days.
5.2 Growth performance
Basic data on growth performance obtained in this review are presented in Tables 4 and 5. Due to big differences between studies with regard to the live weight range covered, we defined the stages for growth performance as lactation (regardless of how long it was), growing stage (from weaning to approximately 30 kg live body weight) and early, middle and late fattening stages estimated between approximately 30 and 60 kg, 60 and 100 kg and above 100 kg live body weight, respectively. However, in the case of Black Slavonian pig breed, studies mostly provided the overall growth rate for the whole fattening stage (defined as overall). It should also be noted that a big part of the collected studies simulated practical conditions of the production systems used and that only a smaller part of the studies aimed at evaluating the breed potential for growth. A considerably slower growth rate characterises the overall fattening stage of Black Slavonian pigs compared to modern pig breeds (approximately 335 g/day) but also by high heterogeneity among studies (189 to 567 g/day [8, 13, 15, 19, 20, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32]). In extensive keeping conditions, average daily gain was lower when it is compared with intensive system where pigs are fed with corn, because production system affects the average daily intake, food utilisation and pig growth rate. In the context of the evaluation of growth performance, it is also of interest to observe the extreme values, because it can be assumed that the maximum figures exhibit the growth potentials of Black Slavonian pigs in ad libitum conditions of feeding (≈ 567 g/day in the overall fattening stage). Generally, the Black Slavonian pig can achieve the final weight of 100 kg in the period of 8 months, while the weight of 170 to 200 kg can be achieved in 18 to 24 months. The food conversion in these conditions ranges from 4.5 to 5 kg.
Summary of collected literature data on growth performance in Black Slavonian pig breed.
ADG in a period of lactation and growing period estimated from birth to approximately 30 kg live body weight.
ADG in a period of fattening is reported for early and middle fattening stage estimated between approximately 30 and 100 kg and late fattening stage estimated above 100 kg live body weight. Sometimes the source provided only the overall growth rate for the whole studied period (in that case defined as overall).
No. = number; ADG = average daily gain in g; Rest = restrictive feeding regime.
Summary of collected literature data on average daily feed intake (in kg/day) in Black Slavonian pig breed.
ADFI in a period of lactation and growing estimated from birth to approximately 30 kg live body weight.
ADFI in a period of fattening is reported for early and middle fattening stage estimated between approximately 30 and 100 kg and late fattening stage estimated above 100 kg live body weight. Sometimes the source provided only the overall growth rate for the whole studied period (in that case defined as overall).
No. = number, ADFI = average daily feed intake in kg/day.
In considered studies, the information on feed intake and feed nutritional value were scarce, which limits the evaluation of growth potential. Average daily feed intake reported ranges from 1.3 to 2.3 kg/day in the overall fattening stage [13].
5.3 Body composition and carcass traits
Basic data obtained in this review with some of the most commonly encountered carcass traits that could be compared are presented in Table 6. In considered studies, pigs of Black Slavonian breed were slaughtered when reaching the final age of 359 to 550 days [27, 28, 32]. The final live weight covered in the studies spans from 21 to 230 kg [8, 13, 15, 24, 27, 28, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38] because some studies aimed to estimate tissue deposition rates by comparative slaughter technique [13]. Also dressing yield ranges from 66.2 to 85.1% [8, 13, 15, 24, 27, 28, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38] and lean meat content from 27.9 to 47.2% (SEUROP classification or dissection [8, 13, 15, 19, 20, 24, 27, 28, 33, 34]). However, when taking into consideration studies with only final body weight higher than 100 kg, dressing yield is around 81% and lean meat content around 38%. The backfat thickness values measured at the level of the last rib ranges from 32 to 71 mm [13, 15, 19, 20, 24, 27, 28, 38] and at the level of the gluteus medius muscle from 22 to 49 mm [15, 31, 32, 35, 36, 37]. Muscularity measured as loin eye area is between 27 and 38 cm2 [13, 15, 24, 27, 28] and as muscle thickness at the cranial edge of the gluteus medius between 57 and 72 mm [13, 19, 20, 31, 32]. Comparing the proportions of fat and muscle tissue in Black Slavonian pig and modern pig breeds, it can be concluded that Black Slavonian pigs have a significantly higher proportion of fatty tissue. Karolyi et al. [26] reported that the ratio of muscle parts and fat tissue was 32% versus 27%.
Basic data obtained in this review with some of the most commonly encountered meat quality traits measured in the longissimus muscle that could be found are presented in Table 7. In the studies reporting meat quality of Black Slavonian pigs, pH measured in the longissimus muscle at 45 min and 24 h post-mortem ranged from 6.11 to 6.75 [13, 15, 19, 20, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37] and from 5.57 to 5.91 [13, 15, 19, 20, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37], respectively. The intramuscular fat content was highly variable, ranging from 5.0 to 12.3% [15, 24, 27, 28, 30, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 39], but in average (app. 7%) considerably higher than in modern pig breeds where this percentage is usually up to 2%. The colour measured in CIE L, a and b colour space was around 49, 16.1 and 3.3 for L, a* and b* [13, 25, 26, 29, 30, 32, 35, 36, 37, 39], respectively, demonstrating visually darker and redder colour of Black Slavonian pig breed meat. Water holding capacity, which affects the processing ability of meat, ranges from 3.98 to 4.50 cm2 [24, 27] measured by compression method and 1.68% [32] measured by the bag method. In the considered studies, no data on the fatty acid composition was found.
