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",isbn:"978-1-83969-561-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-560-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-562-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"65f2a1fef9c804c29b18ef3ac4a35066",bookSignature:"Dr. Luis Loures",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10756.jpg",keywords:"Urban Processes, Urban Patterns, Redevelopment Strategies, Landscape, Land Transformation, Urban Models, Urban Evolution, Urban Organisation, Legislation, Sustainable Development, Green Infrastructure, Regional Planning",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 23rd 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 22nd 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 21st 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 9th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 8th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"21 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Loures has worked on pioneering research on circular planning applied to post-industrial landscape redevelopment. Since he graduated he has published several peer-reviewed papers at the national and international levels and he has been a guest researcher and lecturer both at Michigan State University (USA) and at the University of Toronto (Canada) where he has developed part of his Ph.D. research with the Financial support from the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (Ph.D. grant).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"108118",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Loures",slug:"luis-loures",fullName:"Luis Loures",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/108118/images/system/108118.png",biography:"Luís Loures is a Landscape Architect and Agronomic Engineer, Vice-President of the Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre, who holds a Ph.D. in Planning and a Post-Doc in Agronomy. Since he graduated, he has published several peer reviewed papers at the national and international levels and he has been a guest researcher and lecturer both at Michigan State University (USA), and at University of Toronto (Canada) where he has developed part of his Ph.D. research with the Financial support from the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (Ph.D. grant).\nDuring his academic career he had taught in several courses in different Universities around the world, mainly regarding the fields of landscape architecture, urban and environmental planning and sustainability. Currently, he is a researcher both at VALORIZA - Research Centre for Endogenous Resource Valorization – Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre, and the CinTurs - Research Centre for Tourism, Sustainability and Well-being, University of Algarve where he is a researcher on several financed research projects focusing several different investigation domains such as urban planning, landscape reclamation and urban redevelopment, and the use of urban planning as a tool for achieving sustainable development.",institutionString:"Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"10",title:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",slug:"earth-and-planetary-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"205697",firstName:"Kristina",lastName:"Kardum Cvitan",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/205697/images/5186_n.jpg",email:"kristina.k@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5962",title:"Estuary",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"43058846a64b270e9167d478e966161a",slug:"estuary",bookSignature:"William Froneman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5962.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109336",title:"Prof.",name:"William",surname:"Froneman",slug:"william-froneman",fullName:"William Froneman"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"65737",title:"The Role of Radiotherapy in the Treatment of Primary Central Nervous System Lymphomas",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84432",slug:"the-role-of-radiotherapy-in-the-treatment-of-primary-central-nervous-system-lymphomas",body:'\nPrimary central nervous system lymphomas (PCNSLs) are rare disease entities. The brain, eyes, and the spinal cord could be affected without any systemic disease involvement [1]. PCNSL is an uncommon subtype of extranodal non-Hodgkin lymphoma that accounts for ≈ 3–4% of newly diagnosed central nervous system tumors [2]. The overall incidence rate of PCNSL is 0.47 per 100.000 person-years. Its incidence has increased during the last 3 decades and has been reported in both immunocompromised and immunocompetent patients. Immunocompromised patients are affected at a younger age compared with immunocompetent patients. The incidence is significantly higher in males compared with females.
\nThe most significant increase in the incidence rates for PCNSLs over time has occurred in the oldest adults (aged 75+ years) [3]. There is an increase in incidence of PCNSLs in the elderly, and survival remains poor and is negatively dominated by factors associated with HIV infection and advanced age. Such changes were largely driven by PCNSL cases in men between the ages of 20 and 64 years [4]. There has been an overall decline in incidence of PCNSL from 1998 to 2008. Thus the trend has been attributed in large part to changes in HIV/AIDS incidence and management over the same time period. In contrast, the incidence rates continued to increase in women at all ages and men aged 65 and older (Figure 1).
\nThe incidence rates of PCNSLs by gender from 1973 to 2007 [4].
In immunocompetent individuals, they occur at a median age of about 55 years [5]. The incidence of this tumor in immunocompetent individuals has risen threefold during the last decades from 0.027 to 0.075; 100.000 person. Immunodeficient individuals, especially patients with AIDS, transplant recipients, and patients with congenital immunodeficiencies are at increased risk of developing PCNSLs. In patients with such severe immunodeficiencies, survival is heavily influenced by the underlying disease [6]. Autoimmune diseases that predispose to lymphoma include rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, Sjögren syndrome, myasthenia gravis, sarcoidosis, and vasculitis [6].
\nPresenting symptoms and signs vary, depending on the tumor location. Periventricular lesions and related symptoms are common in patients with primary cerebral lymphoma. The majority of the lesions are located in the periventricular area, whereas in a few, they are located in the supratentorial area. In about 60% of cases, PCNSLs originate from periventricular areas such as the thalamus, the basal ganglia, and the corpus callosum, which are followed by the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, and occipital lobe (20, 18, 15, and 4%, respectively). Immunocompetent patients tend to present predominantly with solitary lesions in 70% of cases, compared with 50% in AIDS patients [1].
\nThe central nervous system normally lacks lymphoid aggregates. The cellular and molecular events leading to neoplastic lymphocytic infiltration of the central nervous system are seen in PCNSLs [7].
\nPrimary lymphoma of the central nervous system (CNS) is defined as diffuse large B cell lymphoma confined to the central nervous system. Morphology does not distinguish between PCNSLs and extra-cerebral DLBCL [7]. While most cases of PCNSLs are composed of aggressive lymphoma subtypes, a small number of patients show indolent CNS lymphomas. The median growth fraction is 4% [8]. Three major issues need to be addressed to understand the nature of PCNSLs and develop specific therapeutic regimens (Figure 2):
The histogenetic origin of the tumor cells.
The transforming events.
The role of the microenvironment of the CNS.
Model of pathogenesis for PCNSLs. Schematic presentations of several pathways involved in the pathogenesis of PCNSLs, SHM, somatic hypermutation; ASHM, aberrant somatic hypermutation; and CSR, class switch recombination [7].
The underlying molecular pathogenesis of PCNSL has yet to be elucidated.
\nBecause of the fact that PCNSL is closely associated with EBV infection in immunocompromised individuals, involving mechanisms in PCNSL development are directed toward the immunologic reactions against EBV infection. On the other hand, the EBV infected B cells are controlled by T cells in nonimmunocompromised individuals. Therefore, a decline in T cells leads to the proliferation and dissemination of abnormal B cells in immunodeficiency states [6]. In addition, occasionally, patients with EBV DNA in spinal fluid have PCNSL. But EBV DNA is often found together with other microbial findings in CSF of immunocompromised patients [9]. PCNSL may be a consequence of EBV-mediated clonal expansion and malignant transformation of B-lymphocytes, a process that may be regulated by immune mechanisms [10].
