Centre location of fractures relative to borehole location based on tiltmeter data. Fractures with a dip of C_0 were constrained to be perfectly horizontal.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83968-924-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-923-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-925-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea4ec0d6ee01b88e264178886e3210ed",bookSignature:"Dr. Hiran Wimal Amarasekera",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9500.jpg",keywords:"Bone Tumors, Oncology, Childhood Tumors, Cancer, Risk Factors, Modern Management, Benign Lesions, Tumor-Like Conditions, Immunology, Histochemistry, Cell Oncology, Tumor Markers",numberOfDownloads:473,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1,numberOfTotalCitations:2,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 28th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 26th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 25th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 15th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 14th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"6 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Consultant Orthopaedic Surgeon from Sri Lanka currently working in University Hospitals of Coventry and Warwickshire, UK, trained at the National Hospital of Sri Lanka, at the Oldchurch Hospital in Essex UK and The Avenue Hospital Melbourne, Australia and University Hospitals of Coventry and Warwickshire, UK, obtained the FRCS from Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh, Scotland.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"67634",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiran",middleName:"Wimal",surname:"Amarasekera",slug:"hiran-amarasekera",fullName:"Hiran Amarasekera",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67634/images/system/67634.jpg",biography:"Hiran Amarasekera is a Consultant Orthopaedic Surgeon from Sri Lanka currently working in University Hospitals of Coventry and Warwickshire, the UK as a hip preservation fellow. \r\nHis special interests include young adult hip and knee problems, sports injuries, Hip and knee arthroplasty, and complex arthroscopic procedures. \r\nHe completed the MBBS from Kasturba medical college Manipal, India and did his postgraduate in Trauma and Orthopaedics at the Post-graduate Institute of the Medicine University of Colombo obtained the MS. \r\nHe was initially trained at the National Hospital of Sri Lanka and then completed the further training at the Oldchurch Hospital in Essex UK and The Avenue Hospital Melbourne, Australia and University Hospitals of Coventry and Warwickshire, UK.\r\nHe obtained the FRCS from Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh in 2003 and was elected a fellow of Sri Lanka College of surgeons (FCSSL) 2012. \r\nHe has a keen interest in academia and research. Working as a clinical research fellow in Warwick Medical School he obtained the MPhil form University of Warwick and was elected for a research fellowship to University of California Los Angeles (UCLA). \r\nHis research interests include blood flow to the hip, failure of hip resurfacing, designing new hip prosthesis, and surgical approaches to the hip. \r\nHe has over 30 international publications and presentations and several book chapter. \r\nHe also works as a reviewer for international orthopedic journals and has reviewed over 35 papers and is a member of the editorial board of Sri Lanka Journal of Surgery.",institutionString:"University of Warwick Science Park",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Warwick Science Park",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:[{id:"73224",title:"Management of Early Osteoarthritis",slug:"management-of-early-osteoarthritis",totalDownloads:113,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"71336",title:"Non-Surgical Regional Therapy for Osteoarthritis: An Update and Review of the Literature",slug:"non-surgical-regional-therapy-for-osteoarthritis-an-update-and-review-of-the-literature",totalDownloads:182,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"77195",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",surname:"Mackworth-Young",slug:"charles-mackworth-young",fullName:"Charles Mackworth-Young"}]},{id:"72715",title:"Simultaneous Bilateral Joint Arthroplasties in Treatment of Osteoarthritis",slug:"simultaneous-bilateral-joint-arthroplasties-in-treatment-of-osteoarthritis",totalDownloads:121,totalCrossrefCites:1,authors:[null]},{id:"75062",title:"Bone Cancer Pain, Mechanism and Treatment",slug:"bone-cancer-pain-mechanism-and-treatment",totalDownloads:37,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"75735",title:"Osteosarcoma",slug:"osteosarcoma",totalDownloads:23,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"247865",firstName:"Jasna",lastName:"Bozic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/247865/images/7225_n.jpg",email:"jasna.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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Site characterisation and field trials were undertaken to evaluate hydraulic fracturing as a method to precondition the conglomerate strata sufficiently to promote normal caving behaviour at longwall startup and reduce the severity of periodic weighting. This paper presents the results of the trials and illustrates the effectiveness of hydraulic fracturing as a preconditioning technique.
Initial work was directed at determining if hydraulic fractures were able to be grown with a horizontal orientation, which would allow efficient preconditioning of the rock mass by placing a number of fractures at different depths through the conglomerate from vertical boreholes drilled from the surface. The measurements and trials were designed to determine the in situ principal stresses, the hydraulic fracture orientation and growth rate, and whether the fractures could be extended as essentially parallel fractures to a radius of at least 30 m. Overcore stress measurements were used to determine the orientation and magnitude of the in situ principal stresses, a surface tiltmeter array was used to determine the hydraulic fracture orientation, and stress change monitoring, pressure monitoring and temperature logging in offset boreholes were used to establish the fracture growth rate, lateral extent, and that the fractures maintained their initial spacing to a radial distance of greater than 30 metres. The measurements and trials demonstrated that horizontal fractures could be extended parallel to one another to a distance of 30 to 50 m by injection of 5,000 to 15,000 litres of water at a rate of 400 to 500 L/min. Results from the trial allowed a preconditioning plan to be developed and successfully implemented.
Hydraulic fracturing has been applied successfully to preconditioning of hard rock at several block caving mines [1-3] and has been used to weaken a sandstone channel over a longwall panel [4]. A recent paper documents related work in China applied to control of rock bursting [5]. In addition, hydraulic fracturing has been used to induce caving in block caving operations [1] and in longwall coal mining [6]. The work described in this paper applied hydraulic fracturing to preconditioning of a strong roof rock in order to weaken it to promote earlier caving during start up of a longwall.
Narrabri Coal Operations, located 28 km south of Narrabri, NSW, are extracting the Hoskissons coal seam using a 300 m wide longwall. The Digby conglomerate is 15 to 20 m thick and lies immediately above the seam. Geotechnical assessments of its potential to cave during longwall mining concluded that this conglomerate would not cave into the goaf until more than 60 m of the coal was extracted [7]. In addition, the analysis highlighted the potential for the conglomerate to pose a periodic weighting risk.
Periodic weighting occurs when the roof strata is strong enough to support itself behind the longwall face for some distance before failing suddenly as mining progresses. Failure typically occurs just ahead of the face and may cause the longwall supports to become overloaded and converge, crushing the coal on the face and posing a rock fall hazard for equipment and miners located between the face and the supports. The project described in this paper was aimed to test hydraulic fracturing as a method to precondition the conglomerate sequence and promote caving during mining.
The preconditioning test program involved initial characterisation of the in situ stresses to determine the suitability of the site for placing hydraulic fractures with a horizontal orientation. The stress measurement work was followed by a three stage program of field trials. The first stage was aimed to confirm that hydraulic fractures were able to be formed horizontally and extended for a distance of more than 30 m from the injection hole, given the site conditions and the available equipment. The second stage was aimed to confirm that multiple hydraulic fractures placed in close vertical proximity remained essentially parallel to each other. The third stage was aimed to confirm conditions remained suitable to form horizontal fractures in a deeper area of the mine.
The field trials used an array of monitoring boreholes drilled at various distances around a central injection hole. During the first stage of the trials, five fractures were placed through the conglomerate sequence using a straddle packer system. These fractures, which were placed at a depth of 140 to 160 m, were monitored by a surface tiltmeter array, by boreholes offset 10 to 30 m from the borehole being fractured, and by stress change monitoring instruments located at 25 m and 60 m from the injection hole. Acoustic image logs of the injection hole and boreholes intersected by hydraulic fractures and core from intersected boreholes provided additional confirmation that fractures were able to be formed horizontally.
For the second stage, a second injection hole was drilled offset from the first borehole. The bottom hole locations of these two boreholes, A and J, were determined by survey to be separated by 6.5 m. Five fractures were placed with a vertical spacing of 2.5 m and each of these was later reopened to determine intersection depths in borehole C and growth rate to boreholes A and E (Figure 1). As well as monitoring used in the first stage, temperature logging of borehole interesections in borehole C confirmed that multiple fractures were able to be formed parallel to each other over an extended distance.