Summary of collected literature data on meat quality in Black Slavonian pig breed.
CIE = objective colour defined by the Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage; L* greater value indicates a lighter colour; a* greater value indicates a redder colour; b* greater value indicates a more yellow colour.
Black Slavonian pigs are today used for the production of piglets for sale, production of fattening pigs for fresh meat consumption and especially for the production of traditional pork products such as ham, kulen, bacon, sausage, dry cured neck and fat. More recently, the production of dry-cured ham from the Black Slavonian pigs has also begun. At present, the procedure for protection of the product “Meso crne slavonske svinje” with PDI mark is being carried out. The quality of meat and products from Black Slavonian pig has also been investigated. Results show correlations between production system and quality of smoked ham from Black Slavonian pigs; the quality was significantly better when hams were produced from pigs kept outdoors and fed with green alfalfa as the feed basis [37]. Also, the research from Karoly et al. [26] shows that Black Slavonian pigs have poorer production characteristics, but significantly improved qualitative and technological properties of meat, and that the kulen produced from Black Slavonian pigs has better quality. In the future, the production systems of Black Slavonian pigs must be improved and harmonised. An increase in production of quality traditional value-added products is expected
Acknowledgments
The research was conducted within the project TREASURE, which has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No. 634476. The content of this paper reflects only the author’s view, and the European Union Agency is not responsible for any use that may be made of the information it contains.
\n',keywords:"traditional European breed, TREASURE, productive traits, phenotype, Croatia",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/65370.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/65370.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65370",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65370",totalDownloads:496,totalViews:300,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:"December 21st 2018",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"February 6th 2019",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Black Slavonian (Crna slavonska) pig was created during the second part of the nineteenth century using planned crossing between four pig breeds. It is an autochthonous pig breed in the Republic of Croatia and one of the local pig breeds investigated in the project TREASURE. The present chapter aims to present history and current status of Black Slavonian pig breed, its exterior phenotypic characteristics, reproductive traits, geographical location, production system and main products from this breed of pigs. Also, a collection and review of available literature data, available until August 2017, on productive traits of Black Slavonian pig breed were carried out. Growth performance was estimated utilising average daily gain and average daily feed intake in the overall fattening stage as this was the information mostly provided in considered studies. Carcass traits were evaluated by means of age and weight at slaughter, hot carcass weight, carcass yield, muscularity and back fat thickness. Meat quality traits of the longissimus muscle evaluated were objective colour and intramuscular fat content. Although a considerable number of studies on Black Slavonian pig were included in the current review, data on growth performance and some parameters of carcass, meat and fat quality are scarce.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/65370",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/65370",book:{slug:"european-local-pig-breeds-diversity-and-performance-a-study-of-project-treasure"},signatures:"Vladimir Margeta, Kristina Gvozdanović, Goran Kušec, Ivona Djurkin Kušec and Nina Batorek-Lukač",authors:[{id:"290245",title:"Dr.",name:"Vladimir",middleName:null,surname:"Margeta",fullName:"Vladimir Margeta",slug:"vladimir-margeta",email:"vmargeta@pfos.hr",position:null,institution:null},{id:"292865",title:"Dr.",name:"Goran",middleName:null,surname:"Kušec",fullName:"Goran Kušec",slug:"goran-kusec",email:"gkusec@fazos.hr",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. History and current status of the breed (census)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Exterior phenotypic characteristics",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Geographical location and production system",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Organisations for breeding, monitoring and conservation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Productive performance",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"5.1 Reproductive traits",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"5.2 Growth performance",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"5.3 Body composition and carcass traits",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"5.4 Meat and fat quality",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"6. Use of breed and main products",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Uremović M. Crna slavonska svinja ulazi u fazu izčezavanja. Agronomski Glasnik. 