\nThe location of the lymphoma in the CNS determines the clinical presentation. Presenting symptoms and signs vary, depending on the site of involvement PCNSL can manifest in the brain, its coverings, spinal cord, and the eye. Distinct clinicopathologic entities have been described. In a large series with immunocompetent patients with PCNSL, focal neurologic deficits were found to be the most common sign that was seen in 70% of patients. Other important complaints include neuropsychiatric symptoms, the signs of raised intracranial pressure such as headache, nausea, and vomiting, followed by seizures and ocular symptoms [1]. Presenting symptoms may include headaches, blurred vision, motor difficulties, and personality changes. Personality changes are most often associated with lesions of the frontal lobes, periventricular white matter, or corpus callosum. Visual hallucinations may result from infiltration of visual pathways or the brainstem or may result from ocular or leptomeningeal involvement. This may result in delayed diagnosis that usually prompts neurologic evaluation. Cranial neuropathies can occur as a result of either meningeal involvement, infiltration of the brainstem, or invasion of isolated cranial nerves or their roots. Headache, especially late, in the course of the disease, involving the leptomeninges may be indicative of increased intracranial pressure.
\nIn primary leptomeningeal lymphoma, up to 40% of patients with cerebral PCNSL may have evidence of meningeal involvement at the time of diagnosis based on analysis and imaging. The frequency of meningeal dissemination (MD) in primary CNS lymphoma, its prognostic impact, and optimal management have yet to be defined. But involvement of the leptomeninges by high risk systemic lymphoma is also a common relapse pattern. On the other hand, primary leptomeningeal lymphoma without synchronous cerebral/spine or systemic disease is very rare, making up less than 10% of all cases of PCNSLs. MD was concluded in the case of cytological detection of lymphoma cells, or light-chain restricted B cell population demonstrated by immunocytology or flow cytometry, or existence of a dominant amplicon in PCR analysis, or clear evidence of MD on MRI [11].
\nMajor patient’s characteristics and therapy did not significantly differ between patients with MD versus those without MD [12]. Progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS) were not significantly different in patients with MD versus without MD. Median OS, of MD+ and MD- patients, was 21.5 months versus 24.9 months (p = 0.98) [12]. Primary leptomeningeal lymphoma is a rare form of primary CNS lymphoma. Patients usually present with multifocal symptoms, with evidence of leptomeningeal enhancement and diagnostic CSF analysis. Presenting symptoms are multifocal in 68%. The most common presenting signs are cranial neuropathies 58%, especially of eye movements and with cranial nerve VI palsy 31%, presented with headache 44%. In another study, leptomeningeal enhancement was seen in 74% and the CSF profile was abnormal in all cases. CSF cytology detected malignant lymphocyte in 67% [13].
\nThe third process neurolymphomatosis (NL) is a rare clinical entity characterized by infiltration of peripheral nerves, nerve roots, plexus, or cranial nerves by malignant lymphocytes. Symptoms include loss of sensation or motor function, for example, weakness of the extremities [14]. These patients showed lymphomatous cell invasion that was more prominent in the proximal portion of the nerve trunk and induced demyelination without macrophage invasion and subsequent axonal degeneration in the portion distal from the demyelination site [14]. NL is poorly localized severe pain in the absence of parenchymal lesions of the brain or spinal cord or obvious lymphoma in the CSF. The process frequently spares the meninges.
\nThe International PCNSL Collaborative Group retrospectively analyzed 50 patients assembled from 12 centers in 5 countries over a 16-year period. NL was related to NHL in 90%. It occurred as the initial manifestation of malignancy in 26% cases. The affected neural structures included peripheral nerves 60%, spinal nerve roots 48%, cranial nerves 46%, and plexus 40% with multiple site involvement 58%. CSF cytology was positive in 40% and nerve biopsy confirmed the diagnosis in 88%. Thus, instead of insufficient CSF cytology studies, could be nerve biopsy [15].
\nThe baseline evaluation of any newly diagnosed patient with PCNSL should include a comprehensive physical and neurologic examination. Age and performance status are the two most widely documented prognostic variables and must be recorded in every patient. Evaluation of cognitive function is important at baseline, and follow-up assessments are critical both to determine the benefit of therapy as well as monitor for treatment-related neurocognitive decline.
\nBefore the initiation of therapy, a careful examination for the disease extension has to be carried out, in order to perform optimal treatment modality. The evaluation processes of patients suspected of having PCNSL should include:
Optimal imaging of the brain parenchyma requires a gadolinium enhanced MRI scan. Contrast enhanced CT scans may be substituted in patients in whom MRI is medically contraindicated (e.g., cardiac pacemaker) or unavailable. Involvement of the spinal cord parenchyma is sufficiently rare that gadolinium enhanced MRI of the total spine is warranted only in patients with spinal symptoms.
All patients should have a lumbar puncture for CSF cytology unless medically contraindicated due to elevated intracranial pressure. CSF should be sampled before or 1 week after surgical biopsy to avoid false positive results. CSF protein levels should only be assessed on lumbar puncture samples because ventricular CSF has a lower normal value. Additional CSF studies that may be helpful include cell count, beta-2 microglobulin, immunoglobulin H gene rearrangement, and flow cytometry.
A detailed ophthalmologic examination, including dilated fundus examination, should be done to exclude vitreous, retinal, or optic nerve involvement. Fluorescein angiography may be helpful to confirm lymphomatous involvement of the retina.
Testicular ultrasound may be considered in older men to exclude an occult testicular lymphoma metastatic to brain.
Complete systemic staging is warranted in every patient. CT scan of the chest, abdomen, and pelvis and bone morrow biopsy with aspirate are the recommended staging procedures. Body positron emission tomography imaging may be incorporated into the evaluation of systemic disease.
\nThe diagnostic procedure of choice for PCNSL is a stereotactic needle biopsy because patients derive no clinical benefit from surgical resection, and deep seated nature of most lesions increases the risk of surgical complications. Histopathological diagnosis is strongly needed, because of the fact that some intracranial processes, such as multiple sclerosis, sarcoidosis, and occasional gliomas may mimic similar appearance and treatment response to corticosteroids [16]. In general, the use of corticosteroids prior to biopsy should be avoided, as these agents are lymphocytotoxic; a single injection is known to alter proper histopathological evaluation, and a short course of treatment may cause the tumor to disappear temporarily [17].
\nWhenever possible, the tumor should be characterized by immunophenotyping. Characterizing the basic molecular and genetic abnormalities of PCNSL will foster the future development and application of target specific therapies in this disease [16].