The third stage of the program was conducted at the start of the third longwall panel in an area where the overburden depth is some 20-30 m deeper than at the first site. A single injection hole and two monitoring holes confirmed that hydraulic fractures were able to be formed horizontally at this location despite the greater overburden depth.
This data set provides evidence for hydraulic fracture growth to more than 30 m radius at a vertical spacing between fractures of 1.25 m and 2.5 m, with non-symmetric fracture growth measured by the offset borehole data.
Two sites were instrumented and tests were carried out to verify hydraulic fracture growth behaviour and measure the parameters needed to design the hydraulic fracture preconditioning process. Figure 1a shows the two test sites and their relative location with respect to each other and to the longwall panels at the mine. Figures 1c and 1d contain scale drawings of the sites, with the fracturing and monitoring boreholes indicated. Both sites had a surface tiltmeter array installed and the tiltmeter instrument locations at the sites are indicated in the figures.
The second site was located over the start of Longwall 103 where the conglomerate lies at a depth of 162 to 181 m (see Figure 1d). The fractures at the Longwall 103 site were placed into borehole 103AA with temperature logging occurring in monitor boreholes 103ACRR and 103AB. The temperature logging served to detect the arrival of the fractures at these boreholes and to locate their vertical positions in the boreholes.
The fractures at the Longwall 103 site were placed into borehole 103AA with temperature logging occurring in monitor boreholes 103ACRR and 103AB. The temperature logging served to detect the arrival of the fractures at these boreholes and to locate their vertical positions in the boreholes.
By placing a number of horizontal fractures through the conglomerate layer, the mechanical behaviour of the conglomerate is modified from a thick-plate behaviour to a series of much thinner stacked plates with the aim of promoting caving. For efficient preconditioning from vertical holes drilled from the surface, hydraulic fractures are required to form horizontally as shown in Figure 1b. This fracture orientation allows efficient preconditioning from a vertical borehole because multiple fractures can be placed from each borehole.
Test sites and borehole layout used. The drawings show (a) the location of the two test sites relative to each other and the planned underlying longwall roadways, (b) a vertical section showing the preconditioning concept, (c) the borehole layout at test site 1 over LW101 with tiltmeter locations, and (d) the borehole layout at test site 2 over LW103 with tiltmeter locations.
To confirm that this strategy would be possible in the local site conditions at Narrabri, a trial was conducted to determine the fracture orientation, growth rate, and to verify that the fractures could be extended parallel to previous fractures for a distance of 30 m or more. For example, boreholes spaced at 80 m centres require fractures to grow to 45 m radius with each borehole preconditioning 6,300 m2 of conglomerate and a 50 m spacing between holes would require fractures to grow to 30 m with each borehole then preconditioning 2,800 m2 of the conglomerate. These parameters would then be used to establish that horizontal fractures were feasible, to determine the spacing between boreholes and the volume and rate of water to inject per fracture.
For the preconditioning to work efficiently, the minimum principal stress must be the vertical stress. This allows horizontal hydraulic fractures to be formed. In addition to being able to grow horizontal fractures, the plan required that the growth rate and ultimate size of hydraulic fractures be determined so that the vertical borehole spacing could be specified. A second important requirement for effective preconditioning was that the fractures could be initiated at regular intervals along the borehole and extended as essentially parallel fractures, with a spacing of 2.5 m or less, to a radius of 30 m or more.
As a starting point, the vertical stress was estimated by integrating density logs from boreholes drilled in the same area. Two overcore stress measurements from a vertical borehole were then made at 145 m depth in the conglomerate using ANZI strain cells [8]. Each ANZI cell contains 18 strain gauges which, when bonded to the surface of a pilot hole, sense the rock strain as the gauge is overcored. Using this strain data with the rock modulus, measured in an independent test, the in situ stress acting can be found.
Analysis of this data gave an estimate of the principal stresses acting as [9]:
with
As a series of hydraulic fractures are placed sequentually into a borehole, with the fractures placed one above the other, there is potential for them to interact. During preconditioning, the hydraulic fractures are placed at a rate of approximately one per hour. The fractures are not propped, but some injected fluid remains in the fracture and bleeds back into the well once the packers are moved uphole in preparation for the next treatment. These fractures induce a change in the stress field around them and this changed stress will affect the next fracture, potentially causing it to curve toward or away from the previous fractures and to grow asymmetrically. Figure 2 shows the stress changes measured by an ANZI strain cell located at 129.3 m below the surface during the placement of the first hydraulic fracture in borehole A. The peak stress observed approximately 17 m above the hydraulic fracture was 0.52 MPa soon after the hydraulic fracture was placed at a depth of 146.5 m and this stress had reduced only to 0.26 MPa some 1.5 hours later at which time the excess pressure in the fracture was 0.3 MPa. Once one fracture grows somewhat asymmetrically, the next fracture is likely to find it easier to grow in a way such that it grows so as to avoid the residual vertical stresses created by the previous fracture and its centre of volume is offset relative to the centre of volume of the previous fracture.
The movement of the fracture centre of volume can, in principle, be detected by analysis of the tilt data [11] and also by noting the time of intersection of the fracture with the monitoring boreholes. Both of these methods of detecting asymmetry were used for the fracturing work carried out at the test sites.
Figures 3 and 4 summarise data recorded during fracture 4J and 7J, showing both the injection pressure at borehole J and the pressure response in the monitored boreholes. During fracture 4J, single packers were installed at the top of the conglomerate, set at 140.9 m to the bottom of the packer rubber, in monitor boreholes C and E and a vibrating wire piezometer was located at 146.0 m in monitoring borehole A. The piezometer was intalled in a coarse sand-filled section of the borehole with a grout plug at the conglomerate base and a second grout plug placed from the top of the conglomerate to the surface. The packers each contained a mandrel that connected through the packer to the open hole below. This pressure was transmitted to the surface via a 6 mm ID high pressure hose which was connected to a pressure transducer for logging. The pressures shown for the injection pressure and for boreholes C and E have had the hydrostatic pressure to the depth of the injection point in borehole J added to them to give an approximate bottom hole pressure. The calibrated piezometer output gives a direct bottom hole pressure at its set depth in borehole A.
Stress change recorded during fracturing of borehole A. The fracture was shut-in at 14:31 (2:31 pm) and flowed back at 17:20 (5:20 pm) so pressurised fluid was contained in the fracture during the entire period of this plot. Fracture closure occured at 16:08 (4:08 pm).
Fracture 4J was carried out by straddling a slot at 151.8 m in borehole J. The fracture grew into boreholes E, C and then A as indicated by the pressure responses shown in Figure 3. In order to fit a circular fracture to this implied growth, the centre of the fracture needs to be located, at the time the fracture grows through borehole A, at a point 15 m west of borehole J. The intersection The intersection time for borehole A corresponds to a pressure at the piezometer of 3.47 MPa, which is just above the vertical stress magnitude. However, the earlier rise in pressure at 9:56 could be an indication of an earlier intersection, although the pressure at that time only reaches a value of 2.56 MPa. If water was being lost out of borehole A above the fracture depth (near 151.8 m), perhaps into an existing hydraulic fracture connected into borehole J above the packers, then this flow through the coarse sand would make the pressure in borehole A non-uniform and would result in the piezometer reading a pressure lower than the pressure in the fracture located approximately 5.8 m below it. However, the coarse sand used has an estimated permeability of 2,000 Darcies. A flow of 17 L/min through 5 m of this sand pack would result in a steady-state pressure drop of only 0.1 MPa. An earlier intersection time would support a less asymmetric fracture shape development and does highlight a possible source of error in picking intersection times based on pressure measured at borehole A.
