Comparison of selected micro-CHP systems with fuel cells.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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\r\n\tWhen the diverse types of wear reported in the different industrial segments are studied it is observed that, approximately, 50% of them are related to the action of “abrasive wear” and/or “micro-abrasive wear”, being occasioned, in many circumstances, by natural abrasives. In contrast, the same abrasive materials that cause tribologic damage and financial loss in machines and equipment used in mechanical, metallurgical, materials, mining industries and agricultural sector, are applied on the analysis of dental materials, biomaterials adopted in the manufacturing of orthopaedic implants and complements, as well as industrial processes of manufacturing: conventional machining processes, special machining processes, lapidation and polishing. Consequently, the researches focused on wear analysis occasioned during work become important, as well as the scientific researches with the purpose of to study and to develop materials for the benefit of the human, like materials used in dental and orthopaedic areas. Thereby, this book aims to focus on the topics mentioned above, beyond general aspects related to natural abrasives.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7298928150289ddbe3451d34e413cca3",bookSignature:"Prof. Ronaldo Cozza",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7647.jpg",keywords:"Abrasion, Dental Materials, Biomaterials, Orthopaedic Implants, Thin Films Tribology, Lapidation and Polishing, Wear Industrial Costs, Surface Topography, Hard Particle Wear, Testing Methods, Wear Modelling, Mapping",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 31st 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 6th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 5th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 24th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 22nd 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"10 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"283058",title:"Prof.",name:"Ronaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Cozza",slug:"ronaldo-cozza",fullName:"Ronaldo Cozza",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283058/images/system/283058.jpg",biography:"Ronaldo Câmara Cozza received the titles of Mechanical Engineering by University Center FEI – Educational Foundation of Ignatius “Padre Sabóia de Medeiros” in 2002 and Mathematical by Methodist University of São Paulo, in 2005. He conducted his Programs of Master Degree and Doctor Degree in the Department of Mechanical Engineering of the Polytechnic School of the University of São Paulo – 2006 e 2011, respectively; in 2015, he finished the Post-Doctorate in Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, also in the Polytechnic School of the University of São Paulo. Nowadays, Ronaldo Câmara Cozza works as Titular Professor in two Universities: University Center FEI – Educational Foundation of Ignatius “Padre Sabóia de Medeiros” – Departments of Mechanical and Materials – and CEETEPS – State Center of Technological Education “Paula Souza” – Department of Mechanical Manufacturing – both in São Paulo State – Brazil, teaching “Technical Drawing”, “Mechanical Processes of Manufacturing”, “Machine Kinematics and Dynamics” and “Tribology”. Since 2003, Prof. R.C. 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Emission levels, delivery security, and diversification of the portfolio of technologies have been extensively discussed. Well-established generation based on fossil fuels in large-scale power stations is criticized for big environmental impacts, and limited sustainability due to high fraction of process losses. Not only emissions, but also extraction of resources, alternation of the landscape, transmission and distribution inefficiencies are often pointed as the main downside. As a solution for rapidly increasing energy consumption, and emerging threat of current resources depletion, distributed generation based on highly efficient micro- and small-system was proposed. Moreover, combined heat and power (CHP) units with high achievable efficiency are seen as possible substitutes for stand-alone electricity generators. Most of technologies from that group are currently under development, however selected systems are already reaching market availability. In 2004 European Commission indicated selected systems, with guidelines for promotion and development of highly efficient co-generative units [1]. List of technologies, which can provide high electrical and overall efficiency with limited environmental impacts, includes the following:
\n\t\t\tCombined cycle gas turbine with heat recovery
Steam backpressure turbines
Steam condensing extraction turbines
Gas turbines with heat recovery
Internal combustion engines
Microturbines
Stirling engines
Fuel cells
Steam engines
Organic Rankine cycles
Any other type of technology of combination of thereof falling under the definition laid in the directive
Further studies were devoted to finding the optimal technology for micro- and small scale-systems suitable for CHP applications. It should be noted that, to distinguish between selected systems scales, terms micro and small were introduced. In the EU Combined Heat and Power directive [1] the earlier term refers to units with nominal power output 50 kW\n\t\t\t\t\tel\n\t\t\t\t, while in literature it usually covers systems with nominal power output of single kW\n\t\t\t\t\tel\n\t\t\t\t [2,3,4]. The later usually refers to system with output of tens of kW\n\t\t\t\t\tel\n\t\t\t\t.
\n\t\t\tIt was found that three groups of technologies are especially interesting from the technical and economical point of view for systems with single kilowatts power output, namely:
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t
Internal combustion engines
Stirling engines
Fuel Cells (PEFC and SOFC)
While different energy generating systems with internal combustion and Stirling engines are a well-established technology, fuel cells in stationary generation have been known for not more than two decades. Even though technology is not yet mature, numerous demonstration systems have already been operated allowing to gain operating experience. The main reason to consider fuel cells as an alternative to other generation systems is high electrical performance due to the direct conversion of chemical energy of a fuel into electricity.
\n\t\t\tEvaluation of PEFC and SOFC for micro-CHP application was recently presented [3]. Authors underlined high efficiency and mulifuel capabilities of the SOFC. Additionally, in case of low-temperature cells, such as PEFC, partial internal reforming cannot be done, hence efficiency penalty due to external reforming is observed next to limited fuel flexibility. Moreover, SOFCs offer utilization of high temperature heat in co-generative systems [4]. Substantial part of the high-grade heat can be recovered from the anodic and cathodic gas streams leaving the SOFC stack at elevated temperature [5] for hot tap water supply or heating purposes [6]. Taking into account these advantages, SOFC technology has been selected for futher analysis with different modeling techniques.
\n\t\tOver the years fuel cell technology proved to be feasible in a number of applications, including portable energy generation, transportation, stationary back-up systems and energy generators in space missions among others Currently, selected fuel cells such as SOFCs are considered as suitable conversion systems for the clean and sustainable energy generation. Development of such systems requires proper modeling approaches, construction of high fidelity numerical simulators and tools able to provide clear insight into various aspects of the system operation.
\n\t\t\tSelected units with SOFCs have already reached proof-of-the-concept stage of development, and in some cases units are already available in for sale. Comparison of market-available systems is presented in Table 1, based on available data [7,8,9,10,11,12,13]. It should be emphasized, that using fuel cells for electricity only generation in micro- and small-units is not economically feasible, therefore it was not considered. SOFC-based electricity-only generation is economically feasible only for the capacity range over 100 kW\n\t\t\t\t\tel\n\t\t\t\t. For such systems expected electrical efficiency ranges between 40 and 85%, while capital and peration and maintenance (O&M) costs were estimated for 1500-3000 $kW and 0.0019 – 0.0153 $/kW, respectively [14]. By comparing these numbers with data for other systems presented in Table 2 it becomes clear that SOFC can be indeed competitive.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tVendor\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tType of fuel\n cell\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPower: electrical/thermal [kW]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEfficiency: ηel/ηtot\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t [%]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNumber of units\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHexis\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSOFC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.0/2.0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t30-35/>90\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t42\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCFCL\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSOFC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.5/0.6\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t60/85\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t>10\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tVaillant\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSOFC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.6/6.5\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t30/88\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t>60\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJX Nippon\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSOFC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.7/1.25\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t45/87\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t800\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBaxi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPEFC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.0/1.7\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t32/85\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t>20\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tViessmann\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPEFC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.0/5.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t〈28/80\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t〈10\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBosch\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPEFC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.6/6.5\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t29/80\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t〈10\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Comparison of selected micro-CHP systems with fuel cells.
Different concepts of large SOFC-based systems were developed and studied [15,16,17]. Among those, various plants proposed by Siemens-Westinghouse with nominal power ranging from single up to hundreds MWelel\n\t\t\t\t were investigated [18,19], including pressurized systems. Despite the fact that high efficiency and near-zero emissions in such plants were envisioned, attention has been focused on smaller scales – single and tens of kW\n\t\t\t\t\tel\n\t\t\t\t.
\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTechnology\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCapacity\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tηel\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t [%]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCapital cost [$/kW]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tO&M costs [$/kW]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisel engines\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t500 kW - 50MW | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t35\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t200-350\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.005 - 0.015\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGas turbines\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t500 - 5 MW | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t29 - 42\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t450 - 870\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.005 - 0.0065\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPhotovoltaic system\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1 kW - 1MW | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t6 - 19\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t6600\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.001 - 0.004\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWind turbines\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t10 kW - 2MW | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t25\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1000\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.01\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Comparison of selected systems for stand-alone electricity generation.