\nContrast-enhanced MRI of the brain is the preferred imaging modality. The radiographic lesion tends to be solitary nonhemorrhagic mass, situated in the deep white matter adjacent to the ventricular surface. The borders are sharply circumscribed and supratentorial location in the majority of lesions 87%, but may be ill defined in 15% [1, 18]. Mass effect and tumor edema are seen in over half of the cases. Contrast enhancement is encountered in all lesions but ring enhancement is uncommon [18]. Lesions appear isodense to hyperdense on CT images and isointense to hypointense on T2-weighted MRI images and enhance homogeneously after contrast administration. Diffusion weighted MRI images, sensitive to the intracellular water of masses of lymphoma cells, are frequently abnormal. The role of positron emission tomography scans in diagnosis is unclear. In a study, baseline PET imaging demonstrated hypermetabolism consistent with aggressive lymphoma in 75% of patients [19]. PET scans can be used to distinguish glucose-absorbing neoplastic lesions from areas of radiation necrosis, infection, or inflammation, which may also enhance on conventional CT/MRI [20]. Prompt initiation of therapy is important in patients with PCNSL. Intensive chemotherapy and immunotherapy in patients with PCNSL in study, treatment delay was the most important clinical variable associated with decreased survival, and its independent from baseline performance status or risk score [21].
\nPCNSL tends to be highly sensitive to both radiation and selected chemotherapeutic agents, which distinguishes it from most other malignant primary brain neoplasms. Surgery has a limited, mainly diagnostic role. Neurologic deficits and decreased functional status related to the tumor tend to improve rapidly with successful therapy, such as chemotherapy or radiation therapy. The disease can be exquisitely sensitive to glucocorticoids as well and patients will allow functional status particularly if they show an early response to steroids. Methotrexate (MTX), given at sufficiently high dose to penetrate the CNS, is the most active single agent against PCNSL identified. High dose intravenous MTX should therefore be the backbone of induction therapy in most patients. The goal of induction chemotherapy is a radiographic complete response, which can be achieved in over half of the patients with MTX-based therapy and is generally associated with superior outcomes. Most patients, even those in complete response do not achieve long-term disease control or survival with induction chemotherapy alone. The optimal consolidation therapy has not been established, however, and all strategies have the potential for increased toxicity. The three main consolidation approaches being explored include high dose chemotherapy with autologous hematopoietic cell transplant rescue, nonmyeloablative chemotherapy, and whole brain radiation therapy (WBRT).
\nHigh dose MTX-based chemotherapy is a standard component of initial therapy for PCNSL. The available data suggest that chemotherapy regimens that include high-dose systemic MTX are more effective against PCNSL than other regimens. WBRT may improve outcome, but is associated with increased risk for neurological side-effects in elderly patients [22]. The optimal high-dose MTX-based regimen for PCNSL is unknown, and there is variation in clinical practice. Most patients with a good performance status suggest using MTX-based combination regimen rather than MTX alone. Examples of reasonable regimens include MTX plus cytarabine, or temozolomide, or procarbazine, or vincristine. Rituximab is included in all regimens, except in rare cases of CD 20 negative or T cell PCNSL. The goal of induction therapy is to achieve a complete radiographic response before proceeding with consolidation therapy in eligible patients. Complete response is achieved in approximately 30 to 60% patients with high-dose MTX-based induction therapy. While high-dose MTX-based induction chemotherapy prolongs survival over WBRT alone, at least half of the patients with PCNSL who achieve a complete response will relapse within 5 years. This late relapse results from residual systemic malignant cell. WBRT remains an alternative consolidation approach in younger patients, particularly those with contraindications, which has been shown to improve PFS compared with induction chemotherapy alone. The consolidation approach in older adults, who are at increased risk for both relapse and toxicities of high dose chemotherapy and radiation, is unknown.
\nPCNSL is extremely sensitive to radiation therapy, but its use in the initial treatment of PCNSL has waned overtime as chemotherapy-based induction regimens have been optimized. Phase III trial patients with newly diagnosed PCNSL were randomly assigned therapy to six cycles of chemotherapy alone (intravenous MTX+ Ifosfamide) or the same chemotherapy with WBRT (45 Gy in 1.5 Gy fractions) [23, 24, 25] (Figure 3). A total of 13% patients died during initial chemotherapy; 551 patients were enrolled and randomized, of whom 318 were treated per protocol of these, and 90 patients had a major protocol violation. In the per protocol population, median overall survival was 32.4 months in patients receiving WBRT (n = 154) versus 37.1 months in those not receiving WBRT (n = 164) HR: 1.06. Thus primary hypothesis was not proven. Median progression-free survival was 18.3 months in patients receiving WBRT and 11.9 months in those not receiving WBRT. Treatment-related neurotoxicity in patients with sustained complete response was more common in patients receiving WBRT 49% by clinical assessment and 71% by neuroradiology than in those who did not 26% and 46% (Figure 4).
\nThe G-PCNSL-SG-1 trial. Abbreviations: WBRT: whole brain radiotherapy; HD-MTX: high-dose methotrexate; CR: complete response; PR: partial response; SD: stable disease; PD: progressive disease; and HD-AraC: high-dose cytarabine. * Combined with ifosfamide 1.5 g/m2 daily, d3–5, since 2006 [23].
Progression-free survival in the per-protocol and intention-to-treat populations by treatment group PP = per protocol. ITT = intention to treat. HR = hazard ratio [24].
After a median follow up of 81.2 months, patients who received WBRT had a nonsignificant improvement in PFS (18.2 versus 11.9 month HR, 0.83) and significant PFS from last HDMTX (25.5 versus 12 month, HR, 0.65, p = 0.001) but without OS prolongation (Figure 5).
\nPFS from last high-dose methotrexate-based chemotherapy and overall survival analyzed as-treated in the ITT population. (A) Progression-free survival (PFS) from last high-dose methotrexate (HDMTX)-based chemotherapy (CHT) in patients with complete response (CR). (B) PFS from last HDMTX-based CHT in patients without CR. (C) Overall survival (OS) in patients with CR. (D) OS in patients without CR. The good outcome of the non-CR patients without further treatment can be explained by the fact that 6 of them probably did in fact have CR after HDMTX-based CHT. They were documented as having CR upon follow-up without further therapy. Moreover, one additional patient received whole-brain radiotherapy (WBRT) without progression 6 months after HDMTX-based CHT. CI = confidence interval; HR = hazard ratio; and ITT = intent-to-treat [25].
This trial prospectively monitored Quality of Life (QoL), to determine whether WBRT might lead to quality of life relevant late neurotoxicity. In year 2 after randomization, cognitive functioning and global health status were reduced in the early WBRT arm as compared to the no early WBRT arm. Also, fatigue, appetite loss, and hair loss were more intense in the early WBRT arm. Mini mental state examination testing revealed lower values (p = 0.002) in the early WBRT arm [25] (Figure 6).
\nComparison of early-whole brain radiotherapy (WBRT) with no early-WBRT with regard to global health, cognitive-emotional-social functioning using the time course of median scores, interquartile ranges (IQR) for EORTC-QLQ-C30, BN20 dimensions, and the mini mental state examination (MMSE) of the G-PCNSL-SG-1 trial *p < 0.05. (A) scores for emotional and social functioning, (B) symptom scores and (C) Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE) [23].