Data collected during fracture 7J is summarised in Figure 4. The intersection with boreholes E and A occurred close together in time. In this case, the fracture depth (146.8 m) is very nearly the same as the piezometer depth (146.0 m) in borehole A, which minimises the issue of water flowing through the sand pack affecting the piezometer pressure. During this fracture treatment, temperature logging was carried out in borehole C, which was open at the borehole collar. The intersection time of the fracture into borehole C is indicated in Figure 4 and the temperature log is shown in Figure 5. The temperature logging method involved first cooling the water in the borehole by pumping ice water through a 20 mm diameter polypipe to the bottom of the borehole. A cooled condition of 10°C or less was typically achieved. The rock temperature at 145 m is approximately 23°C at this site and the water injected into a hydraulic fracture is quickly warmed to this temperature. Therefore, intersection locations were found by noting the depth where warm fluid was entering the monitored borehole and the first arrival of warm fluid into the hole is an indication of fracture growth rate. The sensor located at 158.5 m in borehole C started to increase in temperature at 11:50 (see Figure 5 and by 11:57 two warm peaks had been established at 145.5 m and 147.9 m. Early and weaker warming events may be associated with fluid being expelled from previously placed hydraulic fractures which are squeezed more tightly shut as the propagating hydraulic fracture interacts with them. The stronger warming events at 11:56:08 are therefore taken as corresponding to the intersection time.
Intersections from a number of fractures placed into borehole J have been used to define the fracture growth asymmetry. Figure 6 shows the range of fracture asymmetry measured by intersection data from this analysis. Only circular fractures are considered in Figure 6, although it is believed unlikely that the fractures were perfectly circular. However, if the fractures are allowed to take non-circular shapes, the range of centre locations and fracture sizes that can be fitted to the intersection data is increased significantly.
Data summary plot for fracture 4J, which includes pressure monitoring data in boreholes A, E, and C.
Data summary plot for fracture 7J, including pressure monitoring data in boreholes A and E. Temperature was monitored in borehole C during this fracture (see
Temperature variation with depth in borehole C during fracture 7J. A line has been drawn at 146.8 m to indicate the nominal depth of fracture 7J in hole J.
By representing the fracture in the forward model as a displacement discontinuity (DD) singularity within a homogeneous, isotropic linear-elastic half-space and using a Bayesian probabilistic inversion approach, the fracture volume, orientation, and location of the fracture center-of-opening versus time have been estimated by analyzing the tilt measurements. This provides considerable insight into the geometry and development of the hydraulic fractures.
The displacement field produced by a DD of the intensity
where
The measured tilt angles are related to the displacement gradients by
For a horizontal hydraulic fracture which grows symmetrically with respect to the borehole, the fracture centre is taken to be at the injection point. Sometimes, asymmetric growth of the hydraulic fracture can occur. In this case, the fracture centre will move away from the injection point as the fracture grows. It is assumed that the fracture is planar, so the injection point and the fracture centre must remain in the fracture plane.
It has been shown that in most cases the analysis of tilt data allows for a robust estimation of fracture volume and orientation (dip and strike) [13, 11]. To investigate the movement of the fracture centre, consider a DD singularity centered at
where
Eq. 3 shows that the estimation of fracture center movement is coupled with the tilt measured at
Two synthetic examples are presented here to show the effect of fracture center movement on the estimation of fracture volume and orientation. In the first example, the synthetic tilt data are generated by using a point DD singularity with a dip of 20
Longwall 101 trial site showing approximate fracture asymmetry inferred from intersection data for fractures placed into borehole J. Fractures are drawn at the time of the last intersection and in most cases injection stopped shortly after this time.
In the second example, the fracture has a dip of 10
Table 1 contains the fracture center location inferred from analysis of the tiltmeter data for a number of fractures in borehole J. Because the location of the center of volume is correlated to the dip and dip direction, the analysis was carried out for a case where both the orientation and the center of volume were found with no constraint and then again for the case where the fracture was constrained to be horizontal.
Of the fractures listed in Table 1 and also drawn in Figure 6 with their locations based on intersection data, only fracture 7J has an inferred center of volume that is somewhat consistent for the two methods. The tiltmeter results, which correspond to a time of 15 minutes from the start of injection, generally indicated less movement of the fracture center than the intersection data suggests. The inferred dip magnitude from the tiltmeter analysis is in the range of 40
The predicted fracture geometry calculated with an assumed fracture center located at the injection point when in fact it is offset by 20 m.
The predicted fracture geometry and center movement obtained by specifying the fracture has a dip of 20
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t|||
1J | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\tC_0 | \n\t\t
1J | \n\t\t\t+0.5 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t38/180 | \n\t\t
4J | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\tC_0 | \n\t\t
4J | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t38/160 | \n\t\t
6J | \n\t\t\t-1.0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\tC_0 | \n\t\t
6J | \n\t\t\t+4.0 | \n\t\t\t+2.0 | \n\t\t\t40/160 | \n\t\t
7J | \n\t\t\t-5.0 | \n\t\t\t+1.0 | \n\t\t\tC_0 | \n\t\t
7J | \n\t\t\t-1.0 | \n\t\t\t+2.0 | \n\t\t\t25/170 | \n\t\t
Centre location of fractures relative to borehole location based on tiltmeter data. Fractures with a dip of C_0 were constrained to be perfectly horizontal.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
A | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t185 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | 4 | \n\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t180 | \n\t\t
101AW | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t22 | \n\t\t330 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | 5 | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t140 | \n\t\t
101BAR | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t70 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | 3 | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t5 | \n\t\t
101ASR | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t30 | \n\t\t190 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | 7 | \n\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t185 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | 10 | \n\t\t\t25 | \n\t\t190 | \n\t\t
102AA | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t300 | \n\t\t
101AUR | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t35 | \n\t\t140 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | 3 | \n\t\t\t15 | \n\t\t165 | \n\t\t
102AE | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t65 | \n\t\t
102AD | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t190 | \n\t\t
101AL | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t8 | \n\t\t270 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | 3 | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t300 | \n\t\t
Variation of dip and dip direction as determined by tiltmeter analysis.
For comparison, the dip direction and dip for fracture 3 at the Longwall 103 test site is shown in Figure 9a with the tilt vertors from this fracture at the end of the injection shown in Figure 9b. The
Tiltmeter monitoring [11-15], stress change monitoring [16], offset borehole measurements [17], and fracture growth modelling using a numerical hydraulic fracturing model were used to obtain the fracture growth rate as a function of injection rate and volume. The tiltmeter data provided a confirmaton that the hydraulic fractures were essentially horizontal in orientation. Stress change monitoring using ANZI cells installed in boreholes B and F (Figure 1), indicated fracture growth below these locations during injections into borehole A.
The primary data used to establish the hydraulic fracture growth rate were timing of the first arrival intersection events at offset boreholes. These data were filtered to remove the most extreme asymmetric growth cases so that an axisymmetric hydraulic fracture model could be used to match the measured growth. By matching several different measurements, the model was calibrated for the conditions at the Narrabri site. The calibrated model was then used to produce a set of time versus fracture radius curves for three different injection rates and these were then used for choosing a rate and volume that would produce a fracture size needed in the preconditioning work. A borehole spacing compatable with the ultimate size of the fractures was selected as part of this process. Figure 10 contains the growth curves generated by the numerical fracture model with several points indicating measured intersection events, for fractures placed using similar rates, also shown.
Analysis of tilt data from fracture 3 at the LW3 site. The fracture was interpreted to dip to the north at
Growth measurements with curves generated by a numerical fracturing model.
The curves calculated were fitted to the higher growth rate data represented by Frac 2 in borehole 101AM. In this case, the fracture grew through two monitoring holes located 30 m to the east and 30 m to the west of 101AM. The growth for this fracture was therefore thought to be fairly symmetric. The other measurements shown are from the trial site over Longwall 103 where injection occured into borehole 103AA and monitoring occurred at two offset boreholes. These points illustrate the variability in the measured growth data with asymmetric growth being a primary cause. For example, Frac 3 in 103AA grew through one monitoring borehole located 31 m to the east of the injection borehole after 11 minutes, but required 23 minutes to grow through the second monitor hole located 30 m to the south of the injection borehole. On average, growth of the fractures seemed to be somewhat slower at the Longwall 103 site than at the Longwall 101 sites. Using these data, the treatments for preconditioning of the main longwall panels were designed to inject water at 500 L/min for 25 minutes each which, according to the growth curves in Figure 10, would produce fractures of approximately 45 m radius. The boreholes over the main Longwall 101 panel were drilled using an 80 m spacing.