During SOFC-based system operation numbers of different processes are taking place at different length- and time-scales. Summary of typically considered phenomena is presented in Table 3.
\n\t\t\tDifferent processes and their corresponding length scales and time frames (after [20])
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tScale [m]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tStructure\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPhenomena\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t10-810-7\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tElectrode material Triple phase boundary – electrode, electrolyte and oxidant contact point | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tElectrochemistry\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDiffusion through the surface \nChemical reaction | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t10-710-5\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPorous media | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKnudsen diffusion \nFlow through porous media \nChemical reaction\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t10-510-3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFlow field | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDiffusion \nMass flow \nHeat exchange\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t10-310-2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSingle cell | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTransport of oxidant and fuel \nThermal balancing\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t10-2100\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tStack | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tElectrical circuits of the cell \nProcesses in the electrical system \nThermal balancing\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t10-010?\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSystem level | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tControl, automatics, safety systems \nIntegration of the entire system | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Selected processes taking place during SOFC-system operation and their corresponding length scales.
Application-specific criteria and various designs require dedicated methodology for detailed investigation of processes listed in Table 3. In general, models are used to help understand and predict behavior of a particular system, to optimize control strategy, thermal balancing, and other aspects. Additionally, optimization tools can provide information on the optimal operational parameters. Moreover, models can be used as predictive tools for performance evaluation under off-design conditions. Modeling can provide crucial information for the system configuration improvements. Work on a prototype design is usually an iterative procedure where modeling is coupled with design definition. In each case, determination of criteria is an important step and must correspond to particular requirements. Depending on type of modeling, desired complexity and level of details, sufficient data have to be supplied to model. This section will briefly review different modeling techniques, including 0, 1-2 and 3D models. In a recent and valuable summary of modeling and simulation techniques [20] pictorial illustration of different issues and their corresponding length scales (Table 3) and characteristic time has been proposed (Fig. 1).
\n\t\t\tModels can be divided into macro- and micro-scale, depending on the length scales that are covered by particular approach. In general case, analysis of SOFC at the stack level focuses on development of models for electrochemical processes, chemical reaction, transport phenomena, and geometry influence. Investigation of the entire system includes studies on the integration, heat and mass exchange, electrical circuits, and equipment.
\n\t\t\tZero-dimensional methodology allows studying processes that can be analyzed without taking into account spatial configuration and geometry. Such approach is justified for system-level studies, however might also be used for estimation of certain parameters. Depending on the required precision, 0D models can be used to solve governing equations for planar SOFC, written for each of the cell components: electrodes, electrolyte, interconnects and flow channels [21,22,23,24,25]. Required assumptions include constant fluid properties, air as an incompressible gas and no chemical reactions occurring in the fuel and air channels. Set of governing equations is later solved with desired accuracy by different algorithms. System-level studies can be performed with commercially available software such as Aspen Plus or Aspen Hysys. The later was recently used by Kupecki and Badyda [5] for evaluation of different fuel processing technologies for micro-CHP unit with SOFC. Different designs, presented in Fig. 2-6 were studied for evaluation of heat and mass balances. In the study, characteristics of market-available SOFCs were implemented, and auxiliary equipment was selected for off-the-shelf products. Considering different fuels, including natural gas, diesel, and LPG it was possible to define the optimal processing technology for micro-CHP unit equipped with afterburner. Steam reforming allowed achieving the highest overall system efficiency, even tough it required substantial amount of heat. Generally, 0D method proved to be sufficient for system-level studied, including thermal processes (i.e. heat exchange, heat losses, combustion in the afterburner), electrochemical reactions in the SOFC stack and chemical reactions occurring in the fuel processor.
\n\t\t\t\tWith introduction of heat capacity, dynamics can be studied to some extent using 0D modeling techniques, as it will be presented in the dynamic modeling section. In certain cases chemistry can also be investigated. The main limitation is the difficulty to explicitly incorporate geometry of chemical reactors, although semi-empirical correlations are sometimes applicable. Bove and Ubertini [26] suggested using black-box 0D models to investigate impact of fuel composition, oxidant or fuel utilization and overpotentials on the macroscopic performance of SOFC in terms of efficiency and current-voltage characteristics. Such models should be used when system-level approach is required, without main focus on the SOFC stack itself [27]. In cell-leveling modeling, zero dimensional approach can be efficiently used for solving elementary balance equations for fluids: continuity, momentum, energy and species transport. Since solid oxide fuel cells consists of two porous electrodes separated by an electrolyte, porosity of these materials should be explicitly considered in the governing equations. Once the set of equations is developed, it can easily be transferred from discrete 0D to 1D model to be solved using proper CFD method [28].
\n\t\t\t\tSummarizing, the main advantage of zero-dimensional approach is low computational costs, simple formulation of the model. Such models can be freely used for systems where no mass and heat accumulation occurs. The main disadvantage is the significant limitation in modeling influence of geometry and sizing, especially when those are of a high importance, for instance in chemistry modeling.
\n\t\t\t\tSingle-pass system with CPOX reactor
Single-pass system with steam reformer
System with recirculation based on an ejector
System with recirculation based on a high-temperature fan
System with recirculation based on a low-temperature fan
In 1-,2- and 3D models, space-dependent governing equations are being solved. In case of three-dimensional approach, mathematical formulas are usually written in form of partial differential equations. Different methods can be used for solving the resulting set of equations. In 1D approach, ordinary differential equations may be encountered, and solution can be easily found with simple codes or even analytically. Complex 3D models of SOFC stack are useful for heat and mass exchange modeling [29]. With high fidelity models, different heat exchange means can be studies, and cell voltage under inhomogeneous temperature distribution can be found. Space-continuous models can be applied for material studies and evaluation of process losses. Time-dependent thermal processes can be studied in similar way to proposed nearly twenty years ago by Achenbach [30]. In his work, numerical tool was used to investigate heat conductivity of stack made of ceramic and metallic plates. With the proposed methodology it was possible to find the overall heat conductivities of the combined SOFC assembly. Additionally, the model was applied to evaluate influence of thermal radiation and the total heat losses from the stack. Such studies are crucial for evaluation of overall system performance, and can indicate dangerous operational modes, which should be avoided. Several analytical models of pressure and flow distribution in the stack have been presented [59,60]. The results have been compared to 3D CFD model, showing accuracy sufficient for engineering calculations. However, analytical models are typically applicable only to no-load, isothermal stack conditions.
\n\t\t\t\tSignificant computational power is required to implement fully-3D CFD combined models of the SOFC stack and auxiliary system components. Computational time requirements limits complex optimization of such cases. In particular, when optimization of 3D models of system sections is necessary to approximate integration of SOFC stack with pre-heaters or reformers, engineering accuracy approximations are often implemented. 3D non-CFD numerical model of SOFC stack has been applied to improve the thermal management of SOFC system through radiant heat transfer from the stack walls to adjacent air preheater panels [61].
\n\t\t\t\tIn this study, options for minimizing axial and in-plane temperature gradients in the stack have also been identified. The results of subsequent tests, verifying modeling results, suggested that the use of radiation-based approach significantly improves the management of stack-generated heat [62].
\n\t\t\t\tSince porous body, representing electrochemically active part of the SOFC stack, is impermeable in directions other than flow direction in gas channels, simplifications of the 3D CFD stack model is possible, including 2D CFD model with the porous body approach (see Fig. 7). Periodical and ordered geometry of reactant channels in the stack, allows treatment of stack geometry as a porous body, with porosity defined as a ratio of channels cross-sectional area to stack cross-sectional area [63]. In the study, 2-D and 3D CFD SOFC stack models with internal manifolds have been implemented to simulate flow distribution under electric load conditions for the selected fuels. The semi-empirical model of electrochemical kinetics has been implemented. Typical flow arrangements of the inlet and outlet gas supply manifolds (U-flow, Z-flow) have been evaluated, including effects associated water-shift reaction and finite-rate of internal reforming of methane in the stack.