2005;57(4–5):311-316'},{id:"B2",body:'Karolyi D, Luković Z, Salajpal K. Crna slavonska svinja. Meso. 2010;12(4):222-230'},{id:"B3",body:'Hrvatska Poljoprivredna Agencija (HPA). HPA—Godišnje Izvješće za [Internet]. 2017. Available from: http://www.hpa.hr/godisnja-izvjesca/ [Accessed: 21-9-2017]'},{id:"B4",body:'Budimir K, Margeta V, Kralik G, Margeta P. Silvo pastoral keeping conditions of the black slavonian pigs. Krmiva. 2014;55(3):151-157'},{id:"B5",body:'Margeta V, Gvozdanović K, Margeta P, Kušec ID, Radišić Ž, Galović D, et al. Low input production system suitable for black Slavonian pig breeding. Acta Argiculturae Slovenica. 2016;5:122-126'},{id:"B6",body:'Margeta V, Gvozdanović K, Galović D, Grčević M, Radišić Ž. Production and carcass traits of Black Slavonian fattening pigs to higher final body weight. In: Lulić S, editor. Zbornik Sažetaka KRMIVA 2016; 1-6 June 2016; Opatija, Croatia. Zagreb, Croatia: KRMIVA d.o.o.; 2016. pp. 67-68'},{id:"B7",body:'Margeta V, Gvozdanović K, Djurkin Kušec I, Margeta P, Kušec G, Radišić Ž. The effect of the acorn in feeding on the production and slaughter traits of crna slavonska pig. In: Petrović M, editor. Proceedings of the 11th International Symposium Modern Trends in Livestock Production; 11-13 October 2017; Belgrade, Serbia. Belgrade, Serbia: Institute for Animal Husbandry; 2017. pp. 327-334. ISBN: 978-86-82431-73-2'},{id:"B8",body:'Uremović M, Uremović Z, Luković Z. Production properties of the black Slavonian pig breed. Zbornik Biotehniśke Fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani, Kmetijstvo Zootehnika. 2000;76:131-134'},{id:"B9",body:'Uremović M, Uremović Z, Luković Z, Konjačić M. The influence of genotype and production conditions on the fertility of sows in outdoor system. Agriculturae Conspectus Scientificus. 2003;68:245-248'},{id:"B10",body:'Senčić DJ, Antunović Z, Andabaka Z. Reproduktivna svojstva crne slavonske svinje–Ugrožene pasmine. Poljoprivreda. 2001;7:39-42'},{id:"B11",body:'Luković Z, Mahnet Ž, Karolyi D, Salajpal K, Škorput D. Genetic parameters for litter size in Black Slavonian pigs with each parity treated as a different trait. In: Dovč P, Čandek-Potokar M, editors. Acta Argiculturae Slovenica, Supplement 4; 10-12 October 2013; Ljubljana, Slovenia. Ljubljana, Slovenia: Biotechnical Faculty University of Ljubljana; 2013. pp. 3-35'},{id:"B12",body:'Obad I. Čimbenici plodnosti crne slavonske svinje [thesis]. Zagreb, Croatia: University of Zagreb, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Animal Science; 2016. p. 26'},{id:"B13",body:'Margeta V, Gvozdanović K, Margeta P, Djurkin Kušec I, Radišić Ž, Galović D, Kušec G. Low input production system suitable for Black Slavonian pig breeding // Acta argiculturae Slovenica, 2016 (2016), Suppl. 5; 122-126'},{id:"B14",body:'Skorput D, Gorjanc G, Dikić M, Luković Z. Genetic parameters for litter size in black Slavonian pigs. Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research. 2014;12:89-97'},{id:"B15",body:'Kralik G, Petričević A, Jovanovac S, Senčić Đ. Black slavonian pig. Stočarstvo. 1994;48:371-376'},{id:"B16",body:'Luković Z, Karolyi D, Klišanić V, Mahnet Ž, Gantner V, Škorput D. Genetic parameters and trends for litter size in Black Slavonian pigs. In: De Pedro EJ, Cabezas AB, editors. Options Méditerranéennes: Série A. Séminaires Méditerranéens; n. 101; 14–16 October 2010; Córdoba, Spain. Zaragoza, Spain: CIHEAM; 2012. pp. 71-73'},{id:"B17",body:'Morić V. Estimation of heritability for litter size in population of Black Slavonian pig [thesis]. Zagreb, Croatia: Agronomski Fakultet, Sveučilište u Zagrebu; 2011'},{id:"B18",body:'Hrvatska Poljoprivredna Agencija (HPA). HPA—Godišnje Izvješće za [Internet]. 2006. Available from: http://www.hpa.hr/godisnja-izvjesca/ [Accessed: 21-9-2017]'},{id:"B19",body:'Živković I. Voluminozna krmiva u hranidbi crne slavonske svinje [thesis]. Osjek, Croatia: Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Faculty of Agriculture, Department for Animal Husbandary; 2016'},{id:"B20",body:'Živković I, Gvozdanović K, Galović D, Steiner Z, Margeta V. Alfalfa as a protein supplement in feeding of Black slavonian pig-fajferica. In: Vila S, Antunović Z, editors. Proceedings of the 52. hrvatski i 12. međunarodni simpozij agronoma; 12-17 February 2017; Dubrovnik, Croatia. Osijek, Croatia: Sveučilišta Josipa Jurja Strossmayera u Osijeku; 2017. pp. 589-593'},{id:"B21",body:'Poljak A. Utjecaj dobi prvopraskinja na reproduktivna svojstva crne slavonske svinje [thesis]. Križevci, Croatia: Križevci College of Agriculture; 2017'},{id:"B22",body:'Kabalin AE, Starčević K, Menčik S, Maurić M, Sušić V, Štoković I. Analysis of ESR and RBP polymorphisms in black Slavonian sows: Preliminary results. In: Dovč P, Čandek-Potokar M, editors. Acta Argicul Slov Supplement 4; 10-12 October 2013; Ljubljana, Slovenia. Ljubljana, Slovenia: Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana; 2013. pp. 45-48'},{id:"B23",body:'Menčik S, Sabbioni A, Ostović M, Mahnet Ž, Beretti V, Superchi P, et al. Effect of seasonality on litter size traits in black slavonian and “Nero di Parma” pigs. Stočarstvo. 2016;69:3-10'},{id:"B24",body:'Senčić Đ, Bukvić Ž, Antunović Z, Šperanda M. Slaughter quality of black Slavonian pig–endangered breed and its cross-breeds with Swedish landrace while keeping them outdoor. Poljoprivreda. 2005;11:43-49'},{id:"B25",body:'Karolyi D, Salajpal K, Sinjeri Ž, Kovačić D, Jurić I, Đikić M. Meat quality, blood stress indicators and trimmed cut yield comparison of black Slavonian pig with modern pigs in the production of Slavonian Kulen. Acta Agriculturae Slovenica. 