To achieve the intended degree of treatment of the conglomerate, it was desirable to create hydraulic fractures that were parallel to one another so that the massive conglomerate layer was divided by the fractures into thinner and mechanically weaker system of layers. Work by [3] has shown that fractures grown through rock blocks in the laboratory are sensitive to initiation conditions. This laboratory work showed that fractures that initiated by splitting the borehole and then reoriented to become transverse to the borehole, were found to have much less regular spacing away from the borehole with growth into adjacent fractures commonly occurring (see [18] for additional details of the laboratory determined fracture paths). In contrast to this, if the fractures were initiated from slots or notches cut into the borehole, the fractures initiated and continued to grow in the same plane, as transverse fractures. The laboratory work showed that these fractures were spaced more regularly and they tended to extend into the far-field as parallel fractures. The initiation sites in the vertical boreholes at Narrabri were therefore notched using a sand and water abrasive jetting method. By rotating the jetting tool slowly, a circumferential slot was cut to act as a stress concentration point for fracture initiation.
A separate laboratory study, described in [19], presents results verifying a theory of closely spaced hydraulic fracture growth. The theory applies to fractures that are placed successively, one after the other and can be applied to predicting if the next fracture in a sequence will curve towards or away from the previous fracture. To make a prediction, the size and residual width of the previous fracture must be known. In addition, the rock elastic properties, the coefficient of friction for sliding of the hydraulic fracture surfaces, the stress field, and the injection rate and fluid viscosity are required. These parameters are then inserted into expressions for several dimensionless groups whose value then determine the type of curving to expect (see [19] for details). The calculation applied using parameters for the conditions at Narrabri, predict that essentially no curving of the hydraulic fracture will occur and that the fractures should grow parallel to one another.
Intersection of the fractures with offset pressure monitoring boreholes, as shown in the data contained in Figures 3 and 4, confirmed an approximately horizontal fracture orientation, but did not confirm that the fractures were growing parallel to one another. Fractures may have been growing into an adjacent fracture, for example, or growing with divergent paths which would leave wedge-shaped block of unfractured rock. The acoustic image logs run before and after fracturing were not able to detect the horizontal fractures in the horizontally bedded conglomerate. Two fracture traces, both dipping at approximately 10° to the west are visible at 149.9 and 150.1 m in the acoustic image of borehole J before it was fractured. These may be hydraulic fractures generated during fracturing of borehole A, but no other fracture traces can be seen in this image suggesting the hydraulic fractures are not wide enough to be seen by this method.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t||
1 | \n\t\t\t146.4 | \n\t\t\t146.1 | \n\t\t
2 | \n\t\t\t149.8 | \n\t\t\t150.0 | \n\t\t
3 | \n\t\t\t140.2 | \n\t\t\t140.2 | \n\t\t
4 | \n\t\t\t144.7 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
5 | \n\t\t\t151.5 | \n\t\t\t151.9 | \n\t\t
Comparison of fracture initiation depths in borehole A with rotated core breaks from borehole J.
The core from borehole J, which was drilled after borehole A was hydraulically fractured, was examined in order to detect the fractures placed into borehole A. Several horizontal fractures were logged with four of them showing rotational shearing caused by the core rotating at that point during drilling. Such rotationally sheared fractures are normally fairly rare and have, in this case, been taken as indications of the location of the hydraulic fractures. Table 3 compares the fracture depths in borehole A with the depths of the logged rotationally sheared fractures in borehole J. The rotated core breaks in the core from borehole J are found to correspond closely to the depths of initiation of the fractures in borehole A, suggesting nearly horizontal fracture orientation. This conclusion is supported by other intersection data such as that shown in Figure 4 for fracture 7J, which grew from borehole J into borehole C, 28.8 m away, and was located by termperature logging to be within plus or minus 1 m of the initiation depth (an apparent dip of 2°). The horizontal distances between the injection boreholes and the monitoring boreholes are listed in Table 4.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t
A | \n\t\t0.0 m | \n\t\t6.5 m | \n\t
B | \n\t\t14.9 m | \n\t\t21.3 m | \n\t
C | \n\t\t34.4 m | \n\t\t28.8 m | \n\t
DR | \n\t\t55.3 m | \n\t\t54.1 m | \n\t
E | \n\t\t8.0 m | \n\t\t13.0 m | \n\t
F | \n\t\t45.1 m | \n\t\t51.4 m | \n\t
J | \n\t\t6.5 m | \n\t\t0.0 m | \n\t
Horizontal distance in metres between boreholes A and J and other boreholes at the site.
Inversion of the tiltmeter data cosistently produced dips of 10° to 30°. These larger dips seem to be in error in light of the nearly horizontal orientations obtained from intersection data with temperature logging. Figure 11 shows the fracture spacing implied by the temperature logging carried out in borehole C during fracturing of borehole J. Figure 12 shows fracture vertical spacing measured while fracture borehole 101AM while temperature logging in borehole 101AN. Both data sets illustrate the essentially parallel growth of the hydraulic fractures between these holes, confirming the prediction made from the theory of closely spaced fracture growth. Holes AM and AN lie along the startup roadway running at an azimuth of 273° with respect to grid north while the line connecting borehole J to C is oriented at an azimuth of 231°. Borehole AM is approximately 85 m NW of borehole J. Therefore, if these sections are taken as representative, the hydraulic fractures are essentially horizontal and maintain their initiation vertical spacing over more than 30 m of growth.
Fracture orientation and spacing implied by intersection and temperature logging data collected in borehole C during fracturing of borehole J. Fractures were placed at 2.5 m vertical spacing in borehole J.
The longwall started retreating on 12 June 2012 with a windblast management plan in place that required additional precautions to be used during mining until the caving commenced and the goaf developed. If the goaf behind the longwall face had not formed by the time the face had retreated to 25 m from the start position, additional work to induce caving was planned. However, the conglomerate caved, starting at the centre of the panel and progressing toward both gate roadways, after 24 m of retreat. This was a significant improvement over the estimated distance of more than 60 m for caving to start that was made based on modeling studies of the untreated conglomerate.
Beyond the startup area for a distance of 200 m, the conglomerate was preconditioned using boreholes located on approximate 80 m centres. The intensity of fractures placed in this main part of the longwall panel was approximately 25 percent of that applied along the startup section. A 100 m wide window was then left with no preconditioning to allow comparison of the fractured and unfractured conglomerate caving behavior. Mining under this section of conglomerate demonstrated that the preconditioning reduced the intensity of the periodic weighting events, but the events that still occurred were more random under the preconditioned roof. When mining under the conglomerate that was not preconditioned, weighting events could be anticipated to occur at regular intervals of about 15 m of longwall retreat. Therefore, adjustments to the daily longwall extraction plans were made so that any slowing or halting of mining was avoided when approaching an anticipated weighting event. Using this modified mining strategy, mining was continued without using preconditioning for the rest of Longwall 101.
Fracture orientation and spacing implied by intersection and temperature logging data collected in borehole 101AN during fracturing of borehole 101AM. The upper part of AM was fractured at 2.5 m vertical spacing which was reduced to 1.25 m spacing below 151 m depth.
Measurements of fracture growth, spacing and orientation at two trial sites and as the preconditioning of the Longwall 101 startup area was carried out demonstrated that the hydraulic fractures could be created that were essentially horizontal and could be extended to more than 30 m as parallel fractures. The tiltmeter data recorded during the trials and later during preconditioning, indicated dips of 2° to 20°, which provided additional assurance that the fractures were essentially horizontal, especially at sites where no other monitoring was available. But attempts to analyse the tilt data for indications of asymmetric growth proved unreliable because the dip and dip direction are coupled to the location of the centre of fracture volume.