As can be seen in Figure 6, G-PCNSL-SG-1 trial was the first PCNSL trial documenting a negative influence of early WBRT on QoL parameters. A phase II study combined modality therapy, based on high dose MTX, results in improved survival outcomes in PCNSL. The risk of neurotoxicity for patients aged >60 years is unacceptable with this regimen (1 g/m2 MTX on days 1 and 8 followed by WBRT 45–50.4 Gy), although survival outcomes for patients aged >60 years were higher than in many other series [26]. At these studies and other demonstrations, the major drawback in the use of WBRT in conjunction with chemotherapy for patients with PCNSL is the high incidence of cognitive worsening and white matter damage [27, 28, 29]. Neurotoxicity may present as a rapidly progressive dementia that develops after a variable delay from the end of combined modality treatment. Also, the 5 year cumulative incidence of neurotoxicity was found to be increased over time [27]. Radiological examinations showed diffuse white matter disease as well as cortical-subcortical atrophy. Older age, mental status, changes at diagnosis, and radiotherapy predicted neurotoxicity [27].
\nDifferent radiation field and reduced dose WBRT consolidation in responding patients have been explored in studies and appear to be associated with higher response and decreased neurotoxicity rates compared with higher dose WBRT [30, 31, 32, 33]. An example of the impact on the outcome and neurologic performance of different radiation fields and doses was assessed in a study in which 33 patients with PCNSL who achieved complete response after MTX-containing chemotherapy were referred to consolidation WBRT [30]. The study demonstrated that higher irradiation doses (≥40 Gy) were not associated with improved disease control compared to lower doses (30–36 Gy). Also, disease control does not significantly differ with regard to irradiation doses to the tumor bed, while functional impairment as assessed by mini mental status examination was significantly more common in patients treated with a WBRT dose ≥40 Gy. Thus, one can consider that consolidation with WBRT 36 Gy is advisable in patients with PCNSL in complete response after HD-MTX based chemotherapy. Higher doses do not change the outcome and could increase the risk of neurotoxicity. The findings of this important study are illustrated in Figure 7 [30].
\nPattern of relapse according to radiation therapy fields and doses. Graphics at the left: patients treated with a WBRT dose of 30–36 Gy. Graphics at the right: patients treated with a WBRT dose 40 Gy. Upper graphics: patients treated without a tumor bed boost. Lower graphics: patients irradiated with a tumor bed boost. Symbols: ο = irradiated lesion in continuous CR; ● = relapsed lesion; ●==● = relapse with lesions both within and outside the boosted volume; ▲: = relapse in nonirradiated central nervous system areas (i.e., meninges and spinal cord); ♦ = systemic extra-central nervous system relapse. (Adopted from ref. [30]).
As a different radiation fractionation, a phase I/II, NRG Oncology RTOG 0227 study of MTX, Rituximab and Temozolomide, plus hyperfractionated WBRT (36 Gy in twice daily 1.2 Gy fractions) in 66 patients with PCNSL was associated with an objective response rate of 85.7%. This study demonstrated that OS and PFS were improved compared with historical controls from RTOG-9310. Among patients, 66% had grade 3 and 4 toxicities before hWBRT, and 45% of patients experienced grade 3 and 4 toxicities attributable to post hWBRT chemotherapy. Cognitive function and QoL improved or stabilized after hWBRT [31].
\nOther consecutive prospective studies, the R-MPV (rituximab, MTX, procarbazine, and vincristine) induction chemotherapy followed by consolidation reduced dose WBRT (23.4 Gy/ 1.8 Gy fraction), and cytarabine were found to be feasible and effective. In these studies, patients with ocular involvement were irradiated without orbital shielding to the full dose 23.4 Gy (patients in complete response) or to a dose of 36 Gy (patients with less than a complete response). Response rates were high (79% complete response) allowing a large proportion of patients to receive rdWBRT. These patients achieved durable disease control (2 year PFS 77%) associated with favorable neurocognitive outcomes. Median overall survival could not be reached (median follow-up for survivors, 5.9 years); 3 year OS was 87%. Cognitive assessments showed improvements in terms of executive function and verbal memory after chemotherapy [32, 33].
\nThe mechanisms resulting in radiation-induced neurotoxicity remain to be clarified. However, tissue oxidative stress, vasculopathy, demyelination, and depletion of progenitor oligodendroglial/neural stem cells have been postulated [34].
\nIn addition to its ongoing role as an alternative to second line chemotherapy in younger patients who fail to achieve a complete response with first line systemic chemotherapy alone, WBRT is also a reasonable palliative option in patients who have contraindications to chemotherapy or relapsed, chemotherapy refractory disease.
\nStereotactic radiotherapy may be an option for patients who have received WBRT. Prognosis is also influenced by therapy, which may include WBRT or stereotactic radio surgery (SRS). In a study [35], patients who had recurred after WBRT were treated with salvage SRS. The study demonstrated acceptable local control and survival after SRS.
\nOn the other hand, WBRT remains a reasonable salvage therapy in patients who have not responded adequately to induction chemotherapy. In addition, WBRT plus corticosteroids may be used for the palliation of patients who are not candidates for chemotherapy. Complete responses can be obtained in most patients treated with standard fractionation to 20–40 Gy (for a 74% overall response rate). The median survival from initiation of WBRT was 16 months. The median time to PCNSL progression was 10 months. Treatment associated neurotoxicity is more common among those exposed to a total radiation dose >36 Gy, patients treated within 6 months of receiving MTX, and those older than 60 years of age [36, 37]. Treatment-related neurotoxicity was observed in 22% of patients. Salvage WBRT is effective for recurrent and refractory PCNSL.
\nAfter completion of the initially planned treatment of PCNSL, patients should be evaluated to determine the disease response to treatment and should be followed longitudinally for relapse and long-term treatment toxicities.
\nPatients should be evaluated no more than 2 months after the completion of planned therapy to determine their response to treatment. Gadolinium-enhanced MRI scans are the standard for the evaluation of bulky parenchymal brain disease. Detailed ophthalmologic examination and lumbar puncture for cytology are required only if these studies were initially positive or if clinically indicated by new symptoms or sign. An interdisciplinary, international consensus group has devised the fallowing response criteria [16].
\nThe following criteria were developed on the basis of anatomic and radiographic definitions.
\nComplete response requires the following:
Complete disappearance of all enhancing abnormalities on gadolinium-enhanced MRI.
No evidence of active ocular lymphoma as defined by the absence of cells in the vitreous and resolution of any previously documented retinal or optic nerve infiltrate.
Negative CSF cytology. If the CSF is examined, patients with an Ommaya reservoir should have samples taken for the reservoir and lumbar puncture.
At the time a complete response is determined, the patient should have discontinued use of all corticosteroids for at least 2 weeks. Patients who met the criteria for CR may have the following features/limitations:
Any patient who otherwise meet all criteria for CR but needs steroid therapy should be regarded as unconfirmed CR.