2004;1:67-72'},{id:"B26",body:'Karolyi D, Salajpal K, Sinjeri Ž, Kovačić D, Jurić I, Đikić M. Kvaliteta mesa i iskorištenja trupa crne slavonske i modernih svinja u proizvodnji kulena. Meso. 2006;8:29-33'},{id:"B27",body:'Butko D, Senčić Đ, Antunović Z, Šperanda M, Steiner Z. Pork carcass composition and the meat quality of the black Slavonian pig–the endangered breeds in the indoor and outdoor keeping system. Poljoprivreda. 2007;13:167-171'},{id:"B28",body:'Senčić Đ, Butko D, Antunović Z. Evaluacija crne slavonske svinje u odnosu na sustav držanja i križanje. Stočarstvo. 2008;62:69-73'},{id:"B29",body:'Salajpal K, Karolyi D, Kantura V, Nejedli S, Đikić M. Muscle fiber characteristics of Black Slavonian pig–autochthonous Croatian breed. In: Nanni Costa L, Zambonelli P, Russo V, editors. Proceedings of 6th International Symposium on the Mediterranean Pig; 11-13 October 2007; Capo d’Orlando, Italy. Bologna, Italy: AlmaDL; 2008. pp. 293-293'},{id:"B30",body:'Salajpal K, Karolyi D, Đikić M, Kantura V, Kiš G, Sinjeri Ž. Influence of acorn intake on blood lipid profile and longisimus muscle characteristics of Black Slavonian pig. In: Dovč P, Petrič N, Žgur S, Kompan D, Siard N, editors. Acta agriculturae Slovenica, Supplement 2; 17-19 September 2008; Strunjan, Slovenia. Ljubljana, Slovenija: Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana; 2008. pp. 99-105'},{id:"B31",body:'Marušić L. Proizvodna svojstva svinja crne slavonske pasmine u otvorenom sustavu držanja [thesis]. Zagreb, Croatia: University of Zagreb, Faculty of Agriculture; 2010. p. 31'},{id:"B32",body:'Baković M, Gvozdanović K, Galović D, Radišić Ž, Margeta V. Klaonička svojstva tovljenika crne slavonske svinje iz ekstenzivnog uzgoja. Krmiva. 2016;58:3-8'},{id:"B33",body:'Kralik G, Margeta V, Kralik I, Budimir K. Specifičnosti svinjegojske proizvodnje u Republici Hrvatskoj—Stanje i perspektive. Krmiva. 2012;54:59-70'},{id:"B34",body:'Senčić Đ, Butko D, Antunović Z, Novoselec J. Utjecaj tjelesne mase na kvalitetu polovica i mesa crne slavonske svinje. Meso. 2008;10:274-278'},{id:"B35",body:'Senčić Đ, Samac D, Antunović Z, Novoselec J, Klarić I. Utjecaj razine sirovih proteina u krmnim smjesama na kvalitetu polovica i mesa crnih slavonski svinja. Meso. 2010;12:28-33'},{id:"B36",body:'Senčić Đ, Samac D, Antunović Z, Novoselec J, Klarić I. Influence of crude protein level in forage mixtures on pig meat and carcass quality. Macedonian Journal of Animal Science. 2011;1:89-93'},{id:"B37",body:'Senčić Đ, Samac D, Steiner Z. Influence of nutrition of black Slavonian pigs on the quality of ham and cured ham. Macedonian Journal of Animal Science. 2013;3:57-61'},{id:"B38",body:'Margeta V, Gvozdanović K, Galović D, Grčević M, Margeta P, Radišić Ž. Production and carcass traits of Black Slavonian fattening pigs to higher final body weight. In: Lulić S, editor. Zbornik Sažetaka KRMIVA; 1-3 June 2016; Opatija, Croatia. Zagreb, Croatia: 2016. pp. 67-68'},{id:"B39",body:'Senčić Đ, Samac D, Antunović Z. Utjecaj proizvodnog sustava na fi zikalno-kemijska i senzorska svojstva mesa crnih slavonskih svinja. Meso. 2011;13:32-34'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Vladimir Margeta",address:"vmargeta@pfos.hr",affiliation:'
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1. Introduction
OB are classified as one of the most reliable recognizing and detecting devices. Ideally, they are composed of integrated system of photonic sources and biomolecule recognition component, which in spatial contact with the transductor, that can recognize and interact with specific molecule analytes present in sample [1, 2]. The interaction induces a variation in an electrical, optical or mechanical property of the transduces, the degree of variation reflects to the quantity of the analytes [2]. The fundamental structure of OB features the 1- bio-recognition element, such as; enzymes, nucleic acids, antibodies, microbes, polysaccharides. 2- Single transductor including electrical current, potential, impedance, EM radiations, mass, optical, piezoelectric or thermal, and 3- amplifier [3, 4, 5, 6]. The interaction occur between bio-recognition element and analyte produces a signal due to a number of factors, either alteration in proton concentration, release or capture of gases or electron, or light mission, absorption or reflectance, heat emission, change in mass [4]. The produced signal can be converted into measurable value (e.g. current, temperature alteration) by the transducer as shown in Figure 1.
OB provide an accurate and sensitive, timely detection technology [8]. In the current era, having such an analytical and informative features become an essence, especially in healthcare diagnostics, environment quality monitoring, food safety and security, biological warfare and biodefense [9]. Therefore, it become an attractive tool that subjected to a modification and development and emerging with nanotechnologies, microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), biotechnologies [10, 11, 12]. This reflected in the rapid advancement in biosensors, which is associated with the market growth application and is estimated by 21.18 billion USD in North America in the 2020 [13]. There is no universal or standard OB for detection; however, there are groups of OBs developed for specific applications and targets.