The theory of closely spaced fracture growth, developed using a 2D numerical model has been further verified by the measurments made during this project. The theory predicts that for the conditions at the Narrabri Coal site, hydraulic fractures placed sequentually at 1.25 m along a vertical borehole will grow with negligable curving to distance of 30 m or more, allowing the conglomerate roof rock to be preconditioned and weakened by placing fractures through its thickness. This was found to be the case, based on direct measurement of fracture arrival depths in offset boreholes.
The conglomerate caved soon after the start of Longwall 101, demonstrating the effectiveness of the intensive preconditioning carried out.
Hydraulic fracturing can be used for preconditioning of strong roof sequences. When conditions allow horizontal fractures to be placed from vertical boreholes, the preconditioning can be carried out from the surface.
The work described in this paper was undertaken as part of the overall windblast management project funded by Narrabri Coal Operations. The authors thank Narrabri Coal, CSIRO, and SCT Operations for granting permission to publish these results.
High school students encounter a myriad of learning hindrances that may negatively affect their education by distracting them from studying or may enhance performance by inspiring students to resolve the challenges as they arise. Intellectual deficiencies, difficulties understanding the taught concepts, poverty, abuse and neglect are some of the hindrances that may negatively affect students’ ability to execute their studies to expected levels. The works of Solberg et al. [2] and McKechnie [3] found that numerous stressors such as higher crime rates, unemployment strain of parents, financial privation, teen pregnancy, violence, and drug and alcohol abuse cause personal psychological distress to students affecting all areas of their life. Usually, when students find themselves in difficult situations, they tend to be engrossed in their personal insufficiencies and on the obstacles, they encounter instead of concentrating on their learning so that they successfully perform. Some of them easily give up when they face challenges and may not recuperate their sense of efficacy following failure. They quickly lose faith in their competences and succumb to stress, depression and dropout [4]. In this chapter, types of abuse and neglect, intellectual deficiencies and poverty are explored showing how they affect students’ self-efficacy causing their learning hindrances. Furthermore, the chapter endeavours to outline the stratagems for developing or promoting self-efficacy that defies the power of these hindrances in future. The association between school counsellors’ self-efficacy beliefs concerning performance or skills related to giving classroom guidance and the agreed outcome about the frequency school counsellors implement classroom guidance is explored. It is therefore imperative that the concept of self-efficacy is clarified, and the role that school counsellors play is explained.
Self-efficacy is a concept that is more like academic confidence and is entrenched in Badura’s social cognitive theory which he describes as the degree to which a student feels proficient to effectively achieve in school-related tasks [1]. Reiterating on his earlier sentiments, Bandura [5] explains self-efficacy as the belief in one’s ability to influence events that effect one’s life and control over the way these events are experienced. In his later edition, Bandura [6] defines self-efficacy as ‘beliefs in one’s capabilities to organise and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments’. Similarly, Nasiriyan et al. [7] refer to self-efficacy as student’s beliefs in their capability to learn new skills and tasks, frequently in a precise academic area. Consequently, apparent self-efficacy is a concept in which people believe that they can produce given attainments [8]. Explaining self-efficacy in the theoretical framework of social cognitive theory by [1, 9, 10] detailed that people’s achievement hinges on the interactions between an individual’s behaviours, personal issues and ecological circumstances. Self-efficacy can be perceived as negatively or positively influencing students’ achievement. Therefore, self-efficacy is the judgement one places on their capability, and not their anticipated performance or achievement.
Self-efficacy is comparable to terms such as self-concept, self-esteem and self-appraisal. Self-concept is the cognitive or intellectual facet of self usually referring to the entirety of a complex, organised, and dynamic system of learned beliefs, attitudes and opinions that each person embraces as the truth about his or her personal existence [11]. Just as self-efficacy, the concept of self-concept is believing in one’s ability to achieve in set assignments. Self-esteem is the affective emotional aspect of self and mostly referring to how one feels about or how one values themselves. It is how one views their self-worth. A student may feel they are worthy of performing or may feel they are not capable of achievement. Self-appraisal is self-assessment that is a descriptive and evaluative decision that the student makes concerning his or her own work and academic aptitudes.
Academic self-efficacy is the self-assurance revealed by the persons in their expertise to complete academic tasks at the desired outcome [12]. The scholars above advocate that when students have higher academic self-efficacy, their effort shows greater determination in doing academic tasks. Intrinsic motivation also drives them to overcome any challenging situations during learning sessions. An individual’s self-efficacy influences on how they reason, feel and perform. The works of Bandura [9, 13] have shown that when a person possesses a strong sense of self-efficacy, they usually set higher goals for themselves, are highly motivated, and have the desired resiliency to complete their set goals. While self-efficacy does not straight forwardly measure the skilfulness of an individual, it influences how they decide on engaging on the task, the amount of effort they will put forth, their performance and how they deal with failure [9]. To them, Bandura [6] assert that their beliefs about their skill level is more important and is the driving force to their achievement. For this reason, Van Dinther et al. [14] encourage educational psychologists to investigate the role of self-efficacy in learning. The focus of psychologists should be on adolescents because they are vulnerable to unstable emotions and augmented risk-taking tendencies. For this reason, Kia-Keating et al. [15] postulate that during adolescence, the instructional role is essential in developing effective habits and competencies that impact on young people’s well-being and resilience throughout their lives.
Extensive studies reveal that students who believe they can accomplish an academic task are far more likely to persevere and overcome obstacles to successfully achieve the assignment. Conversely, in the absence of self-confidence to perform a task or overcome a challenge, students are more likely to surrender and may even accept defeat by circumventing the assignment [6, 16]. Self-efficacy effectively predicts the imminent academic performance of students, and comparable research confirms that this hypothesis has sturdier predictive influence than other non-cognitive skills [17]. However, students may have high self-efficacy but due to challenges such as poverty, financial deprivation and teen pregnancy, they may postpone their studies to a later stage. On the other hand, these adversities may also motivate the student to work extra hard to liberate themselves from these hardships. Authors in Ref. [18] are of the opinion that the success of the students, predominantly depends on their responsiveness regarding their capabilities and the motivation to apply learning strategies.
In his works, Bandura [6, 19] proposes breaking down the concept self-efficacy into four empirical sources which have evolved over the years, but finally documented as (1) master/performance accomplishments, (2) modelling/vicarious experiences, (3) social/verbal persuasion and (4) affective/emotional arousal [19]. Furthermore, Bandura [1, 6] advocates that mastery/performance achievements have a greater impact on self-efficacy because the student is directly involved in completing specified tasks. In any given task, success enhances self-efficacy while failing to accomplish the work reduces self-efficacy. More scholars have concurred with Bandura’s [6] social cognitive theory proposing that self-efficacy is a domain-precise confidence in an individual’s capacity to fruitfully achieve in a given task, which positively impacts on action and success in completing the task [20, 21, 22].
Clearly, success or mastery is a factor that promotes self-efficacy and once it is firmly established in an individual, any other sporadic failures have little impact on self-efficacy [1, 6]. When someone is successful, self-efficacy increases; but, failure to complete the job lowers self-efficacy. Nevertheless, after self-efficacy is established through direct success in a specific field, intermittent failure has a limited effect. In addition, mastery in one area usually increases self-efficacy in the other area since the student generalises his or her self-efficacy to other areas.
Modelling/vicarious experiences is the second source of self-efficacy where an individual sees the other person achieving in a specific task and envisages how he or she might perform in the equivalent or comparable situation [1, 22]. Observation is another factor that inspires self-efficacy especially when one watches a classmate perform excellently in a task. Students usually admire highfliers in class and desire to associate with them; hence, they equally work harder to earn friendship. Observing peers succeed in given tasks elevates the observers’ beliefs that they too can equally succeed in similar activities. Modelling influences provide a social standard against which the observer judges their own abilities. The observer gains skills and strategies to manage performance tasks by emulating people who possess the competencies to which they aspire. Although vicarious experiences impact self-efficacy, Bandura [1] asserts that they are not as influential as effectively participating in the activity itself.