Some patients will have a small but persistent enhancing abnormality on MRI related to biopsy or focal hemorrhage.
Patients with a persistent minor abnormality on fallow-up ophthalmologic examination.
Partial response (PR) was concluded for patients who met all of the following criteria: equal or more than 50% decrease in the contrast enhancing lesion that was seen on MRI compared to baseline imaging and a decrease in the vitreous cell count or retinal cellular infiltrate. PR was thought to be irrelevant to corticosteroid dose. CSF cytological examination may be negative or continue to show persistent malignant or suspicious cell providing no new sites of disease.
\nProgressive disease was defined as the following; more than 25% increase in the contrast enhancing lesion that was seen on MRI as compared to the best response, the progression of ocular disease, and the appearance of any new lesion.
\nRelapsed disease was considered as the appearance of any new lesion. Stable disease is that which does not meet the criteria for CR, CRu, PR, or progressive disease.
\nUntreated PCNSL has a rapidly fatal course, with survival of approximately 1.5 month from the time of diagnosis. Survival increases with combined therapy. In population-based studies, among HIV uninfected cases, a 5-year survival increased from 19.1 (1992–1994) to 30.1% (2004–2006) [38]. Long-term survival is achieved in approximately 15–20% of patients treated with MTX-based therapy and radiation in contemporary clinical trial [39]. In a study on 41 patients treated with MATILDE chemotherapy regimen followed by WBRT, overall response rate was 76% after chemotherapy and 83% after chemotherapy plus radiotherapy. At a median follow-up of 12 years, approximately 75% patients experienced an event, with a 5-year PFS of 24%. At 10 years from diagnosis, no patient showed chronic toxicities, with a mini-mental state examination score of ≥29 in all cases but one.
\nThe most consistent prognostic factors are age and performance status. In order to adequately assess patients with disorder, standardized systems for prognosis have been proposed [40]. Age, PS, LDH serum level, CSF protein concentration, and involvement of deep structures of brain were independent predictors of survival. A prognostic score including these 5 parameters seems advisable in distinguishing different risk groups in PCNSL. The 2 year OS is seen in 80% for patients with zero to one, 48% for patients with two to three, and 15% for patients with four to five unfavorable features.
\nPrimary brain lymphoma is an uncommon variant of extranodal NHL. Therapeutic options include treatment with high dose MTX plus combined chemotherapy regimens and WBRT. Patients over age 60 generally succumb to a higher risk of treatment-related neurotoxicity. The optimal consolidation strategy in these patients has yet to be determined, and the best treatment modality should be individualized. By increasing the understanding of the molecular knowledge, and the clinical data originating from new researches, more effective treatment approaches and the best way to the integration of them into the treatment field of PCNSL would be determined.
\nFor the endless support, we are thankful to Medical Oncologist Ender KURT.
\nResearchers and engineering practitioners are attentive to understanding the behavior of structures under the effects of various loading patterns and conditions, to enhance their lifetime performance. Wind forces can threaten the safety of structures if their effects are underestimated; therefore, it is crucial to properly simulate and assess wind effects on civil engineering structures in order to achieve optimal and resilient designs that can maintain accessibility and functionality after natural disasters. Due to climate change and its consequences, the patterns of extreme winds and hurricane occurrence have been altered [1, 2, 3]. As a result, wind loads are becoming important in the analysis and design of buildings, especially in hurricane active regions. To put it into perspective, in most parts of the United States, especially in the east coast and the southern region, hurricanes and severe windstorms hit and bring widespread damage to buildings and other types of structures. The associated losses are estimated in billion dollars. The normalized hurricane-induced damage in the United States, between 1900 and 2005 (106 years of record), was estimated at about $10 billion (normalized to 2005 USD) [4]. Damage records totaling $265 billion were set by hurricanes Maria, Harvey, and Irma [5].
Due to the population growth, coastal zones are being more and more concentrated with residential buildings. These buildings are mostly light and low-rise, constructed from wooden materials, with different aerodynamic performance compared to high-rise buildings and residential homes. The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) design standard defines a low-rise building to have an average roof height that is less than its lateral dimension; however the building should not exceed 18.3 m [6]. The majority of failures in low-rise buildings are reported because of strong wind effects on their envelope and specifically on roof panels [7]. Figure 1(a) shows a total failure of a low-rise building induced by hurricane Sandy in New York in 2012 [8]. The building envelope experienced significant loads from hurricane winds and lost its load path connections. In other scenarios, once part of a roof is breached during high winds, it facilitates the penetration of rainwater which can be harmful to interior properties and may cause serious problems to the building and loss of contents. Figure 1(b) shows severe roof damage during Hurricane Katrina in Lake Charles, New Orleans, in 2005 [9].
Hurricane-induced damage: (a) complete collapse of a residential home induced by hurricane Sandy, New York, 2012 [8] and (b) severe roof damage by hurricane Rita in Lake Charles, in 2005 [9].
Examination of post-disaster surveys indicates initiation of damage through failure of roof components under extreme wind events. Earlier studies confirm the presence of extreme negative pressures at corners, ridges, and leading edges of roofs. The performance of roofs in low-rise buildings can differ significantly during a windstorm according to the shape of roof and its dimension. For instance, large roofs in industrial buildings may behave differently, compared to those of small roofs in a single-family low-rise building which can lead to different damage patterns to the building envelope [10, 11, 12]. In large roofs, the correlations among pressures acting at different roof locations are usually low [13]. In large roofs of light metal industrial buildings, leading edge failure usually occurs due to poor attachment of metal sheathing in areas that are exposed to uplift wind forces. This weakness eventuates to progressive peeling of the roof membrane causing further damage to the whole integrity of the building envelope.
The components and claddings in small roofs are usually exposed to damage during windstorms, due to local fluctuating negative pressures (uplift effects) due to flow separation, especially at roof edges and corners. Figure 2 represents wind flow around a residential building [13]. The flow separates at sharp edges and re-attaches again in a fluctuating manner within the separation zones at a distance that is called separation bubble length, leading to uplift forces on the roof surface. The stagnation point is also specified in the windward wall, where the along-wind velocity is zero. Figure 3 shows homes damaged by Hurricane Andrew in 1992 as a result of low pressures on the roof; and as a result, the shingles and sheathings were blown off due to high uplift forces. Referring to Figure 2, now it is shown that the separation bubble effects and the flow detachment are the main causes of these damage patterns of roof coverings which are a representation of roof areas under uplift forces. To fully understand windstorm effects on low-rise and residential buildings, it is essential to replicate the physics by experimental and computational methods. There are two important requirements: (1) correct reproduction of the main characteristic in the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) and (2) aerodynamic testing at proper scales.
Fluctuating flow separation and re-attachment (adapted from Ref. [14]).
Homes damaged by hurricane Andrew in 1992 [15].