2. OB classification
There are a broad range of OB classification. Generally, the classification can be divided into two main classes: label-free and label-dependent classes. In label-free class the measured signal is produced directly by the interaction between transducer and the bio-analyte. Whereas in label-based sensors, a label is needed to produce signal, which can be measured later by a colorimetric, luminescent or fluorescent method as can be illustrated in Figure 2 [14].
Figure 2.
Illustration graph showing label and label free recognition classes of OB.
Label-free mode is more economically efficient in comparison to label dependent mode. It requires less effort and expertise and eliminate the experimental errors such that resultant from label shelf life, signal noise background. These are commonly seen in antibody–antigen interaction using label, which has a wide application in detection technologies [15].
3. OB detector elements – Bio-recognisers
Different bio-recognisers are used in the OB detection and quantifying technologies. The diversity of the detected materials required a suitable recognizing element. Examples of analytes in the samples; genetic material, toxins, drugs, enzymes, heavy metals [16, 17, 18, 19]. Enzymes, nucleic acids, antibodies, cells and micro-organisms are commonly used as bio-recognisers [20, 21, 22, 23, 24]. Table 1 shows some of their applications and features in biosensing.
Biorecognition
(Bio)sensors
Selected application
Physical transducer/liner range
Detection limit
Enzyme
Multilayers of silver metal and tantalum oxide nanoflakes with acetylcholinesterase enzyme OB [25]
Alzahimer’s disease diagnosis
50–400 uM
8.709 nm/μM and a remarkable LOD value of 38 nM
Tyrosinase on Fe3o4@Au core shell nanoparticles bio-probe [26]
Detection of dopamine, phenol and catechol
Linear response in the concentration range 5.0–75.0 μM, 10.0–100.0 μM for phenol and dopamine and 50.0–500.0 M for catechol
Disposable electrodes were fabricated by thermal evaporation on polyethylene terephthalatesubstrates covered with a nanometric gold layer manufactured in three-contact configurations
Different bio-recognition, their applications and features.
NM = not determined.
4. OB working method
An optical measurement concept is used by optical biosensors devices. Fiber optics are used along with optoelectronic transducers in these devices. The opt rode term is composed of optical and electrode terms. Enzymes and antibodies such as transducing elements are examples of what types of elements involved in these sensors. A secure non-electrical is permitted in optical biosensors, in which a sensing of equipment is inaccessible [34]. An additional advantage is that devices do not require reference sensors [35]. The reason behind that is that a light source can generate a comparative signal, which is similar to that of the sampling sensor. In order to ecxite the sensing element, optical source such as LED or Laser should be focused into substrate and photodetector capture the output signal as shown in Figure 3 [36].
Figure 3.
Schematic for optical biosensor working method [36].
5. Types of OB
Biosensors in general divided into categories which are Bioreceptor and Transducer. While, Optical biosensors are divided into two groups, which are: direct optical biosensor detection and labeled optical biosensor detection as follow:
5.1 Evanescent wave fluorescence
Evanescent wave-based biosensors are used to investigate the exponential growth in life science applications. They include the dissociation and binding kinetics of receptor-ligand pairs and antibodies, epitope mapping, interactions between protein-DNA and DNA–DNA, phage, show libraries, and interactions between virus-protein and whole cell [37].
Waveguide interferometers have remarkable significance, because they merge both sensitive techniques that are: wave guiding and interferometry techniques. Hence, they provide great reliability and potential miniaturization and integration in optical chips. Through the utilization of evanescent wave technology, the interaction between biomolecules and receptors are measure by the waveguide interferometer in real time without using labels. On a sensor surface, receptors are frozen and the interaction with the close biomolecules leads to a variation in the refractive index. With being far from the surface, the evanescent wave decays exponentially, usually over the distance of 100 nm to approximately a wavelength. Due to the reason that the evanescent wave is a near-surface phenomena, therefore, by using the detection of evanescent wave stimulation to produce fluorescent signal is surface-sensitive. This means that solely fluorescent molecules close to the surface are stimulated as seen in Figure 4 [37, 38, 39, 40].
Figure 4.
Evanescent wave fluorescence biosensors working method and the separation of molecules in the surface.
5.2 Optical fibers
Fiber optic is an example of analytical devices that works as a transduction item, in which it generates a signal proportional to the density of chemical or biochemical elements with react of the biological element. In addition, they transfer light with silica glass or plastic fiber optic fiber based on the Total Internal Reflection (TIR) principle to the analysis site [41]. The fiber optics biosensors are categorized into two different types:
Intrinsic sensors: the environmental changes are transformed by the internal property of the optical fiber itself into light signal modulation. This light signal modulation may be in the form of phase, intensity, and frequency or it may be polarization [42].
Extrinsic sensors: on the other hand, the extrinsic sensors can use the fiber as carriers of information leading to a black box. In addition, these sensors produce a light signal based on the received information at black box. This black box can be made of gas, mirrors liquid cells or several other optical signal generation mechanisms (Figure 5) show the difference between Intrinsic and extrinsic optical biosensor) [44].
Figure 5.
(a) Extrinsic types of fiber optic sensors, and (b) intrinsic types of fiber optic sensors [43].