Social/verbal persuasion is the third source of self-efficacy in which individuals permit themselves to be convinced that they too can successfully deal with a difficult situation that they previously perceived to be beyond their capacities [1]. When one is verbally convinced that they can equally do the task, they are more likely to activate greater determination and succeed. On the other hand, harbouring self-doubts and dwelling on personal deficiencies when problems arise diminishes self-efficacy. Persuasion is putting pressure on someone leading them to give their best shot to succeed thereby promoting development of skills and boosting their self-efficacy. However, peer pressure in schools makes students conform to fit in the group. Affective/emotional arousal is proposed as the last source of self-efficacy [6]. The state of emotional stimulation of a person can influence their self-efficacy. Bandura [1] envisages that a high level of anxiety in a student due to a specific task or situation such as public speaking, may lower the sense of self-efficacy. However, continuous success in a task can lower the student’s anxiety level thereby increasing their self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy is developed through the way a student interprets their performance. Brown [23] defines appraisal as self-assessment which is ‘an evaluative and descriptive task done by the student regarding his or her own work and academic capabilities’. Correspondingly, Panadero et al. [24] describe it as a ‘various techniques and mechanisms which enable students to describe (i.e. assess) and conceivably allocate merit or worth to (i.e. evaluate) the potentials of their own educational processes and achievements’. According to Corkett et al. [25], this self-assessment ensures students of a positive correlation between self-efficacy and achievement. In this vein, appraisal of self-efficacy is the way a student assesses their performance and achievement in the learning environment. Studies have found that there is a correlation between students’ self-efficacy and their academic performance [26, 27].
Students appraise their self-efficacy from four primary sources outlined by Bandura [6] as: (a). Enactive mastery experiences that serve as indicators of competence. Success enhances self-efficacy while failures depress it; (b) vicarious experiences that alter beliefs through communication of proficiencies in comparison with others’ achievements; (c) verbal encouragement by peers that they have certain abilities; and (d) physiological and affective states from which they conclude their ableness. Consequently, the most influential source of efficacy beliefs is enactive experiences because they prediction is based on personal experience outcomes, while vicarious influences depend on an observer’s self-comparison with as well as outcomes attained by a model. Verbal persuasion has less impact on students’ self-efficacy as the conclusions are described, not directly experienced, and thus depends on the integrity of the narrating person [28]. According to Corkett et al. [25], the four main constructs are not hierarchical and all of them can possibly influence a student’s self-efficacy simultaneously.
Faulty self-appraisal severely handicaps students especially when they perceive incredulity in their efficacy. Students who continually underperform fear taking up new challenges because of their idealistically low self-efficacy while those with quixotically high self-efficacy perform on faulty efficacy decisions preventing them from proper learning. Hoy and Spero [29] ascertain that when self-efficacy is created, it can be resistant to change; hence, they urge educators to put emphasis on young students’ self-efficacy. It becomes essential that students develop accurate self-appraisal and change all negatively inclined system of self-appraisal.
Besides faulty self-appraisal, Ünal [30] found that parent–child relationships in family environments can negatively affect children’s mental health, personality development and self-efficacy. Even though the household environment is expected to be a safe haven for children, some children have experienced numerous adversities such as abuse and exploitation, thus negatively affecting their physical, mental and social development, with many parents intentionally or unintentionally hurting their offspring [31]. Child neglect is usually described as the failure of an individual to fulfil his/her responsibility of caring for a child physically or mentally, take no notice of the child’s protection, nutrition, clothing, medical care, education and general well-being [3, 32].
Many studies reveal that exposure to a variety of life stressors, such as childhood abuse and neglect, can negatively affect social-psychological resources like self-efficacy [33] and increase vulnerability to risks health and life-threatening status. Prominently, an array of hardships and negative outcomes linked with stress affect self-efficacy which in turn influences the relationship between child abuse and negative outcomes [34, 35]. Contrasting neglect and abuse, Petersen et al. [36] assert that abuse is active while neglect is a passive occurrence. Self-efficacy is anchored on the attachment theory which underscores the prominence of a child’s relationship with their primary caregiver [37] and that the quality of this attachment provides the ‘secure-base’ where the child benefits mastery experience [38, 39, 40]. Research indicates that violating the attachment theory through childhood abuse has a negative influence on the individual’s self-cognitions [41]. Students who have secure attachments early in life can satisfy their needs through their own efforts while those with those with insecure attachments due to abuse and neglect tend to lack personal control affecting their self-efficacy. Abuse manifests in various forms such as emotional abuse, physical abuse, sexual abuse, psychological and social problems and neglect which collectively cause trauma and depression, substance dependency, problems in interpersonal relations leading to lowered self-esteem [42, 43].
Self-efficacy has been meta-analysed for more than two decades revealing that efficacy beliefs contribute significantly to students’ level of motivation and learning [6], socio-cognitive functioning, emotional well-being and performance accomplishments [26, 44]. Thus, these are considered critical for educating young people [28, 45]. Self-efficacy influences cognitive and meta-cognitive functioning concepts such as analytical strategy use, decision-making, self-evaluation, problem-solving, time management and self-regulating stratagems, all which impact on academic achievement [6, 45]. Efficacy beliefs play an indispensable role in all stages of self-regulation and achievement [44]. Efficacy makes students to be highly motivated and have a sense of agency in their learning by setting themselves high goal which they monitor and evaluate regularly. Through this strategy they are able to judge their performance and setting more challenging goals for themselves and achieving them. This strategy contributes to quality education as students strive to produce good work [28].
Guidance and counselling programmes have been in existence in educational institutions over the years. However, the traditional approaches that have been used are no longer relevant to meet the needs of the students in the current environment. At present, learning effectiveness and efficiency are being stressed to realise the goal of educating responsible and productive citizens who have a global consciousness. In line with United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goal 4, where emphasis is on developing twenty-first century skills and competences among students, there is need for comprehensive guidance and counselling programmes which are critical to help prepare students to meet the challenges of the future [46, 47].
The terms guidance and counselling have engendered debate among scholars in the field concerning whether the two concepts reflect similar process activities or both terms should remain independent because there exist some differences between the two [48]. Scholars like Shertzer and Stone, cited in [48], maintain that differences between guidance and counselling often tend to be artificial, forced or contrived and theoretical rather than qualitative and practical in nature, hence, the terms should be used interchangeably. Yet, other authorities, such as Rao cited in [48], argue that even though the two terms are almost similar and appear to be two sides of the same coin, subtle differences exist between them. Hence, there is a need to clarify the two concepts, so that they are explicitly understood.
According to [49], guidance is a developmental process whereby an individual is helped to appreciate, accept and practise his/her abilities, skills and interests and attitudinal patterns relating to his/her aspirations. In educational settings, guidance comprises of those experiences that help each student to understand and accept him/herself, and effectually live in his/her society. This is over and above what the student experiences in the work places. In agreement, is the National Council of Educational Research and Training [50], which views guidance as what competent counsellors do to an individual or a group of students in the form of assistance that directs the progression in life, develop a point of view, decision-making and be better adjusted. Ideally, guidance is not giving directions, or imposing one’s point of view on another person. The person offering guidance does not take the responsibility of making decisions on behalf of the client. In reality, guidance is not giving ready-made solutions, but rather assisting people to navigate through their problems to come up with solutions.
UNESCO Guidance [49] views guidance as a needs-based programme or services to students facing various challenges in education or life in general. Through guidance, a student is assisted in setting realistic goals for themselves, so that they can adapt to the environment and improve in their education. Guidance, therefore, contains a succession of actions that are progressive towards goal achievement. Thus, from the given definitions, the subsequent salient points emerge:
Guidance is a purposeful helping relationship.
It is a planned educational programme provided for students by guidance specialists and educators on continuous basis.
Guidance is intended to assist the individual students to understand and accept themselves and the world around them, thereby becoming responsible and productive citizens.
Basically, four major guidance services can be singled out as educational, vocational, academic, personal and social guidance. These are discussed in the succeeding sections.