The variation of the mean velocity profile with height can be different over different terrain conditions depending on the friction effects from the earth’s surface and the value of roughness length. Figure 4 shows a schematic of different mean wind profiles over various topographical conditions of a dense urban area, suburban terrain, and over sea surfaces. In Figure 4, higher velocity is anticipated in lower altitudes on sea surfaces than the gradient wind in a dense city center.
Mean wind speed profiles over different terrains according to Davenport’s power law profiles (adapted from Ref. [16]).
After recording time series of wind velocity in the lab or in the field, the turbulence spectrum can be obtained accordingly. For the validation of the turbulence spectrum, theoretical spectra are usually used. The Kaimal spectrum is one of the widely used spectra, which is defined as follows [17]:
in which f is nU/z. One can obtain the spectrum, Suu, in the along-wind direction by considering A to be 105 and B to be 33 [14, 18]. For the lateral and vertical spectra, different values for the parameters A and B are suggested [14, 18].
The Engineering Science Data Unit (ESDU) spectrum is proposed based on a new von Karman spectrum, covering the full frequency range, as follows [19]:
For more details regarding the ESDU spectrum and definition of different terms, readers are referred to Ref. [19]. The nondimensional cross-spectrum of u-component is defined in Ref. [20]:
where
Davenport:
Maeda and Makino:
where
The integral length scale of turbulence, Lux, is a measure of the size of the largest eddy in a turbulent flow [18]. Having the time history of along-wind velocity component at any height, Lux can be calculated using the approach described in Ref. [22]:
where ū is the standard deviation of the along-wind velocity component and E(f) is the power spectral density. Studies show that the integral length scale of turbulence may decrease in the flow direction, due to the fact that larger eddies will usually dissipate energy into smaller eddies [23]. According to actual measurements, as the terrain roughness decreases, Lux increases with the height above ground [18]. To quantify these changes, the integral length scale formulation suggested by ESDU is defined as follows [19]:
And Counihan formulation used by Refs. [24, 25]:
Bluff body aerodynamics, and in particular fluctuating pressures on low-rise buildings immersed in turbulent flows, are associated with the complex spatial and temporal nature of winds [26]. This complexity mainly comes from the transient nature of incident turbulent winds, and the fluctuating flow pattern in the separation bubble. The flow in the separated shear layer is associated with fluctuations in the velocity field leading to the evolution of instabilities. The flow physics are dependent on upstream turbulence intensity, integral length scale, as well as Reynolds number. The later makes it difficult to scale up loads based on pressure and force coefficients as the process can be highly nonlinear, which is the case, for example, when full-scale pressure coefficients do not meet those from small-scale aerodynamic testing (Figure 5). Not only free stream turbulence impacts the flow pattern around bluff bodies, but also it can impact the thickness and length of the wake, hence significantly altering aerodynamic pressures.
Minimum pressures at building corner (adapted from Ref. [14]).
In order to propose mitigation alternatives to minimize damages induced by windstorms to low-rise buildings, it is vital to understand how peak loads and spatial correlation of pressures are developed. As a first step to understand this mechanism, a true simulation of flow characteristics in accordance to real full-scale winds is necessary. There are common and valuable resources for the physical investigation of wind effects on structures, including small-scale wind tunnel testing, large-scale testing an open-jet laboratory, and full-scale field measurements.
According to Ref. [27], at relatively large-scale wind tunnel models, it is very difficult to model the full turbulence spectrum, and only the high-frequency end is matched [28]. For instance, as described in Ref. [29], more than 50% discrepancies in wind tunnel aerodynamic measurements are realized from six reputable centers for roof corner pressure coefficients and peak wind-induced bending moment in structural frames of low-rise building models. Therefore, selecting an appropriate testing protocol, including model scale ratio, for physical testing to minimize discrepancies in aerodynamic loads is essential. This can be achieved by considering constraints on laboratory testing that limits producing the large-scale turbulence and the inherent issues with limited integral length scale [30].
The literature raises questions regarding the adequacy of predicting full-scale pressures on low-rise buildings tested in flows that lack the large-scale turbulence. For instance, although a good agreement was observed between a wind tunnel testing on a generic low-rise building and full-scale data, discrepancies were shown in reproducing the largest of peak pressure near roof edges [31]. Figure 5 shows minimum pressure coefficients at a building corner and eave level for the full-scale Texas Tech University (TTU) experimental building, along with wind tunnel measurements [14]. The local peak pressures are weaker in wind tunnel testing than those at full-scale. For instance, at 65° wind direction angle, the wind tunnel reproduced minimum pressure coefficient of −4.3, while the full-scale field measurement is −6.8, and at 250° wind direction angle, wind tunnel shows −2.2, while the full-scale data shows −5.3. Therefore, there would be a major doubt on estimating the correct wind loads for design purposes based on wind tunnel testing. To describe this mismatch, first we need to define the concept of the energy cascade in a flow.
As depicted in Figure 6, the structure of a turbulent wind flow is constituted from a combination of large eddies and small eddies. In physical space, the large eddies are broken into smaller and smaller eddies with different spectral energy contents in various frequency ranges. In conventional wind tunnel testing, it can be challenging to appropriately reproduce low-frequency turbulence, which overwhelmingly contributes to the integral length scale and intensity of fluctuations. This leads to significant disparity among the wind tunnel flows and the target full-scale field flow conditions. As observed in Figure 5, this mismatch affected the local vorticity at edges and corners of a low-rise building model tested in a wind tunnel and resulted in local pressures weaker than those at full-scale. To alleviate these issues and to replicate the ABL flow characteristics for aerodynamics of buildings, advanced research in computational and experimental methods is essential.
Energy cascade in a turbulent flow (adapted from Ref. [32]).
In recent years, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations have witnessed a spread use and applications as a potential tool in aerodynamic investigations of buildings. However, by considering the constraints of experimental testing in wind tunnels that limit producing the low-frequency large-scale turbulence and the inherent issues with limited integral length scale, implementing appropriate turbulence closure in CFD and developing a proper inlet transient velocity may alleviate the issues with experimental measurements in wind engineering. In CFD, the scale is not an immediate issue, as a full-scale model of the structure can be modeled and tested under various extreme wind scenarios. The simulation can be repeated to yield the same results any time. Even large-scale problems, such as simulating an urban area with condensed high-rise buildings for pollutant dispersion studies can be performed in CFD [33]; this can be challenging in laboratory testing due to scale issues.