The fiber-optical sensors essential benefits can vary from their: 1) capability of hard environment to robust EMI (electromagnetic interference immunity), chemical corrosion, high temperature, high voltage, and pressure. 2) Low power, very small size, and passive. 3) Exceptional performance such as wide bandwidth and high sensitivity. 4) Processing of long range. 5) They applied distributed or multiplexed measurements to cope with their main flaw of high cost and unfamiliarity of end-user [45].
5.3 Backscattering optical interferometric
Backscattering interferometry (BI) sensor is another category of optical biosensors. The detector can measure the uncalculated reflected intensity of a small sensing area by using a single wavelength laser light. Based on the sub wavelength formation on the top sensing area, the detector results in an interference pattern [46].
The improvement of Backscattering as a label-free detection technique appeared in field and applications as following: (a) applied to what is called lab-on-a-disc, (b) Silicon Sensor Surfaces SSS (bio reactions) application (c) Measuring minor refractive index transformations in capillaries of fused silica, and (d) Bio molecular interaction control in microfluidic channels [47].
Backscattering applications started with measuring bio molecular interactions on porous silicon based optical systems. In the pores, the surface is adjusted using elements of bio molecular recognition. Fabry-Perot fringes result in an interference pattern of impinging white light above and below the optical interference layer [48].
In order to investigate molecular interaction, a physical technique known as reflectometric interference spectroscopy is used. This technique depends on white light being interfered at thin films as shown in Figure 6. In Reflectometric Interference Spectroscopy (RIfS), biomolecular reactions happen on the sensing component. The sensing component is a glass slide adjusted with a thin layer of translucent dielectric material (e.g., SiO2, SiO2–Ta2O5). When the white light strikes the reverse side of the glass, an intervention occurs from the partial beams, reflected at each interface. This intervention alternates maximum and minimum reflectance range [50], which corresponds to the constructive and destructive reflected radiation interference. Biomolecular reactions cause build-up of an adlayer on top of the dielectric, which increases the optical path length. This results in a reflectance spectrum change [51]. This change can be associated with the intensity of the reacting biomolecules and is equivalent to the increase in thickness. Information about the viscosity and refractive index of the adsorbed protein layer is given by alterations in the polarized light phase and amplitude. For the identification and quantification of diclofenac in bovine milk, this approach was used, and the detection limit obtained was 0.112 μg.
Figure 6.
Schematic illustration of (a) the RIfS principle and (b) the RIfS measurement system [49].
5.5 Surface-enhanced Raman scattering
Surface Enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) spectroscopy method are used for the extremely sensitive biological analytes. With rapid growth during the last four decades, surface-enhanced Raman scattering has become one of the most reliable spectroscopic method. Applications for (SERS) detection are expanding quickly in various fields such as materials science, chemistry, biochemistry, and life sciences. Remarkable growth has resulted in biological and biomedical sensing applications from advances in the creation and production of SERS-based biosensors particularly. Electromagnetic improvement leads primarily to SERS improvement, and the configurations of the hotspot are essential to the success of responsive and reproducible detection [52]. Biosensors that are SERS-based can be generated according to the sensing requirements through direct and indirect methods. To define SERS, it is an extremely sensitive optical detection method using lasers in molecules adsorbed on the top of a metal nanoparticle in order to excite vibrational transitions. The Raman cross-section for a molecule on a surface is enhanced by factors of 10 caused by large optical fields. Because of molecular vibrational events, Raman scattering depends mainly on the loss (Stokes) or gain (anti-Stokes) of energy; from inflexible scattered photons and represents the information on the molecular structure, allowing in situ and real-time detection [53, 54]. SERS is a subclass of Raman dispersion and provides a million-fold improvement by plasmonic nanostructures, making the sensitivity of detection down to the level of a sole molecule as can be seen in Figure 7.
Figure 7.
(A) SERS substrate modification by antitarget antibody, (B) target isolation, followed by binding of nanoparticles (NPs), (C) labeled by SeRS tag, and SeRS-tag detection [55].
5.6 Surface plasmon resonance (SPR)
The first observation of SPR physical phenomenon was in 1902. Through decades, this observation of an esoteric optical phenomenon developed into a complete comprehension of surface plasmon physics. Then, the first successful usage of SPR was in 1983 through the fabrication of an SPR-based sensor to detect the interactions of bimolecular. Pharmacia Biosensor AB was launched the first commercial SPR-based biosensor device, which was renamed as Biacore later. Currently, several manufacturing are fabricating SPR devices. Moreover, nowadays, the SPR-based biosensor is the dominant method of biosensing [56, 57].
The SPR appears on that surface of the device, when a polarized light such as Laser or LED is illuminated to the metal surface (usually gold or silver coated service) at a particular angle and at the interface of two media (commonly water and glass). This led to the surface plasmons generation and thus a reflected light intensity reduction is created at a particular angle known as the resonance angle. This impact is proportional to the mass on the surface. To obtain a sensogram, the shift of reflectivity, wavelengths or angle are measure against time. In all configuration, label-free, direct and real-time changes of refractive index is enabled by the phenomenon of SPR at the surface of sensor, in which it is proportional to the concentration of the biomolecule as shown in Figure 8 [58].
Figure 8.
The schematic of the working principle of SPR and the steps of the SPR analytical cycle.