Educational guidance can be differentiated from any other form of guidance as its focus is on assisting students make choices in and adjusting to the school curriculum, career pursuit and life in general. Educational guidance is an essential counselling service for students to pursue the right type of education while ensuring that they choose appropriate career meeting the national human resource needs. It is a process through which students take up suitable educational programmes such as choice of subjects, courses, type of schools or colleges and progress in them. For example, female students should be encouraged to pursue careers in science, technology, engineering, mathematics and need to be guided away from those educational myths which contribute to the reluctance of females to pursue male dominated careers [49].
Educational guidance is important in higher and tertiary institutions in the following ways:
It assists students to pursue the right type of education which motivates them to effectively contribute to the society.
It assists individuals to make informed decisions between subjects, curricula, schools or colleges for their education to be meaningful to society.
It enables the smooth changeover for students from home to school, from elementary to high school, from high school to tertiary institutions and to the world of work or entrepreneurship, where the labour force is important and yet challenging for students.
It enables students to handle examination anxiety, as most of them are afraid of failure, and the desire for the higher grades is the key source of pressure among students.
It assists students to develop effective study habits, as that improves their capability in reading, note-taking and academic attainment.
It affords students the chance to relate the curriculum to occupational groups, so that they gain meaningful educational experiences [49].
Examination preparation includes study skills, time-tabling, note-taking and sitting for examinations. These are explained below.
Lack of effective study habits and skills leads to failure, hence students should be encouraged to spend a substantial amount of time on meaningful school activities and effectively studying to be productive and spend less time on leisure [49].
Students need to be encouraged to develop a formal time schedule and a personal study time-table, regulate their movements and avoid the tendency of procrastination in their work causing them to work under pressure. Effectively, time-tabling enables students to prioritise study times as considerate obligations while respecting times for home chores and recreation as they are equally essential [49].
Students are expected to take notes during class sessions, yet most of them find the task difficult. Due to lack note-taking skills, some teachers resort to prepare notes and distribute them to their students or write notes on the chalkboard for students on copy. Even though this strategy might prepare students for their examinations, it also deprives them of a chance to learn how to select major points from a lesson or lecture. Students tend to be truant for lessons relying on handouts which does not adequately prepare them for examinations [48, 49].
Examinations are valuable tools for assessing the effectiveness of educational programmes and appraising students’ progress but they are often misused and abused, particularly when accepting or eliminating students from some programmes. All the same, students face numerous limitations of examinations in measuring other skills that students might possibly have assimilated during their course of the year. Dealing with examinations related anxiety and stress becomes essential for every student to learn though proper guidance [49].
Academic counselling is a crucial facet of educational guidance which should be offered to students at various levels in their educational development. Students that are gifted and talented may require counselling that is different from the low achievers, the handicapped and delinquents, hence the need for an appraisal of the educational needs for every student [49]. This stance calls for professional guidance counselling to prepare a cumulative record so as to adequately assist all types of students in their dilemmas [48]. The school guidance counsellor must give students information such as:
How to effectively use of the library;
What to study;
Where to study;
When to study; and
How to study.
Choosing and preparing for a career can be a daunting experience for students in which vocational guidance becomes a necessary process for assisting students choose an occupation, be adequately prepared for it, be engage in it and advance themselves in it. Fundamentally, a student’s interests, aptitudes, personality and suitability for the type of work should be considered when giving vocational guidance [49].
Individual and societal guidance is a process that assists an individual or groups of people to relate considerably towards other people. Mostly, individual and societal guidance is beneficial for students with self-awareness, learn interpersonal skills, learn demeanours and etiquette, wisely pursue leisure time activities, develop family relationships and understand their roles and responsibilities in the society [49].
Counselling can be defined as a learning-oriented process, that develops an interactive relationship, whose main objective is to develop self-awareness so that one becomes more relevant as an effective member of society. Counselling is described as a process undertaken by a helper who expresses care and concern towards an individual with a problem in order to enable that individual’s personal growth which brings about transformation through self-awareness [14]. Concurring National Council of Educational Research and Training [50] refers to counselling as a therapeutic and interactive learning process through which the counsellor assists the counselee to identify the origin(s) of problems and guides them in categorising issues and making wise decisions. Although counselling is all-inclusive, addressing cultural, economic, emotional and social issues, it can be required at any time in life as people need change or face a crisis. Below are the aims of counselling as outlined by Van Dinther et al. [14]:
To assist students in understanding the origins and development of emotional hitches so that they develop the capacity to rationally control their feelings and actions.
To modify maladjusted conduct.
To help students to realise their potential and amalgamate conflicting elements within themselves.
To afford students with self-awareness skills and knowledge that enables them to confront social inadequacy.
Self-esteem or self-efficacy is an important aspect in the growth and development of students. It results from viewing oneself positively within the context of one’s surroundings. How well one gets along with peers and how they judge themselves in comparison with others, shapes their self-efficacy. Literature has identified self-efficacy as the area of interpersonal relationships. However, with proper guidance and counselling support, individuals with experiencing difficulties in learning can build the self-esteem they need to succeed in their life [51]. Owuor et al. [51] further explain that the main goal of guidance and counselling in the mainstream schools is to enhance the self-esteem or self-efficacy of students with emotional and behavioural problems. Guidance and counselling assist students in fulfilling their basic psychological needs, understanding themselves and acceptance of others, developing associations with peers, balancing between permissiveness and controls in the educational setting, realising successful achievement and providing opportunities to gain independence.
Florida Department of Education Division of Workforce Development [47] propounds that the student’s needs which manifest as the gap between the expected progress and the actual progress in the student’s personal, social, academic and career development are addressed in guidance and counselling programmes. The student’s learning and achievement are facilitated through competency in these developmental areas. A firm base of motivation, aspirations, positive attitudes, self-acceptance and knowledge of alternatives are essential elements for growth and development which should be acquired by students at an early age. It is, therefore, crucial for students to continuously build on these lifelong elements. The major competencies which should form the content of the student development programmes include decision-making, study skills, communication skills, test-taking skills, educational and career planning skills, conflict resolution, career awareness and exploration, problem-solving skills, community involvement, self-esteem and interpersonal and social skills among others. The stated competencies empower the student to be an active participant in using the available school and community learning opportunities. As such, all programmes’ learning achievements, long-term outcomes and accomplishment of the school mission goals are facilitated by these competencies. Accordingly, schools which expose their students to guidance and counselling programmes promote self-efficacy in their students. Thus, students are prepared for the future as well as acquiring suitable attitudes and values which empower them to productively and actively participate in the communities, they live in.
Of paramount importance is that, through guidance and counselling programmes, students are assisted in establishing a set of beliefs and a value system that will direct their behaviour and actions which results in developing a positive self-image and a sense of identity. These programmes should involve students in activities and dialogues that allow them to realise their rights and responsibilities within the family, school and other societal institutions. Such activities expose students to discover reality through participation in various fora as they share power with adults in decision-making [49].
Additionally, guidance and counselling programmes promote students’ self-efficacy since the programmes emphasise on providing students with a chance to learn more about themselves and others before they encounter glitches resulting from self-concept matters. The programmes concentrate on academic accomplishment, prevention and intervention activities, advocacy and social/personal/emotional and career development. Students acquire interpersonal skills before they experience interpersonal crisis. When faced with crisis, students can solve the problem by using the learnt skills. To achieve optimum benefits from the educational programmes, every student needs sound emotional and social skills. The four key areas of the programmes, which are academic, personal/social, career and community involvement, are fundamental to the individual uniqueness and maximum development of the student [47].
According to Nkechi et al. [52], some of the contributions of school guidance and counselling programmes in promoting students’ self-efficacy involve:
Encouraging facilitative, co-operative peer interactions;
Preparing students through academic, career, and personal/social development for the twenty-first century challenges;
Assuring equitable access to educational opportunities;
Broadening knowledge of the changing world;
Enhancing personal development;
Assisting in developing effective interpersonal relationship skills;
Providing advocacy for students;
Fostering resiliency factors for students;
Relating educational programmes to future success;
Facilitating career exploration and development;
Assisting in acquiring knowledge of self and others; and
Developing decision-making and problem-solving skills.