CFD is gaining popularity within the wind engineering community along with the rise of computational power. Nowadays, CFD is commonly used to address wind engineering problems such as pollutant dispersion, wind comfort for pedestrians, aerodynamic loads on structures, or effects of bridge scour [34, 35, 36, 37]. CFD-based numerical simulations will eventually complement the existing experimental practices for a number of wind engineering applications [38, 39, 40]. In most cases, numerical approaches are less time-consuming than experiments, and detailed information at higher resolution can be retrieved for scaled models from numerical simulations. In few earlier studies, the accuracy of analyzing bluff bodies with CFD has been questioned [41, 42, 43]. The reason behind inaccuracies was detachment of shear layer at sharp edges of bluff bodies. Detachment of shear layer makes the overall flow in the domain more responsive to local behaviors. The local effects are influenced by turbulence intensity and turbulence length scales of the incoming flow [36, 44]. Inaccurate replication of incoming turbulence properties in earlier studies was considered a reason for discrepancies in results. In Ref. [45], careful replication of horizontal turbulence properties at roof height of low-rise buildings was declared important. Few earlier studies focused on comparing surface pressures from numerical simulations with experiments and full-scale measurements. Good agreement was found among different data sources for mean pressure coefficient, while differences were found for fluctuating pressure coefficient [46].
Large eddy simulation (LES) can yield better results than turbulence closures that are based on Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS), however, for higher cost of computations. The accuracy of solution of any wind engineering problem with CFD depends on the precise simulation of wind flow. A number of studies have indicated better performance of LES turbulence model for predicting mean and instantaneous flow field around bluff bodies [42, 47]. The concept of LES involves resolving the large scales in fluid flow and modeling the small scales. This approach is theoretically suitable for wind engineering applications as normally large scales are responsible for forces of interest [42]. Earlier applications of LES involving treatment of flows at low-Reynolds number yielded satisfactory results. Simply, the use of LES does not guarantee meaningful and accurate results. For flows with higher turbulence, results become more sensitive to the quality of the model [42]. Modeling of small-scale turbulence has gone through stages of improvement over the years. Sub-grid scale modeling remains the commonly used modeling technique. To yield accurate results, maintaining proper inflow boundary condition (IBC) is fundamental. Three methods are identified for generating IBC, and they are [48] (a) precursor database, (b) recycling method, and (c) turbulence synthesizing. The first two methods are computationally demanding; the third method is promising [49].
Maintaining horizontal homogeneity in the computational domain is another challenge in CFD simulations. Horizontally homogeneous boundary layer refers to the absence of artificial acceleration near the ground or stream-wise gradients in vertical profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity [50]. One may run steady-state simulation until it reaches convergence and monitors the vertical profiles of velocity and turbulence intensity at different locations in the domain. In case of LES, the mean value should be taken from the velocity time history for monitoring the vertical profiles. Achieving horizontal homogeneity ensures that the inlet, approach and incident flow are the same and eventually provide results with higher accuracy [50]. In several previously conducted studies, maintaining a consistent profile of mean wind speed and turbulent kinetic energy was an issue with different turbulence closure models. Significant near wall flow acceleration was found to cause unwanted change in mean wind speed and turbulent kinetic energy in simulation conducted in [51]. Additionally, issues in maintaining a consistent profile for turbulent kinetic energy were observed in [52, 53]. For accurate CFD results, maintaining consistent vertical profiles throughout the domain is important. Minor change in the profiles can create significant changes in the flow field. For flow around buildings, the importance of retaining the vertical flow profiles was stressed in Refs. [50, 54].
In Section 2, the main characteristics of ABL wind were presented. One of the main parts of any wind engineering study is to appropriately reproduce the wind characteristics in a controlled manner, to examine the response of a structure in the scope of a certain wind event. This means that first the wind flow characteristics should be simulated following an acceptable protocol and following that wind-induced pressures and loads on the surfaces of a building can be obtained by aerodynamic testing, according to the laws of similitude [55]. In order to satisfy these requirements, there are some tools used for ABL processes, including wind tunnels and open-jet facilities [56].
For several decades, wind tunnel modeling has been widely used as a technique to estimate wind-induced pressures and loads on buildings. Figure 7 shows a view of a wind tunnel at the University of Western Ontario and a 1:100 scale low-rise building model. The arrangement and height of passive roughness elements are designed to reproduce wind flow over an open-terrain exposure with z0 = 0.01 m [57]. This test case was selected benchmark for validation and comparison with other computational and experimental measurements. For accurate estimation of aerodynamic forces on buildings, proper replication of wind speed, turbulence intensity profiles, and spectral characteristics is essential [58]. Matching the spectral content of real wind flow over the entire frequency range of interest has been a major challenge in laboratory testing [30]. Duplication of the entire range of spectral content requires equality of Reynolds number. In traditional wind tunnels, small-scale turbulence can be generated. For cases where incident flow contains only small-scale turbulence, the vortices are shed downstream before attaining maturity or before creation of maximum peak pressure. The increase in large-scale turbulence content in incident flow permits vortices to attain maturity, and as a result higher peak pressures on building models are obtained [59]. The low-frequency part on the turbulence spectrum corresponds to large-scale turbulence content of the incoming flow.
A view of a wind tunnel at the University of Western Ontario: (a) 1:100 low-rise building model and the roughness element arrangement for an open-terrain exposure simulating z0 = 0.01 m and (b) a closer view of the test model instrumented with pressure taps [57].
The gap between small and large wavelengths of velocity fluctuations (frequency domain), for real atmospheric flows, is larger than that in wind tunnel flows. It is challenging to duplicate both small and large scales of turbulence in wind tunnels due to the absence of Reynolds number equality [59]. Moreover, the neutral atmospheric boundary layer is scaled down in the order of 1:100 to 1:500 in wind tunnels. If low-rise buildings are scaled down in a similar proportion, additional problems may be encountered. The issues with too small test models are (a) inability to modeling structural details accurately, (b) lack of aerodynamic surface pressures at higher resolution, and (c) interference effects of measuring devices [59, 60]. In practice, larger test models with scales in the order of 1:50 are used to minimize these issues. This leads to mismatch in scaling ratio of the model and the generated boundary layer, which is responsible for difference in turbulence spectra in experiments and full-scale situation. The difference in turbulence spectra is considered to be a primary reason for the large variation in aerodynamic pressures on low-rise buildings for different wind tunnel experiments [60].
Several experiments have been conducted on scaled low-rise building models and heliostats over the past few decades. Large variation in tests has been attributed to difference in Reynolds number, turbulence spectrum, geometric scaling ratio, etc. While studying the influence of turbulence characteristics on peak wind loads on heliostats, wind tunnel tests were performed, the turbulence intensity and size of the largest vortices had a noticeable effect on peak pressures, compared to other parameters Reynolds number [61]. For solar panels, peak pressures in the wind tunnel were underestimated compared to full-scale data [62]. Geometric scaling is found to be a primary source of inconsistent results in wind tunnels with similar mean flow condition [60]. It was recommended to correctly model the high-frequency end of spectrum in order to obtain acceptable mean pressure coefficients. However, for accurate mean and peak pressures, the importance of replicating the entire turbulence spectra in large-scale testing was highlighted [27]. The size of the wind tunnel was held responsible for mismatch in the low-frequency end of the spectrum. High-frequency vortices are responsible for creating the flow pattern around bluff bodies, whereas low-frequency large eddies have higher influence on aerodynamic peak loads [63]. To conclude, in the case of low-rise buildings, it has been always a challenge, in wind tunnel testing, to properly simulate wind effects due to the lack of capability in turbulence modeling [56]. As a result, other concepts and tools such as open-jet testing were devised in recent years.