\n\t\t\t\tStack representation in the 2D/3D CFD porous body approach
Stack representation in the hydraulic network approach
In yet another approach to SOFC stack modeling, so-called hydraulic network approach [64], pressure drop is calculated separately for each manifold section and reactant channel section, as shown in Fig. 8. The pressure drop is calculated based on the Darcy\'\'s friction factor, incorporating local geometry and stream characteristics. The hydraulic model approach has been implemented for the planar, rectangular geometry of the fuel cells. In the model, pressure drop is calculated separately for each manifold section and cell section:
\n\t\t\t\twhere:
\n\t\t\t\tfD Darcy\'s friction factor
\n\t\t\t\tfD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t = K/Re for the laminar flow and fD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t = ε/D for the turbulent flow
\n\t\t\t\tΔPi pressure drop in the manifold section or cell section [Pa]
\n\t\t\t\tL length of the manifold section or cell section [m]
\n\t\t\t\t\tρi gas density [kg cm-1]
\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tVi gas velocity [m s-1]
\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tD hydraulic diameter [m]
\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tK constant (64 for the circular channels)
\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tε/D relative roughness of the channel
\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tRe Reynolds number
\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tAdditional pressure losses are calculated for the flow obstacles, such as dividing/combining flows at the manifold/reactant channel junctions, as:
\n\t\t\t\tThe resulting system of nonlinear equations is solved numerically for each of the flow loops:
\n\t\t\t\tNumerical results show good convergence with analytical models (Fig. 9). The hydraulic networks approach is also applicable to SOFC stack modeling under electric load conditions.
\n\t\t\t\tComparison of pressure drop across the cathode side of the SOFC cell for a range of flows corresponding to a range of oxidant utilizations (▲– hydraulic model results; – measurements, 295 K; ■– 3D CFD simulation results)
Computational fluid dynamic system can be also used for system integration [2]. The coupling different models in one simulator can provide insight into operation of system components such as BoP devices, fuel processor, tail gas combustor, and SOFC stack. Time scale selection for the modeling should be done with caution. As has been noted by Tanaka et al. [29], certain fluctuations during small-scale co-generative SOFC-based unit operation occur. Authors performed detailed uncertainty estimation for 10 kW class units fed with town gas. Research was focused on evaluation of possible fluctuations, including changes in fuel quality over time (i.e. deviation of HHV from the nominal value), flow variations, precision of measurement equipment and other factors. The results indicate that the electrical efficiency of system can be determined with 1.0% relative uncertainty at 95% level of confidence for such system. However, it should be noted that fuel cells are generally believed to operate quite stable when compared to other energy conversion techniques [31].
\n\t\t\tIt is well know that the main advantage of solid oxide fuel cells is the ability to operate with number of different fuels including alcohols [32], hydrocarbons [31], pure hydrogen [33,21,31], biofuels [34] and energy carries which can be converted to hydrogen-rich gas, including ammonia [35] and dimethyl ether [36]. Nonetheless, in order to assure high performance operation of a fuel cell stack, by limiting cells degradation, proper fuel processing has to be selected. As recently reported by Leone et al. [40] different fuel processing technologies may be used for fuel cell-based system, however reforming technique can influence cell operating conditions and selection should be made taking into account different factors.
\n\t\t\t\tGenerally, three different technologies can be distinguished for converting fuel before it enters the SOFC stack: catalytic partial oxidation (CPOX), steam reforming (SR) and autothermal reforming (AT). In certain cases these processes can be accompanied by fuel clean-up stage as it is usually done for fuels with significant H2S content.
\n\t\t\t\tThe important part of SOFC system operation is direct thermal integration of stack and fuel reforming. Different implementations have been proposed and corresponding modeling studies performed:
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t
Intermediate indirect reforming plates (IIR) can be directly integrated with the SOFC stack [45,46]. In this approach, fuel reforming plates are integrated with the stack structure and separated with one or more fuel cells. Reformed fuel from the reforming plates is redirected to fuel inlet of the adjacent cell(s).
Direct internal reforming (DIR) is often implemented, taking advantage of catalytic properties of the SOFC anode material [47]. In this approach fuel is directly reformed on the anode side of the fuel cell. Pre-reforming of the fuel might be necessary in some cases to avoid overcooling of the fuel inlet stack region, particularly for the fuel with high methane content.
Thermal integration of SOFC stack and fuel reformer can also be implemented with thermal radiation/convection/conduction conjugate heat transfer between SOFC stack(s) and reformer. In this approach, fuel reformer is placed in a direct vicinity of the stack(s).
In this subsection, theory of different fuel processing technologies will be briefly discussed.
\n\t\t\t\tPartial oxidation reaction proceeds with the presence of catalyst can be written in a general form for any hydrocarbon [37]
\n\t\t\t\twhere x is the oxygen to fuel molar ratio. This ratio defines the required amount of water for carbon to carbon monoxide conversion, amount of generated hydrogen, and molar concentration of hydrogen in the reaction products. For x = 0 the reaction becomes an endothermic steam reforming, and for x = 12.5 it corresponds to a combustion process. Partial oxidation reaction should be controlled in such way, that overall thermal balance would be exothermic. Simple calculations lead to conclusion, that for a low value of x coefficient, higher amounts (or concentrations) of hydrogen should be expected. The main reason for using catalyst is the reduction of the process temperature. Reaction described by equation (1) to proceed without catalyst, however temperature o about 1000 C is required in such case. Because of that fact in most commercial applications, including SOFC- based systems, catalyst is used.
\n\t\t\t\tSecond method for turning different fuels into hydrogen-rich gas is the steam reforming. In most fuel cell applications, reaction proceeds at high temperature with addition of water vapor. Typical products of steam reforming include hydrogen and carbon dioxide. Ideal reaction can be written for any hydrocarbon fuel fed in the following form:
\n\t\t\t\tIn most technological processes, steam reforming comprises two stages which can be written for the simplest hydrocarbon in a form:
\n\t\t\t\tand
\n\t\t\t\tWhere equation (4.6) is strongly endothermic and (4.7) is slightly exothermic, therefore the overall reaction requires heat delivery. Typically, steam reforming of gases can also be done as a catalyst-supported process. Usually a metallic nickel catalyst [38,39] either Ni/Al2O3 or Ni on refractory material, containing 5-30% of Ni are used. Lifetime of a catalyst strongly depends on quality of gases converted in the steam reformer, so-called poisoning is usually the main process leading to rapid performance deterioration. In order to ensure long lasting operation of the catalyst, poisonous impurities should be removed prior the reforming process.
\n\t\t\t\tNext to CPOX and SR, internal reforming is also mentioned as a interesting processing technology and the most economical way to convert hydrocarbon fuels for tubular and planar SOFCs. Despite the fact that process has number of advantages, it may lead to high temperature variations in the fuel cell and stack [41]. Highly endothermic character of the reaction is responsible for local cooling of the cell material leading to cracking and rupture. In a similar way, CPOX reaction along the cell is often claimed to be responsible for cell overheating which can compromise the ceramic material stability in a similar way as internal reforming. Even though, internal reforming is allowed to a certain extent, it is believed that thermal decomposition of higher hydrocarbons may lead to carbon formation on the anode compartments [30]. Usually, limitation on the fraction of higher hydrocarbons is imposed by material issues (endothermic reforming reaction) and possibility of carbon deposition to occur. Recent study presented in 0D modeling section and available literature [42,43] clearly indicates that steam reforming is the most efficient technology for bioethanol, methane and other hydrocarbons conversion into hydrogen rich-gas. Arteaga et al. [44] performed thorough evaluation of different fuel processing technologies particularly for SOFC application also finding steam reforming the most suitable. Comparison of different fuel processing technologies for biogas and methane was previously done and reported [53]. It was clearly indicated that steam reforming is the optimal selection for micro-CHP units with SOFCs.
\n\t\t\t\tAs it was discussed in previous section, systems with SOFCs require fuel processing. In most cases steam reforming would be selected, and in such system catalysts would be employed.
\n\t\t\tSince micro-CHP unit of discussed type generated both electricity and heat, two control strategies are possible. Device can operate following electricity or heat/hot water demand. Generally it is believed, that the most optimal strategy is to control electricity generation, considering heat as a by-product which can possibly be stored in sufficiently large water tank. In available literature, different tank sizes were considered. In design of micro-CHP system with power output of about 2 kW by Kupecki and Badyda [5], tank with volume of 600 liters was considered. At average storage temperature of 55 C, the total of about 28 kW\n\t\t\t\t\tth\n\t\t\t\t can be stored in the tank. This volume was selected based on availability of off-the-shelf products, its reasonable price and sufficient heat capacity. Surprisingly, some authors [65] suggest selection of much larger size like 1000 or even 3000 liters. From the product development point of view, customer expectations and required compact size, this is an a way too large volume. Moreover, according to authors\'\' own calculations, selection of such a big vessel has negligible economical gain, and in all cases can lead to increase of capital cost of the system. Price of hot water storage tanks increases exponentially with the capacity increase, therefore considerations of volumes above 600 liters should not have place. Additional aspect of control strategy selection depend on current conditions, including generation price and cost or resources.