5.7 Liquid sensor based on optical surface plasmon resonance
With the widespread and increased demand of biological sensing devices, there has been a considered attention on reliable and multipurpose biomolecule detection systems. The motivation to produce these detection systems become greater due the rising of health awareness and spread of aging in world population. The affinity-based biosensors, which consists of a biological element and a transducer, is one of the well-known biological agent sensing devices. In the biosensor, the biological element is typically used to identify the substance that necessarily must be detected. While the transducer is used to convert the energy from one form to another, which means converting the event of bio- recognition into an electrical signal that is measurable [59, 60].
Different types of transducers for biosensors are available currently; some of them are piezoelectric transducer, optical transducer and electrochemical transducer. Optical methods have become the most know method among these transducers, which are: surface plasmon resonance (SPR) spectroscopy, interferometry, fluorescence spectroscopy and evanescent wave-based detection. In the past years, the fluorescence-based detection methods, such as Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA), have been implemented due to their capabilities of high throughput for samples and device sensitivity. But recently the new detection methods require processing of time-consuming labeling with several procedures of protocol detection. Detection systems based on the technology of SPR based bimolecular detection have been commercialized successfully regardless of their novelty. In addition, this method simplifies real-time controlling with high sensitivity without requiring any procedures of labeling. Nevertheless, the current implemented and commercial SPR sensors are comparatively massive size systems and have low throughput, in which they limit their applications range. Hence, higher throughputs are needed with additional disposable and compact SPR system, even though that some of their problems have solved partially [56, 61, 62, 63, 64].
6. SPR fabrication
This section and all the fabrication and results have been achieved previously by MQW Group at UCF [56, 57, 58, 59, 64]. In this work, a sensor head of optical surface plasmon resonance (SPR) has illustrated in this work. It depends on an inverted-rib dielectric waveguide. The changes happen at the gold metal-dielectric interface, in which the resonance wavelength of the surface plasmon is excited. These changes are in relationship with the environment changes that occur at the top metal surface. The sensor head of the SPR with the inverted-rib dielectric waveguide composed of SU-8 polymer layer with 1.5 refractive index, whereas the cladding lower layer contains silicon oxynitride (SiOxNy) with 1.526 refractive index. The top layer is painted with a 50 nm gold thick layer. The design of sensor head of the SPR permits controlling the media of analyte with 1.44 to 1.502 refractive index. By using reference liquids collection that represent the analyte medium, an analyzer of optical spectrum and a broadband light source were utilized to measure the SPR sensor sensitivity. It was realized that when a liquid contacts the gold metal with 1.442 refractive index, the transmission spectrum has a sharp resonance dip at 1525 nm and with using a liquid of 1.502, its position was shifted to 1537 nm. Therefore, based on these measurements, the sensor devices sensitivity was specified to be S = 232 nm.RIU-1. In this section, we demonstrate that the device can be integrated completely with a photodetection unit, a wavelength tunable light source and a liquid delivery system through microfluidic channels to make it an extremely compact unit [56, 57, 58, 59, 64].
7. SPR simulations and design
Surface Plasmon is the Propagation of transverse magnetic (TM) surface electromagnetic waves at the dielectric interface of a gold metal. Below is the dispersion relation Eq. (1) which can be used to calculate the propagation constant.
kω=ωcϵMϵDϵM+ϵDE1
The design of the reversed rib waveguide was to solely support the essential TM directed mode. The waveguide’s dimensions were chosen depending on waveguide dispersion relationship in Eq. (2).
Moreover, a particular surface plasmon resonance wavelength will appear from the refractive index of the analyte material that interacts with the gold-metal. To determine theoretical dependence, matching condition criterion for the surface plasmon propagation constant (Eq. (3)) can be used.
After all the equation have been calculated, The SPR sensor with the propagation of the waveguide has been design and simulation as shown in Figure 9.
Figure 9.
Optical waveguide based surface plasmon excitation configuration and schematic of the SPR sensor head.
In order to define the wave vectors of the directed mode, the exact values of the refractive indices of the directing and cladding layers are important and therefore satisfy the matching condition for the SP mode to be launched. Hence, to design the top of the SPR sensor, the refractive indices for both films need to be classified carefully. To make the directing layer of the top of the SPR sensor; a SU-8 polymer with a fixed refractive index of 1.568 at 1550 nm, is used. Although the silicon oxynitride (SiOxNy) cladding layer film, generated using plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD), has a refractive index as shown in Figure 10, it can be changed by adjusting the relative nitrogen to oxygen composition of the SiOxNy film [56, 57, 58, 59, 64].
Figure 10.
Refractive index (n) and K=kelvin of SU-8 film as function of wavelength measures using ellipsometer.
Eq. (3) calculated the theoretical dependence as appears in Table 2.
Analyte medium refractive index
Surface plasmon refractive index
Theoretical wavelength (nm)
1.44
1.463
1539.5
1.47
1.484
1533.8
1.49
1.504
1530
1.5
1.515
1528.1
1.518
1.533
1524.68
1.51
1.5255
1526.2
Table 2.
Calculated wavelength vs. the surface plasmon refractive index.
The beam propagation in the SPR sensor head is shown in Figure 11 as simulated using a RSoft beam package. It is noted here that the maximum size of the waveguide that can only support the basic TM mode are 4 μm and 500 nm respectively. The input light was given by the enhanced spontaneous emission of an erbium doped fiber transformer.
Figure 11.