Likewise, most secondary school students are in the adolescent stage when they experience alienation, which is a syndrome comprising of distrust, anxiety, pessimism, egocentrism, meaninglessness, normlessness and powerlessness. At this stage, guidance and counselling programmes are, therefore, desirable to assist students understand their developmental stage and adjust to school life accordingly. Guidance and counselling programmes also help students choose and pursue achievable and sustainable careers. The complexity and dynamic nature of the world makes it difficult for students to decide on career choices. The changes in time, people and technological advancements challenge individuals to transform to new ways of living and working. Therefore, guidance and counselling programmes are necessary to enlighten students about several existing job opportunities required the qualifications, responsibilities involved and the nature of work so that they can make informed decisions and have clear occupational goals [52].
Furthermore, UNESCO Guidance [49] identifies the following functions of vocational guidance which can enhance self-efficacy among students if effectively implemented:
Assists students to realise their talents and make appropriate career choices;
Encourages students to maximise use of all educational opportunities, which will benefit them in life. Through vocational guidance, students recognise the relationship that exists between curricular and extracurricular activities;
Informs students about job prospects and the actual procedures required for getting employment and succeeding in it;
Encourages students to make informed decisions on the type of life they would like to lead depending on their interests, values, abilities, skills and motivation to learn; and
Helps students to adapt to change as they tackle various problems which emanate from the ever-changing society. For instance, currently in the world of work, the focus is on self-employment and entrepreneurship than in the past years.
More so, Nkechi et al. [52] are of the view that guidance has a responsibility for developing and maintaining a co-operative relationship between students and the school. Teachers and counsellors should be mindful of students’ needs, whereas students are expected to adjust to the school environment. The students’ main obligation to the school is to use the school’s resources appropriately and work towards attainment of set standards. The provision of suggestions to improve the programmes through carrying out educational research, conducting counselling sessions to assist students, and encouraging positive school-home environment facilitates the mutual adjustment of students and the school. As a result, such mutual cooperation between the students and the school builds self-efficacy in students. The main focal point of guidance and counselling programmes will be to develop a balanced individual intellectually, spiritually, morally and socially. Thus, guidance and counselling programmes assist students to harmonise their abilities, interests and values, thereby enabling them to develop their potential fully. Such exposure to guidance and counselling programmes helps students to formulate realistic life goals and plans. Despite the valuable contribution of guidance and counselling programmes in promoting self-efficacy among students in high schools, a study conducted in Ghana by Owusu et al. [53] revealed that the staff acknowledged that guidance services are available in the schools while students who are the main beneficiaries of guidance and counselling programmes disputed the claim by the staff. The students indicated that they did not have any access to guidance services in the schools.
In Kenya, Ruttoh [54] conducted a study which revealed that 57.2% of the students had not attended counselling sessions with the counsellors. The reasons for non-attendance were that:
The school did not have the counselling programme.
The students therefore felt that they were not welcome. Some teacher counsellors did not adhere to counselling ethics. For example, some counsellors showed rudeness, lack of confidentiality, and negative attitude towards the students. Hence, the students felt that the atmosphere was not welcoming and there was poor quality of counselling services.
Some students favoured to be counselled by parents, whilst others preferred peer counselling instead of teacher counselling.
Since the counselling service was seldom offered, some students lacked the opportunity to attend even if they wished to do so.
Other students indicated that they preferred doing activities like games which were offered simultaneously with counselling session; hence, they did not have time to attend counselling session.
Due to lack of a counselling office and in cases where it was available, some students were shy and feared going for counselling because they were worried about lack of privacy in such offices. The location of guidance and counselling offices within the administration block and near the school heads’ and deputy heads’ offices hindered students from attending counselling sessions as they felt intimidated.
School counsellors serve a vital role in enhancing students’ self-efficacy and maximising student achievement. As professionals, school counsellors implement a comprehensive school counselling programme that promotes and enhances student achievement. By incorporating leadership, advocacy and collaboration, professional school counsellors promote equity and access to opportunities and rigorous educational experiences for all students [55].
Accordingly, guidance counsellors need to be equipped with skills required to design comprehensive guidance programmes, provide counselling service, and use assessment procedures with a gender perspective [49]. On the same note, Yusof et al. [56] add that in developing students’ character, the school counsellors’ personal attributes and professional competencies are necessary characteristics. To make sure that services rendered by school counsellors meet the goal of assisting students develop and grow, the counsellors are expected to have a high level of confidence and professional competencies. Examples of personal attributes include compassionate, empathetic, patience, research-oriented, good listener, and self-awareness, discrete, authentic and non-judgmental are fundamental in executing their role as counsellors. While, the professional competencies are critical in the provision of effective counselling services entail knowledge, abilities, skills and attitude related to school counselling programme as well as the foundations, management, delivery and counsellors’ accountability.
It is important that the stated qualities be combined with precise skills demanded by the profession. These skills involve listening, analytical and good observation. Apart from being professionally qualified, it is essential for the counsellors to have temperament as well as empathy towards students because the counsellors deal with students who encounter diverse problems in their lives. Hence, the counsellor should possess the skill of working with individuals as well as groups. Nonetheless, for counsellors to be recognised as professional counsellors, they should undergo special training to acquire the necessary skills in addition to qualities they possess [50].
In promoting self-efficacy among students, Nkechi et al. [52] affirm that the school counsellor is seen as a role model and highly respected by students. Through training, counsellors can create a friendly atmosphere with students by listening to the students’ complaints, short comings and offering relevant guidance in a quest of moulding the student in the right pursuit of life. The same authors further express that counsellors can provide data that serves as a basis for curriculum development and can help curriculum developers shape courses of study that more accurately reflect the needs of students. However, it has been observed that counsellors are not included in curriculum development efforts.
In order to effectively assist students in developing self-efficacy, the school counsellors should develop self-efficacy in executing their work. The concept of self-efficacy is based upon the assumption that awareness of self-efficacy will be a connection between a person’s knowledge about a task and the reality of doing the task. Devoted counselling efficacy will result in a continuous therapeutic and effective counselling process due to the positive influence of a confident counsellor on a client/student. This further proves that competent self-efficacy is important in managing the behaviour of students and improving the school climate [56]. However, Woods [57] argues that society’s diverse perspectives of the role and identity of the school counsellor would naturally lead the counsellor to question his/her role and weaken self-efficacy beliefs. In this respect, self-efficacy is an important component in the explanation of the school counsellors’ performance and effectiveness.
It is imperative for the counsellors to consider ethics as they execute their duties. Thus, effective counselling deals with ethical understanding, legal responsibilities and moral realities. UNESCO Counselling [58] expounds that counselling does not take place in a fantasy world, but in a world of reality where people are required to make ethical choices and decisions. Adherence to professional ethical standards protects both the public and the counsellor. Concurring National Council of Educational Research and Training [50] complements that counselling is a process involving responsibility and confidentiality; hence, guidance and counselling experts should follow certain ethical principles. These encompass consideration of students’ diverse individual and cultural differences, desisting from taking steps which are harmful to the student, practising within the scope of their competence and referring students to experts if they are unable to deal with the cases.
In spite of the above, UNESCO Counselling [58] warns of unethical practices by some counsellors. These ill practices involve incompetence, which is a result of lack of prerequisite knowledge and skills essential for professional behaviour, lack of integrity and moral commitment, violation of confidences, imposing values on students and creating dependence on the part of the student to meet the counsellor’s own needs, for example, sexual relations and social interactions [59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64].
There is need for schools to avail guidance and counselling services to all students who need such services in order to promote self-efficacy in students.
Schools should employ professionally qualified counsellors who will be in a position to assist students accordingly.
Well-equipped guidance and counselling facilities should be provided by schools so that counselling ethics are observed.
Schools should initiate guidance and counselling staff development programmes for teachers to acquaint them with knowledge and skills on how to assist students who need guidance and counselling services.
As authors of this chapter, we acknowledge our colleagues, Dr. M. Mpofu and Dr. J. Shumba for being supportive and providing valuable contribution in compiling this chapter. Much appreciation is extended to Dr. P. Makati for editing and proofreading. The authors declare that they have no funding for the publication of the book chapter.
IntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. An Author, one must:
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