\n\t\t\tIn a recent study [66] control strategy for the highest energy savings for 20 households using 0.7 kW micro-CHP systems with SOFC was evaluated. Mixed-integer linear programming was used to optimized control for a case, and when each of households has a different consumption. They clearly found, that electrical load-following is the best strategy, allowing the highest energy-saving effect. Authors also pointed out that wastage of surplus hot water is possible in the summer season, but this can be avoided by selection of slightly larger water tank.
\n\t\tThe mathematical model of SOFC for steady state calculations was presented in a few previous papers [73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80]. In this section only dynamic oriented relationships are included and commented on.
\n\t\t\t\tDimensions of fuel cell plate and the manifolds
As an object for modeling, a singular fuel cell is chosen with dimensions of 5 cm 5 cm and thickness of 1 mm (see Fig. 10). It was assumed that the manifolds (for fuel and oxidant) are identical.
\n\t\t\t\tSome processes which occur during fuel cell operation are very rapid, thus they can be assumed to be time independent compared to others. The following processes are assumed to be time independent:
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t
Electrical processes
Electrochemical processes
Pressure changes
For those processes only the static equations were utilized.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFig. 11 presents a concept of a model of Solid Oxide Fuel Cell, the fuel cell is equiped with two inlet streams and two outlet streams. Processes which occur during fuel cell operation can be divided into three steps: capture of oxygen atoms from the delivered oxidant (air), oxygen ions passing through the electrolyte layer, and the ions escaping and reacting with the delivered fuel. Material aspects play a crucial role here [68].
\n\t\t\t\tA concept of a model of Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
The fuel cell presented in Fig. 11 can be reduced to an 0D model. This is the simplest approach, but generates a model of the same class as models of other equipment (compressors, pumps, heat exchangers). The set of equations for the 0D model is as follows:
\n\t\t\t\twhere:
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFactor\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tValue\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tComment\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecific heat of oxidant, cp,Oxidant\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t \n [kJ kg-1 K-1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.156 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tElectrochemistry\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tair | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecific heat of fuel, cp,Fuel\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t [kJ kg-1 K-1]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t15.25 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\thydrogen \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHeat transfer coefficient to surrounding, kSurrounding\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t [W m-2K-1]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tfuel cell is isolated\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHigher Heating Value of fuel, HHVFuel\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t [MJ kg-1]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t144 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\thydrogen \nThermal balancing\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecific heat of interconnector material, cp,Manifold\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t [kJ kg-1K-1]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLaCrO3\n\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecific heat of fuel cell, cp,Cell\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t [kJ kg-1K-1]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYSZ\n | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tInterconnector weight in relation to fuel cell area [kg m-2]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t20.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n | \n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFuel cell weight in relation to fuel cell area [kg m-2]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Selected factors of a dynamic oriented mathematical model of SOFC.
The factors used in the above equations are presented in Table 4.
\n\t\t\t\tTypical interconnects have a thickness of 3 mm 82, which gives 7.5 cm3 of material for fuel cell dimensions of 5 cm 5cm 3 mm. Assuming that the interconnect is made from LaCrO3, the interconnect weight is 50 g per fuel cell. The additional weight relates to the manifolds which deliver the working fluidsdepending on the current architecture solution of the stack. In this study, it was assumed that the interconnect weight in relation to fuel cell area is 2.03 g cm-2.
\n\t\t\t\tThe typical channel within which working fluids are delivered has dimensions of 0.5 mm 1.5 mm, and its length depends on the total fuel cell dimensions (58 cm). Usually, the distance between the channels are the same as the channels themselves. Assuming a planar fuel cell of dimensions of 5 cm 5 cm, the channel volume is 0.5 mm 5 cm 5 cm(17 17 1.5 mm 1.5 mm 0.5 mm) = 0.925 cm3 per each fuel cell side and in total 1.85 cm3 for the fuel cell. Relating the volume to the fuel cell area gives a value of 0.074 cm3/cm2 of the channel volume in relation to fuel cell area.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tParameter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLaCrO3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHeat conductivity [67] [W m-1K-1]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.72.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCoefficient of thermal expansion [72], ΔL/L/K\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(28)⋅10-6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDensity [71] [g cm-2]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t36.77 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Main material parameters of interconnector.
Working fluids velocities inside the channels depend on the channel dimensions and quantity of flows delivered. To provide an adequate time for reaction as well as mixing of reagents, the velocities of working fluids should be relatively low. Based on the authors\'\' own calculations, the nominal velocities of working fluids are below 5 m s-1, being on average 1.6 m s-1. Due to such low velocities, the pressure drops along the channels can be omitted [69].
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tParameter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tValue\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecific fuel cell weight [g cm-2]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecific interconnect weight [g cm-2]\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.03 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecific volume [cm3 cm-2]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.074 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Main material factors of the fuel cell related to fuel cell area.
During fuel cell operation there is a series of processes that affect its performance. The operator affects only some of them; the parameters subject to direct regulation are:
\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Temperature of inlet air
Temperature of inlet fuel
Quantity of inlet air
Quantity of inlet fuel
Electric current draw from the cell
The amounts of air and fuel supplied to the fuel cell should enable its proper operation, especially the behavior of the quantities of both fuel utilization and oxidant utilization. In addition, changes in certain parameters interact in a similar way: maintaining the desired temperature of fuel cells can be achieved by either reducing or increasing the amount of air and its temperature. Both of these parameters are related to each other (you cannot cool the cell with overly hot air, regardless of the amount). Selection of the optimal control strategy in this case is a key issue.
\n\t\t\t\t\tIn this study, it was assumed that the fuel utilization factor is kept constant at the point of maximum efficiency (in fact at the laboratory scale it means only 4.5% for a fuel utilization factor of 12%). This means that inlet fuel mass flow is correlated with fuel cell current.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe most important parameter is cell temperature, which must be kept constant. The temperature is controlled by an inlet air mass-flow, which is regulated by a valve equipped with a PID regulator.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKI\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t
PI | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4.3⋅T0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t |
PID | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.6⋅T0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.5⋅T0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Optimal parameters of PID controller [70].
The singular PID controller is chosen to keep the fuel cell temperature at set point (800C). The PID controls inlet air mass flow. Optimal PID parameters are listed in Table 7. For these parameters the optimal parameter settings for the PID controller of the fuel cell are determined:
\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKP\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t = 3.264
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKI\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t = 1.6
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t = 0.5.
System response to a step change in charging current density (01.3 A/cm2) using PID
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFig. 12 shows the cell parameters change with a stepped increase in current density using the PID controller. It can be seen that the quality of control is very good (almost no distortion: 15C), and the system reaches a steady state after about 4 minutes. The amount of air fed to the cathode reaches 1000 ml min-1cm-2. Cell voltage drops to the value of 0.75 V and remains without significant change.
\n\t\t\t\tAn external source of heat is required to support the start-up of a fuel cell. The simplest solution is to use the burner boot to warm the cell to a temperature which enables it to work independently. During fuel cell start-up acceptable temperature differences should be preserved, with the assumed values being:
\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
45C between inlet and outlet temperatures of working fluids
90C between working fluid temperature and fuel cell temperature
An active start-up system is proposed, comprising regulating the temperature of gases supplied to the cells depending on cell temperature.
\n\t\t\t\t\tCorrelation of air temperature used for heating the cell with cell temperature was applied during the simulation starting from cold state
The amount of air used to heat the cells was determined as the nominal point. The temperature of the air is correlated with the cell temperature according to the relation with which the air temperature decreases from the value of 700C in proportion to the increase in cell temperature (see Fig. 13).
\n\t\t\t\t\tComparison of the simulated start-up procedure with the results obtained from experiments [80]
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFig. 14 presents a comparison of the simulated cell voltage during start-up against the real values (data [80]). The two cells differ in structure as well as in the procedures used during start-up but, qualitatively speaking, the modeled start-up is a very close approximation to the reality.
\n\t\t\t\tChanges of the fuel cell operating parameters during load increases by 10%
The results of simulated rapid increase in power by 10% are shown in Fig. 15. The control system keeps all key parameters in acceptable ranges. Larger changes are noted only for current density (which increases from 2.432.68 A cm-2), and the air flow rate, which is the result of regulation and oscillates between 16002200 ml min-1cm-2 finally stays at 2000 ml min-1cm-2.
\n\t\t\t\t\tChanges of the fuel cell operating parameters during load decreases by 10%
The results of simulated rapid decrease in power by 10% are shown in Fig. 16. The control system keeps all crucial parameters in the acceptable ranges, so that most of the parameters practically do not change themselves. Larger changes are noted only for the current density (which increases from 2.432.19 A cm-2), and the air flow rate which is the result of regulation and oscillates between 13001700 ml min-1cm-2 finally stays at 1400 ml min-1cm-2.