(a) Simulation of SPR sensor head performed by RSoft. (b) Fundamental mode for the simulation parameter from (a). (c) Real fundamental mode after fabrication and testing.
To guarantee that only the TM mode is launched to the SPR sensor waveguide by A 40× microscope objective lens, a polarizer was used. In Figure 12, the transmitted light at the output of the device was focused into an optical fiber. To monitor the transmission spectrum the optical fiber is connected to the Optical Spectrum Analyzer (OSA).
Figure 12.
The emission spectrum from the SPR sensor head before placing the sample liquids.
It is probable that a resonant transfer of power from the waveguide can occur at the specific wavelength. The waveguide mode and the surface plasmon mode match the perfect pairing condition between them. In order for that to happen a wide spectrum of light needs to be launched into the system. For that reason, the spectrum of the transmitted light is almost the spectrum of the input light dip at the wavelength of SPR.
One after another, a set of analyte media with calibrated refractive indices (sample liquids) above the Top of the SPR sensor were implemented. To measure the transmission spectrum OSA was used to decide the wavelength of SPR. The transmission spectra for analyte media of refractive indices 1.462, 1.496, and 1.502 correspondingly. As shown in Figure 13, the sharp dip in the transmission spectrum moved to a shorter wavelength while lowering the sample liquid refractive index [54, 56, 57, 58, 59].
Figure 13.
Emissions spectrum after placing the different sample liquids.
8. Conclusion
OB detection technology offers a timely, effective and inexpensive tool to measure analytes in samples. It facilitates the detection in different areas, such as; biomedical, environmental and foods. The development and demand of using such technology will continue to grow within the current and upcoming decades, which will result in introducing new generations of OBs to the analytical and diagnostic markets worldwide.
\n',keywords:"biosensors, optical, fabrication, bio-analyte, detection, monitoring",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/75180.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/75180.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75180",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75180",totalDownloads:30,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"November 5th 2020",dateReviewed:"January 25th 2021",datePrePublished:"February 15th 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"February 10th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Optical biosensors (OB) have wide applications in bio-fields; they are valuable monitoring and detecting tools in therapy, food, defense and military industries. They also applied in environmental monitoring quality (i.e. water, soil and air). In recent years, biosensors have been applied in the early detection of number of diseases such as; alzahimer’s disease and infecting viruses. The OB detection technology is based either on label- based or label-free method. They are composed of integral physical and biological systems, which can provide sensitive analysis for bio-analytes. This chapter will shade the light over the OB principles and their applications with the focus on the surface plasmon resonance.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/75180",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/75180",signatures:"Thamer Tabbakh, Noha Alotaibi, Nawaf Bin Darwish, Zahrah A. Almusaylim, Sundos Alabdulkarim and N.Z. Jhanjhi",book:{id:"10017",title:"Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Optoelectronics",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. M. H. H Shahine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10017.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"102474",title:"Dr.",name:"M. H.",middleName:"H",surname:"Shahine",slug:"m.-h.-shahine",fullName:"M. H. Shahine"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. OB classification",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. OB detector elements – Bio-recognisers",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. OB working method",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Types of OB",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"5.1 Evanescent wave fluorescence",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"5.2 Optical fibers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"5.3 Backscattering optical interferometric",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"5.4 Reflectometric interference spectroscopy (RIfS)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"5.5 Surface-enhanced Raman scattering",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"5.6 Surface plasmon resonance (SPR)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"5.7 Liquid sensor based on optical surface plasmon resonance",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"6. SPR fabrication",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"7. SPR simulations and design",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"8. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Pearson JE, Gill A, Vadgama P. 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International Society for Optics and Photonics.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Thamer Tabbakh",address:null,affiliation:'
Materials Science Research Institute, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
General Administration For R&D Labs, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
School of Computer Science and Engineering (SCE), Taylor’s University, Malaysia
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The Open Access model is applied to all of our publications and is designed to eliminate subscriptions and pay-per-view fees. This approach ensures free, immediate access to full text versions of your research.
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 118,000 international scientists and researchers.
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\\n\\n
*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
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Services included are:
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English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
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XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
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Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
\\n\\t
Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
\\n\\n
If your manuscript:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
\\n\\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\\n
\\n\\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\\n\\n
Open Access Funding
\\n\\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\\n\\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\\n\\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
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Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\\n\\t
Long-term archiving
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Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
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Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
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Dissemination and Promotion
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Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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+4,800 OA books published
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Most competitive prices in the market
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Optimized processes, enabling publication between 8 and 12 months
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+146,150 citations in Web of Science databases
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Currently strongest OA platform with over 130 million downloads
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 118,000 international scientists and researchers.
\n\n
The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your full chapter, monograph or Compacts monograph is accepted for publication.
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OAPF Publishing Options
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\n\t
1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
\n\t
10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
\n\t
4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\n
\n\n
*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\n
Services included are:
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An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
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Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
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Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
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English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
\n\t
XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
\n\t
Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
\n\t
Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
\n\n
If your manuscript:
\n\n
\n\t
Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
\n\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\n
\n\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\n\n
Open Access Funding
\n\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\n\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\n\n
\n\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\n\t
Long-term archiving
\n\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
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Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\n\t
Dissemination and Promotion
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\n\n
Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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+4,800 OA books published
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Most competitive prices in the market
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Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
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Optimized processes, enabling publication between 8 and 12 months
\n\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
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+146,150 citations in Web of Science databases
\n\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 130 million downloads
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