\n\t\t\t\tThe most likely emergency scenario is a sudden loss of load resulting from load shut down (e.g. activation of the safety switch). In this case the fuel cell should be left to idle.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFig. 17 presents the simulated behavior of a fuel cell reacting to a sudden loss of load. The fuel cell parameters stabilize after about 4 minutes and the cell goes into idle mode. The cell temperature reaches 807C, which seems to be a safe value.
\n\t\t\t\t\tSimulated behavior of a fuel cell reacting to a sudden loss of load
On the basis of the simulation it can be concluded that the fuel cell is relatively resistant to a sudden loss of load in the presence of a proper control system.
\n\t\t\t\tDuring normal operation the fuel cell is able to resist a sudden loss of load. Therefore no special procedures are required to shut down the fuel cell unit. Additional procedures should be used to cool down the fuel cell to ambient temperature. The best option seems to be using a PID controller with variable temperature settings.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFig. 18 shows the fuel cell characteristics with stepped increase in the quantity of air supplied to the cathode to its maximum value (6000 ml min-1cm-2). The cathode part of the fuel cell loses heat relatively quickly, reaching ambient temperature after about 10 minutes. By contrast, at the anode side, there is no fuel flow and cooling takes far longer (after 30 minutes the temperature drops by only a few degrees). In total, this leads to very large temperature differences between the anode and cathode side (almost 600C).
\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tIn order to shut down the fuel cell, the flows on both the anode and cathode sides need to be maintained. The simplest solution is to maintain the fuel stream on the anode side, which otherwise experiences a loss of fuel. Another solution is to provide another gas, but it should be an inert gas (the use of air may result in oxidation of the anode surface).
\n\t\t\t\tFuel cell parameters during shut down procedure based on maximizing cathode flow (air side)
The control strategy for a singular solid oxide fuel cell is proposed. The strategy is based on a singular PID controller which controls the amount of air delivered to the cathode side of the fuel cell. Additionally, fuel mass flow is correlated with current density to achieve a fixed fuel utilization factor. In fact, the efficiency of the singular laboratory scale fuel cell unit is relatively low, as is the fuel utilization factor.
\n\t\t\t\tThe start-up procedure of the fuel cell must be supported by an external source of heat. Theoretically speaking, it is possible to heat up the cell until the point at which it starts to generate some voltage (practically, above 0.4 V) and then the fuel cell should be able to heat itself up to working temperature by the applied external load. The simulations performed do not confirm this theoretical speculation. After the load is applied, the voltage drops and no current can be drawn. Thus, adequate correlation of air inlet temperature with cell temperature is proposed in order to reach the nominal temperature. The simulated start-up was compared with the experimental data, with satisfactory results.
\n\t\t\t\tDuring normal operation, the proposed control system keeps all fuel cell parameters within acceptable rangesthere are no consequences following a rapid increase/decrease of load by 10%.
\n\t\t\t\tThe one conceivable emergency scenario was analyzed: rapid loss of external load. The control system keeps the key parameters at acceptable levels (e.g. cell temperature reaches 807C).
\n\t\t\t\tThe simulated shut down procedure was unsuccessful: the PID controller was used to cool the fuel cell, but it only influenced air flow, causing an extremely high temperature gradient. Additional procedures must be applied to cool the fuel cell properly.
\n\t\t\tDifferent mathematical models are useful for evaluation and predicition of fuel cells and entire system performance. In all cases, specific application-related criteria are selected for development of numerical tool.
\n\t\t\tDevelopment of advanced energy systems, including micro-CHP units, under various operating conditions is possible only with high-fidelity numerical simulator. Tool has to be validated against available experimental data. In certain cases, numerical modeling is not possible without supporting experimental measurement.
\n\t\t\tDifferent time- and length-scales can be covered with dedicated models, ranging from 0D up to complex full-3D tools. Steady state can be evaluated with available engineering software, including computational fluid dynamic tools.
\n\t\t\tAnalysis of chemical and electrochemical reactions taking place during SOFC operation requires specific knowledge and in most cases detailed models are needed. Spatial configuration and influence of geometry can only be studied with space-continuous models or number of simplifications is required.
\n\t\t\tBased on mathematical modeling, an analysis of the dynamic operation of a singular fuel cell is presented. Based on the analysis a few cases relating to the cell were simulated:
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t
Start up
Continuous operation (with power changes in the range of +/-10%)
Shut down, and
Emergency scenario (loss of load)
In almost all cases, the singular PID controller is able to keep the fuel cell operation within a safe range. Special procedures are required during start up and shut down. During start up, external heat sources are required to warm the cell to operational temperature. It is proposed that air temperature be correlated to cell temperature. As regards the shut down procedure, a change in fuel cell configuration is requiredan inert gas instead of fuel must be delivered in order to cool the cell.
\n\t\t\tThe start up procedure was compared against available experimental data with satisfactory results, qualitatively speaking.
\n\t\tSupport from the European Regional Development Fund and Ministry of Science and Education under the project no. UDA-POIG.01.01.02-00- 016/08-00, from the National Centre for Research and Development under the project Advanced Technologies for Energy Generation, and European Social Fund through the “Didactic Development Program of the Faculty of Power and Aeronautical Engineering of the Warsaw University of Technology” are gratefully acknowledged.
Poisoning is the second leading cause of injury-related morbidity and mortality in the United States, with more than 2.4 million toxic exposures reported each year [1].
Antidotes, remedies or agents counteracting or neutralizing the action of poisons (MeSH and Emtree definitions, from Dorland’s Medical Dictionary, 32nd edition), apply their useful impacts through an assortment of components, including the development of an inactive complex with the venom, the speeding up of venom detoxification, the decrease of venom transformation rate to a progressively dangerous compound, rivalry with venom for fundamental receptor locales, blockage of basic receptors through which lethal impacts are intervened, and avoidance of venom impact. There are explicit antidotes for few toxins, and a couple of counteractants are routinely utilized in clinical practice. These are acetylcysteine, naloxone and flumazenil.
Antidotal therapy is a critical aspect of the poisoning management in emergency setting: prompt availability and sufficient amount are essential, particularly when these molecules represent life-saving therapy for the acute poisoned patient.
Pharmacists can help reduce morbidity and mortality due to poisonings and overdoses by recognizing the signs exposure, guiding emergency room staff on the appropriate use of antidotes and supportive therapies, helping to ensure appropriate monitoring of patients for antidote response and adverse effects and managing the procurement and stocking of antidotes to ensure their timely availability [2].
Antidotes are essential medicines for the management of some of the emergencies attended in the hospital environment, and the speed of administration can be a key element for the survival of the patient. The Hospital Pharmacy Services are responsible for guaranteeing its availability [3, 4, 5, 6].
However, it can be affected by several causes:
Frequency of presentation of an intoxication in a geographical area
Urgency in administration
Difficulties of acquisition
Cost
Period of validity
Therefore, it is necessary to create a tool that facilitates the exchange of antidotes between hospitals and ensures their availability.
For example, in other countries like in the USA, to appropriately prepare for bioterrorism response, the governmental Agency that optimally provides the surveillance and planning guidance is the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Pharmacists can play a key role in reducing poisoning and overdose injuries and deaths by assisting in the early recognition of toxic exposures and guiding emergency personnel on the proper storage, selection, and use of antidotal therapies. The clinical pharmacist for a hospital is creating a protocol for the pharmacy department in the event of a biological disaster. Five elements that are critical to the protocol follow the National Preparedness Goal (NPG) created to prepare the United States for threats that pose risks to the nation, including acts of terrorism. The five mission areas that were identified in order to achieve the NPG are: Prevention, protection, mitigation, response, and recovery. The pharmacy department of a given hospital stores a Strategic National Stockpile (SNS) cache for use in a disaster. The person that authorizes deployment of the stockpile is the State governor’s office, and thereafter, Pharmacy director and Hospital Incident Command System (HICS).
Inadequate stock or insufficient number of antidotes is a common and diffused problem in the Emergency Departments in many countries. In Italy, based on this consideration, from 2003 to 2012 two National surveys has been conducted from Pavia Poison Control Centre (Pavia-PCC) with the grant of the Italian Ministry of Health. The aim of these surveys was to evaluate antidotes availability in the Emergency Services (PCCs, EDs, intensive care units) and Hospital Pharmacies of the National Health System (NHS) throughout the Italian country. As a result of this initiative, since 2006, the collected data were organized in a specific “National data-base of antidotes” (BAnDA), available online (
Regarding Spain, in July 2015, the Xarxa d’Antídots de Catalunya was created to interconnect public and private hospitals throughout the community. It includes the provision, in these centers, of 18 antidotes for which there may be problems of availability due to the aforementioned factors.
The experience of the first few years has been very positive, both in terms of the number of hospitals adhered to and the toxicological consultations received, and loans made. For this reason, and with the intention of extending this project throughout the country, the Antidote Network was created. The Balearic Islands has been the first community to join and it is planned to expand with more regions in the near future.
To describe and to make a revision of Antidotes and their importance as an essential drug for management of acute intoxications.
To give several evidences that the availability problems about stocking of antidotes in hospitals are an important concern, due to the lack of a National Regulation.
To show the importance and responsibility that Pharmacy Departments are for warranting an optimal qualitative and quantitative stock of these drugs.
In this context, the main objective is to propose a detailed review of the Antidotes Network that has been created in the Spanish territory.
Within the framework of the Catalan Society of Clinical Pharmacy, a working group formed by pharmacists and doctors with experience in the field of Clinical Toxicology was created to develop the network. First, the group prepared a document with recommendations on the storage of antidotes according to the complexity and location of the hospital. An online application was then intended to be utilized as a specialized instrument between centers.
The application collects information on 15 antidotes, selected according to criteria of availability, urgency, frequency of use or cost (fragments of digoxin antibodies, methylene blue, deferoxamine, dimercaprol, calcium sodium edate, ethanol, physostigmine, fomepizole, glucagon, hydroxocobalamin, pyridoxine, pralidoxime, silibinin, botulinum antitoxin and snake venom antiserum). This tool provides information on the stock of each center (including the expiration date) and facilitates the loan of antidotes between hospitals.
The online application “Red de Antidotos” was propelled in July 2015. It has an open region with data about the task and offers the probability of non-dire toxicological discussions to the specialists of the gathering, and a private zone available with username and secret key for the focuses that have joined the network. So far 34 Catalan clinics offering crisis care have been fused. In each inside there is a drug specialist and a specialist from the Emergency Department in charge of the network. These figures are designated “farmatox” and “urgetox”. The “farmatox” is responsible for the support of the stocks, refreshes the developments of medications and arranges and loan antidotes between emergency clinics. The “urgetox” builds up the elements of toxicology referent of the Emergency Department.
The network of antidotes is a really intuitive and helpful device. The private region is separated into four segments. The Antidote segment contains data on antidotes, which can be counseled on the web. It is a powerful list, kept up by the individuals from the gathering, which gathers information on toxicological signs, measurements with the best agreement for the two grown-ups and kids, accessible definitions, perceptions on organization, strength, unfriendly responses and different contemplations to be considered, just as the prescribed amounts to be put away relying upon the multifaceted nature of every medical clinic.
The Antidote Stock Management segment gathers the accessible measure of antitoxins in the network put away in every emergency clinic. The application permits the “farmatox” to enter any section and leave development. Every passage must include: medicine, number of units, bunch, lapse date and sort of development. For the last mentioned, two sorts of passage developments have been characterized (buy of drugs and return of the advance to another medical clinic), and three kinds of leave developments (claim use, termination and credit).
All developments for stock refreshing (credit developments just as for possess use) must be done physically by the drug specialist mindful in every emergency clinic. To encourage this stock upkeep, the application enables you to print a record with the units entered for each clump and the lapse date for each group. Lapsed units are featured in red.
The application enables you to scan for antidotes by drug or by medical clinic, in the area of the guide that demonstrates the data of the considerable number of emergency clinics incorporated into the network. At the point when the inquiry is done by clinic, the accompanying information can be counseled on the guide: name of the “farmatox” and the “urgetox”, address, phone, email, fax and opening times of the Pharmacy, Department and phone of the Emergency Unit. It likewise demonstrates every one of the antidotes accessible in the inside, with their number of units and the following expiry date. At the point when the antitoxin search is played out, all clinics in which the cure is accessible will be shown, just as the quantity of accessible units and the following termination date.
The network was first implemented in Catalonia and now the project is being extended to other Spanish regions (currently it has been implemented in three out of 17 regions, Figure 1), with the aim to continue improving communication between professionals involved in intoxication management, sharing knowledge and improving the care we offer to our patients.
Centers of the Antidotes Network in Spain.
There are presently 63 Spanish emergency clinics incorporated into the Antidotes Network. It has been utilized multiple times to find a remedy that was vital and to apply for an advance between focuses. Up until this point, 13 counteractants have been engaged with these developments. The most requested drugs are represented in the image below (Figure 2). Likewise, proposals on stock accessibility and utilization of antidotes as indicated by the multifaceted nature of the medical clinic were distributed and are accessible in the Emergencias Journal.
Most request drugs. Source: Aguilar-Salmerón et al [7].
As a result of this project, “the Antidotes Guide” was published, that includes recommendations for the availability of 38 antidotes depending on the level of complexity of the hospitals and information on toxicological indications, posology and other observations of interest.
In the private part of the Antidotes Network, the stocks of the adhered hospitals are available for those antidotes in which availability problems may occur. Currently there are 18 antidotes included in the private part of the Network (Table 1).
Antidotes | Commercial presentations | Initial dosing |
---|---|---|
Antidigoxin antibodies | Digifab® 40 mg vial Refrigerator. Foreigner | IV 40 mg per 0.5 mg digoxin. If unknown digoxin quantity 400 mg (10 vials). To reconstitute with 4 mL of water + 250 mL PS 30 minutes inf. It may be necessary to repeat doses |
Dantrolene | Dantrolen® 20 mg vial | IV 2.5 mg/kg (each vial in 3 min) preferably via central. Maximum doses reached 10 mg/kg |
Deferoxamine | Desferin® vial 500 mg | IM 2 g in 10 mL Water or IV 15 mg/Kg/h (max. 80 mg/Kg/24 h) |
Defibrotide | Defibrotide® 200 mg/2.5 mL vial | IV 6.25 mg/kg/h in 2 h |
Dimercaprol (bal, British anti-lewisite) | Dimercaprol® amp. 200 mg c/12 amp 2 mL. Foreigner | IM 3 mg/Kg/4 h for 2 days |
Calcium edetate sodium (EDTA) | Calcium Edetate sodium® amp.500 mg/10 mL c/10 amp. Foreigner | IV 1000 mg in 250 mL SF 6 hours infusion. Repeat every 12 h for 5 days |
Ethanol (absolute ethanol) | Absolute ethanol® amp 10 mL Pharmaceutical Compounding | IV. 1 mL/Kg in D 5% 50 mL in 1 h. Continue with 0.1 mL/Kg/h. If alcoholic, double dose. Requires analytical control e/6h |
Physostigmine | Anticholium® 2 mg/5 mL amp | IV 1–2 mg in 2 min. Repeat each bolus every 10–30 min. Alternatively: 2 mg/h up to a maximum of 8 mg/h |
Fomepizole | Fomepizol® vial 100 mg | IV Loading dose of 15 mg/kg in 100–250 mg of NaCl 0.9% or D 5% and administered in 30–45 min |
Glucagon | Glucagon Gen Hypokit® 1 mg syringe | IV 5 mg in 1 min. Repeat, if needed, in 10 min |
Glucarpidase | Voraxazane® 1000 U vial | IV 50 U/kg in 5 min injection |
Hydroxocobalamin | Cyanokit® 5 g vial | IV 5 g in 10 min (2.5 g if <35 Kg). If cardiac arrest 10 g in 10 min. If after 1 h there is no change, 5 more grams in 15 min |
Idarucizumab | Praxbind® 2.5 g injectable solution | IV 5 g (2 vials) in two consecutive infusions or in one infusion |
Pralidoxime (pam) | Contrathion® vial 200 mg/10 mL c/10 vials-amp. Foreigner | IV 1 g in 100 mL G 5 % 1 h infusion. If necessary, continue with the same dose every 6 h for 2–3 days. |
Silibinin | Legalon® vial 350 mg | IV 5 mg/kg in 500 mL NaCl 0.9% or D 5% in 2 h. Repeat each 6 h (3–4 days) |
Antibotulinum serum | Botulism Antitoxin Heptavalent A, B, C, D, E, F, G (BAT) 50 mL injectable solution | IV dilute 1 vial 1:10 and administer at 0.5 mL/min during 30 min. Maximum rate of 2 mL/min |
Antiophidic serum | Snake venom antiserum (Bulbio®) vial 100 UI (5 mL). Foreigner | One dose corresponds to 100 IU (1 vial). First dose given via SC at the site of the sting, second dose via IM in the buttock. Further doses may be necessary at a later time as clinically determined. |
Uridine triacetate | Vistonuridine® 10 g sachet | PO 10 g each 6 h, 20 doses |
Antidotes included in the private part of the Network.
Note also that the list of antidotes included in the network will change according to the needs of its hospitals, any epidemiological changes in poisoning, the launch of new antidotes, and problems for supply of others.
The consultations section is a tool very useful that the Antidote Network offers to any Health Professional the possibility of carrying out various types of toxicological consultations, as: (i) intoxications in which an antidote could be used, (ii) antidotes that could be used in some types of poisonings, (iii) agents used for digestive, cutaneous or ocular decontamination (iv) recommendations on qualitative and quantitative availability of antidotes.
Also, this section offers the possibility that the answer to some of these questions can be found by the reader in the Antidote Guide that can be found in this website.
For urgent medical consultations due to poisonings and toxicological emergencies, it is possible to contact by telephone the Toxicological Information Service of the National Institute of Toxicology and Forensic Sciences as this Service offers toxicological advice 24 h a day, 365 days a year. Otherwise, for non-urgent consultations on Clinical Toxicology, pharmacological aspects of antidotes or on drugs that can cause intoxications, it is possible to contact the experts of the Group of antidotes, specialized in assistance to acute intoxications in both adults and pediatrics, via an official email published on the official website.
It is necessary to guarantee an adequate stock of antidotes in those hospitals managing poisoned patients; however, this is not always simple to realize.
Making a database of refreshed supplies of antitoxins open to all medical clinics overseeing clinic crises is definitely not another thought. New Zealand emergency clinics have just recommended its creation as an answer for the inadequacies found [7, 8]. Similarly, the “Centro Antiveleni di Pavia - Centro Nazionale di Informazione Tossicologica” made the Banca Dati Nazionale degli Antidoti (BaNdA), in light of an investigation of the accessibility of antidotes in Italian Emergency Units, among others [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16]. It is an on-line stage that permits to discover refreshed information on the subjective and quantitative accessibility of counteractants in all the clinic units required, to look for a particular antitoxin by city or area and to get to all the contact information important to apply for an advance.
Some information on antitoxins and how they are arranged through Spanish antidote network as antitoxins are always a problem for both developing and developed countries. Particularly, some information on botulinum antitoxins and anti-venoms:
Botulism Antitoxin Heptavalent—A, B, C, D, E, F, G (BAT), solution for injection: Adult dosage administration: Dilute the vial in a ratio of 1:10 and administer at a speed of 0.5 mL/min for 30 min and increase to double the speed every 30 min up to a maximum of 2 mL/min. For child dosage: Between 20 and 100% of the vial according to body weight. In children under 1 year the dose is 10% of the vial regardless of body weight. For administration: Dilute the vial in a ratio of 1:10 and administer at a speed of 0.01 mL/kg/min and increase by 0.01 mL/kg/min every 30 min to a maximum of 0.03 mL/min without exceeding adult rates. For dilution: Since the filling volume of each vial varies depending on the lot number (approximately 10–22 mL per vial), 90–200 mL of saline solution will be required for dilution. Conservation conditions: Store frozen or below ≤−15°C until used. Once thawed, it can be stored at 2–8°C for up to 36 months or up to 48 months from the date of manufacture (whichever comes first). Do not refreeze the vial. Administer the drug at room temperature. To defrost it, leave it at room temperature for 1 h and then immerse it in a bath of water at 37°C until it defrosts completely.
Snake Venom Antiserum (Bulvio® and Viperfav®): Adult and child dosage:
Viperfav: IV Perfusion of 4 mL of serum (1 vial) in 100 mL SF at 50 ml/h.
Snake Venom Antiserum: 100 IU (5 mL) via SC, followed by a second IM dose in the buttock. 1,2 or more IM doses may be necessary depending on the patient’s condition and on the second and third days 1 or 2 more doses may be needed. Viperfav® has a low risk of anaphylactic reactions. On the other hand, in the case of Snake Venom Antiserum® it is recommended to carry out a hypersensitivity test prior to its administration.
Building up a network of antitoxins can improve correspondence between focuses that oversee harmed patients, adjust and institutionalize antidotes assets in various focuses, and accelerate credits if essential. Eventually, it can improve the nature of consideration for harmed patients.
Antidote Network could allow improved communication between centers involved in the management of poisoned patients, help in adjusting and harmonizing antidotes stock and accelerate antidote borrowing, if required.
Furthermore, this Antidote Network provide prompt and easy access to antidotes (especially expensive and rare-use ones), to rapidly find them in the nearby hospitals or regions (avoiding lengthy and expensive transport), and it is useful also to optimize antidote stockpiles with saving of resources.
As future proposals it would be very convenient to expand the network throughout the national territory and implement it in other countries, which would allow an increase in the quality of life of the patient and an improvement in public health.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
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She performed (inter)national tasks as vice-president of the Concilium Anaesthesia and related committees. \nShe performed research in several fields, with over 100 publications in (inter)national journals and numerous papers on scientific conferences. \nShe received several awards and is a member of Honour of the Dutch Society of Anaesthesia.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Albert Schweitzer Hospital",country:{name:"Gabon"}}},{id:"83089",title:"Prof.",name:"Aaron",middleName:null,surname:"Ojule",slug:"aaron-ojule",fullName:"Aaron Ojule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Port Harcourt",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"295748",title:"Mr.",name:"Abayomi",middleName:null,surname:"Modupe",slug:"abayomi-modupe",fullName:"Abayomi Modupe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/no_image.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Landmark University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"94191",title:"Prof.",name:"Abbas",middleName:null,surname:"Moustafa",slug:"abbas-moustafa",fullName:"Abbas Moustafa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94191/images/96_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Moustafa got his doctoral degree in earthquake engineering and structural safety from Indian Institute of Science in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at Department of Civil Engineering, Minia University, Egypt and the chairman of Department of Civil Engineering, High Institute of Engineering and Technology, Giza, Egypt. He is also a consultant engineer and head of structural group at Hamza Associates, Giza, Egypt. Dr. Moustafa was a senior research associate at Vanderbilt University and a JSPS fellow at Kyoto and Nagasaki Universities. He has more than 40 research papers published in international journals and conferences. He acts as an editorial board member and a reviewer for several regional and international journals. His research interest includes earthquake engineering, seismic design, nonlinear dynamics, random vibration, structural reliability, structural health monitoring and uncertainty modeling.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Minia University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"84562",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbyssinia",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"abbyssinia-mushunje",fullName:"Abbyssinia Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Fort Hare",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"202206",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Abd Elmoniem",middleName:"Ahmed",surname:"Elzain",slug:"abd-elmoniem-elzain",fullName:"Abd Elmoniem Elzain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kassala University",country:{name:"Sudan"}}},{id:"98127",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdallah",middleName:null,surname:"Handoura",slug:"abdallah-handoura",fullName:"Abdallah Handoura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École Supérieure des Télécommunications",country:{name:"Morocco"}}},{id:"91404",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdecharif",middleName:null,surname:"Boumaza",slug:"abdecharif-boumaza",fullName:"Abdecharif Boumaza",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Abbès Laghrour University of Khenchela",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"105795",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdel Ghani",middleName:null,surname:"Aissaoui",slug:"abdel-ghani-aissaoui",fullName:"Abdel Ghani Aissaoui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/105795/images/system/105795.jpeg",biography:"Abdel Ghani AISSAOUI is a Full Professor of electrical engineering at University of Bechar (ALGERIA). 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El-Hemaly\nProfessor OB/GYN & Urogynecology\nFaculty of medicine, Al-Azhar University \nPersonal Information: \nMarried with two children\nWife: Professor Laila A. Moussa MD.\nSons: Mohamad A. M. El-Hemaly Jr. MD. Died March 25-2007\nMostafa A. M. El-Hemaly, Computer Scientist working at Microsoft Seatle, USA. \nQualifications: \n1.\tM.B.-Bch Cairo Univ. June 1963. \n2.\tDiploma Ob./Gyn. Cairo Univ. April 1966. \n3.\tDiploma Surgery Cairo Univ. Oct. 1966. \n4.\tMRCOG London Feb. 1975. \n5.\tF.R.C.S. Glasgow June 1976. \n6.\tPopulation Study Johns Hopkins 1981. \n7.\tGyn. Oncology Johns Hopkins 1983. \n8.\tAdvanced Laparoscopic Surgery, with Prof. Paulson, Alexandria, Virginia USA 1993. \nSocieties & Associations: \n1.\t Member of the Royal College of Ob./Gyn. London. \n2.\tFellow of the Royal College of Surgeons Glasgow UK. \n3.\tMember of the advisory board on urogyn. FIGO. \n4.\tMember of the New York Academy of Sciences. \n5.\tMember of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. \n6.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in the World� from the 16th edition to the 20th edition. \n7.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in Science and Engineering� in the 7th edition. \n8.\tMember of the Egyptian Fertility & Sterility Society. \n9.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Ob./Gyn. \n10.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Urogyn. \n\nScientific Publications & Communications:\n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asim Kurjak, Ahmad G. Serour, Laila A. S. Mousa, Amr M. Zaied, Khalid Z. El Sheikha. \nImaging the Internal Urethral Sphincter and the Vagina in Normal Women and Women Suffering from Stress Urinary Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol18, No 4; 169-286 October-December 2009.\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nFecal Incontinence, A Novel Concept: The Role of the internal Anal sphincter (IAS) in defecation and fecal incontinence. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 2; 79-85 April -June 2010.\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nSurgical Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, Fecal Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse By A Novel Operation \n"Urethro-Ano-Vaginoplasty"\n Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 3; 129-188 July-September 2010.\n4- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n5- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n6- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n7-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n9-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n10-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n11-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n12- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n13-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n15-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n\n16-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n17- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: An Update on the pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecology/?page=/ENHLIDH/PUBD/FEATURES/\nPresentations/ Nocturnal_Enuresis/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n18-Maternal Mortality in Egypt, a cry for help and attention. The Second International Conference of the African Society of Organization & Gestosis, 1998, 3rd Annual International Conference of Ob/Gyn Department � Sohag Faculty of Medicine University. Feb. 11-13. Luxor, Egypt. \n19-Postmenopausal Osteprosis. The 2nd annual conference of Health Insurance Organization on Family Planning and its role in primary health care. Zagaziz, Egypt, February 26-27, 1997, Center of Complementary Services for Maternity and childhood care. \n20-Laparoscopic Assisted vaginal hysterectomy. 10th International Annual Congress Modern Trends in Reproductive Techniques 23-24 March 1995. Alexandria, Egypt. \n21-Immunological Studies in Pre-eclamptic Toxaemia. Proceedings of 10th Annual Ain Shams Medical Congress. Cairo, Egypt, March 6-10, 1987. \n22-Socio-demographic factorse affecting acceptability of the long-acting contraceptive injections in a rural Egyptian community. Journal of Biosocial Science 29:305, 1987. \n23-Plasma fibronectin levels hypertension during pregnancy. The Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 13:1, 17-21, Jan. 1987. \n24-Effect of smoking on pregnancy. Journal of Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 111-121, Sept 1986. \n25-Socio-demographic aspects of nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 35-42, Sept. 1986. \n26-Effect of intrapartum oxygen inhalation on maternofetal blood gases and pH. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 57-64, Sept. 1986. \n27-The effect of severe pre-eclampsia on serum transaminases. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 479-485, 1986. \n28-A study of placental immunoreceptors in pre-eclampsia. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 211-216, 1986. \n29-Serum human placental lactogen (hpl) in normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women, during pregnancy and its relation to the outcome of pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:2, 11-23, May 1986. \n30-Pregnancy specific B1 Glycoprotein and free estriol in the serum of normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women during pregnancy and after delivery. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:1, 63-70, Jan. 1986. Also was accepted and presented at Xith World Congress of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Berlin (West), September 15-20, 1985. \n31-Pregnancy and labor in women over the age of forty years. Accepted and presented at Al-Azhar International Medical Conference, Cairo 28-31 Dec. 1985. \n32-Effect of Copper T intra-uterine device on cervico-vaginal flora. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet. 23:2, 153-156, April 1985. \n33-Factors affecting the occurrence of post-Caesarean section febrile morbidity. Population Sciences, 6, 139-149, 1985. \n34-Pre-eclamptic toxaemia and its relation to H.L.A. system. Population Sciences, 6, 131-139, 1985. \n35-The menstrual pattern and occurrence of pregnancy one year after discontinuation of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as a postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 105-111, 1985. \n36-The menstrual pattern and side effects of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 97-105, 1985. \n37-Actinomyces in the vaginas of women with and without intrauterine contraceptive devices. Population Sciences, 6, 77-85, 1985. \n38-Comparative efficacy of ibuprofen and etamsylate in the treatment of I.U.D. menorrhagia. Population Sciences, 6, 63-77, 1985. \n39-Changes in cervical mucus copper and zinc in women using I.U.D.�s. Population Sciences, 6, 35-41, 1985. \n40-Histochemical study of the endometrium of infertile women. Egypt. J. Histol. 8(1) 63-66, 1985. \n41-Genital flora in pre- and post-menopausal women. Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 4(2), 165-172, 1983. \n42-Evaluation of the vaginal rugae and thickness in 8 different groups. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 9:2, 101-114, May 1983. \n43-The effect of menopausal status and conjugated oestrogen therapy on serum cholesterol, triglycerides and electrophoretic lipoprotein patterns. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 12:2, 113-119, April 1983. \n44-Laparoscopic ventrosuspension: A New Technique. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet., 20, 129-31, 1982. \n45-The laparoscope: A useful diagnostic tool in general surgery. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:4, 397-401, Oct. 1982. \n46-The value of the laparoscope in the diagnosis of polycystic ovary. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:2, 153-159, April 1982. \n47-An anaesthetic approach to the management of eclampsia. Ain Shams Medical Journal, accepted for publication 1981. \n48-Laparoscopy on patients with previous lower abdominal surgery. Fertility management edited by E. Osman and M. Wahba 1981. \n49-Heart diseases with pregnancy. Population Sciences, 11, 121-130, 1981. \n50-A study of the biosocial factors affecting perinatal mortality in an Egyptian maternity hospital. Population Sciences, 6, 71-90, 1981. \n51-Pregnancy Wastage. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 11:3, 57-67, Sept. 1980. \n52-Analysis of maternal deaths in Egyptian maternity hospitals. Population Sciences, 1, 59-65, 1979. \nArticles published on OBGYN.net: \n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n4-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n5-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n6-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n7-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n9- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n10-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n11- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n12-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n13-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: An Update on the pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecology/?page=/ENHLIDH/PUBD/FEATURES/\nPresentations/ Nocturnal_Enuresis/nocturnal_enuresis",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Al Azhar University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"113313",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdel-Aal",middleName:null,surname:"Mantawy",slug:"abdel-aal-mantawy",fullName:"Abdel-Aal Mantawy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5681},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5161},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1683},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10200},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:886},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15610}],offset:12,limit:12,total:1683},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"8"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10454",title:"Technology in Agriculture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"dcfc52d92f694b0848977a3c11c13d00",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Fiaz Ahmad and Prof. Muhammad Sultan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10454.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"338219",title:"Dr.",name:"Fiaz",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"fiaz-ahmad",fullName:"Fiaz Ahmad"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10502",title:"Aflatoxins",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"34fe61c309f2405130ede7a267cf8bd5",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Lukman Bola Abdulra'uf",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10502.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"149347",title:"Dr.",name:"Lukman",surname:"Abdulra'uf",slug:"lukman-abdulra'uf",fullName:"Lukman Abdulra'uf"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10504",title:"Crystallization",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"3478d05926950f475f4ad2825d340963",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Youssef Ben Smida and Dr. Riadh Marzouki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10504.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"311698",title:"Dr.",name:"Youssef",surname:"Ben Smida",slug:"youssef-ben-smida",fullName:"Youssef Ben Smida"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10552",title:"Montmorillonite",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c4a279761f0bb046af95ecd32ab09e51",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Faheem Uddin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10552.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"228107",title:"Prof.",name:"Faheem",surname:"Uddin",slug:"faheem-uddin",fullName:"Faheem Uddin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10572",title:"Advancements in Chromophore and Bio-Chromophore Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4aca0af0356d8d31fa8621859a68db8f",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Rampal Pandey",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10572.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"338234",title:"Dr.",name:"Rampal",surname:"Pandey",slug:"rampal-pandey",fullName:"Rampal Pandey"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10581",title:"Alkaline Chemistry and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4ed90bdab4a7211c13cd432aa079cd20",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Riadh Marzouki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10581.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"300527",title:"Dr.",name:"Riadh",surname:"Marzouki",slug:"riadh-marzouki",fullName:"Riadh Marzouki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10582",title:"Chemical Vapor Deposition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f9177ff0e61198735fb86a81303259d0",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sadia Ameen, Dr. M. 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