As part of developing ABL simulation capabilities, a small open-jet facility was built at the Windstorm Impact, Science and Engineering (WISE) research lab, Louisiana State University (LSU) (Figure 8). The concept of open-jet testing is that unlike wind tunnels, the flow has no physical boundaries which has two main advantages: (i) larger eddies can be produced, leading to higher peak pressure coefficients, similar to those at full scale, and (ii) minimum blockage can be achieved. The aim was to physically simulate hurricane wind flows with similar characteristics to those of open and suburban terrain. Small-scale models of low-rise buildings were tested to examine how the turbulence structure of the approaching flow, scale issue, and open-jet exit proximity effect can influence the flow pattern on low-rise buildings and alter the separation bubble length on the roof surface. Specifically, the aim was to understand how these parameters affect the values of peak fluctuating external pressures on the roof surface [58, 64]. With an adjustable turbulence producing mechanism, different wind profiles are physically simulated. In addition, this lab has cobra probes, load cells, laser displacement sensors, and a 256-channel pressure scanning system (Figure 9).
The concept of open-jet testing: (a) test model located at an optimal distance from the blowers’ exit and (b) 15-fan small open jet at LSU.
LSU WISE small open-jet hurricane simulator (with adjustable turbulence and profile production mechanism): (1) general view of testing setup, (2) section model test specimen, (3) cobra probes for measuring 3-component wind velocities, (4) ZOC23b miniature pressure scanner, and (5) lap top computer with software for data collection and processing.
A facility capable of testing low-rise buildings at full-scale would be ideal, if the artificial flow is also at full scale, which is difficult to achieve. A 1:1 scale flow that mimics real hurricane characteristics at full-scale would need giant blowers located at a distance that is significantly far than what a feasible facility can afford. Artificial wind contains significant high-frequency turbulence with limitations on the large-size vortices that make scaling buildings unavoidable, if we were to replicate correct physics. There are some testing capabilities that can engulf full-scale residential homes; however, the flow characteristics raises important questions about their similarity to those at full scale. This said, scaling residential homes is essential to maintain correct physics, and at the same time large-scale testing (not full-scale) will lead to improved Reynolds number. Large-scale wind testing went through several phases before reaching the present stage [63]. A multidisciplinary LSU research team from Civil and Environmental Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Coast and Environment, Louisiana Sea Grant, Geography and Anthropology, Construction Management, and Sociology collaborated on a project titled “Hurricane Flow Generation at High Reynolds Number for Testing Energy and Coastal Infrastructure” that was awarded by the Louisiana Board of Regents to build Phase 1 of a large wind and rain testing facility (Figure 10). Phase 1 permits generating wind flows at a relatively high Reynolds number over a test section of 4 m × 4 m. These capabilities enable executing wind engineering experiments at relatively large scales. Moreover, the large open-jet facility has a potential for conducting destructive testing on models built from true construction materials. Blockage is minim, as per the concept of open-jet testing [65]. This state-of-the-art facility can generate realistic hurricane wind turbulence by replicating the entire frequency range of the velocity spectrum.
LSU WISE large testing facility (with a test section of 4 m × 4 m).
The large LSU WISE open-jet facility enables researchers to test their research ideas; to expand knowledge leading to innovations and discovery in science, hurricane engineering, and materials and structure disciplines; and to build the more resilient and sustainable infrastructure. The facility will enable scientists and researchers to test potential mitigation and restoration solutions, both natural (e.g., vegetation) and artificial. Potential applications include, but are not limited to, wind turbines, solar panels, residential homes, large roofs, high-rise buildings, transportation infrastructure, power transmission lines, etc. Testing at this facility can provide knowledge useful for homeowners and insurance companies to deal more effectively with windstorms, for example, to fine tune design codes and give coastal residents options for making their dwellings more storm-resistant. The goal is to build new structures and retrofit existing ones in innovative ways to balance resilience with sustainability, to better protect people, to enhance safety, and to reduce the huge cost of rebuilding after windstorms. In addition, the facility offers tremendous education value to k-12, undergraduate, and graduate students at a flagship state university, designated as a land-grant, sea-grant, and space-grant institution. This will broadly impact the wind/structural engineering research and education field and facilitate effective investments in the infrastructure industry that will result in more resilient and sustainable communities and contribute to economic growth and improve the quality of life.
The LSU research team aspires to match the spectral content of real wind using large-scale open-jet testing and CFD simulations in their quest of accurate estimation of peak pressures on building surfaces under wind. The goal is precise estimation of peak pressures on buildings through the generation of large- and small-scale turbulence via open-jet testing as well as advanced CFD simulations. Extreme negative pressures near ridges, corners, and leading edges of roofs are governed dominantly by wind turbulence and Reynolds number, among other factors. Both small- and large-scale turbulence vortices are responsible for peak pressures and can influence separation in the shear layer. This demands for precise replication of wind speed profile, turbulence intensity profiles, and spectral characteristics. Replication of the true physics requires higher Reynolds number which is difficult to achieve in wind tunnels. In traditional wind testing, it is challenging to create large-scale turbulence. An increase in large-scale turbulence content in incident flow allows vortices to attain maturity, and as a result higher peak pressures can be reproduced. A fundamental research objective, however, is to address the challenge of replicating real wind turbulence experimentally and computationally. Resolving the scaling issue by investigating larger test models at higher Reynolds number is another highlight of our research at the LSU WISE lab.
The velocity was measured at different heights in the open-jet facility with cobra probes to obtain the mean velocity and turbulence intensity profiles. Figure 11(i) shows the comparison of experimental mean velocity profiles from LSU open jet and TPU wind tunnel with theoretical wind profiles measured for open terrain condition (
Flow characteristics: (i) mean velocity and (ii) turbulence intensity.
The vertical profile plot for turbulence intensities shows that the LSU open-jet facility has approximately 20% turbulence intensity at reference height. Both mean velocity and turbulence intensity profiles in Figure 11 shows that LSU open-jet facility is capable of replicating open terrain near-ground ABL flow.
A scaled (1:13) cubic building model was tested at the LSU WISE large open-jet facility. The primary objective of this task was to compare surface pressure coefficients those obtained by wind tunnel testing on a smaller scale (1:100) model. Wind tunnel measurements are obtained from the published dataset of Tokyo Polytechnic University (TPU). The building model was instrumented with several pressure taps to capture surface pressures. A total of 64 taps were distributed on roof, same as the TPU wind tunnel model. Pressure taps were connected to Scanivalve pressure scanners through appropriate tubing. Two cobra probes were used to monitor upstream velocity at roof height [58]. The following equation was used to compute the pressure coefficient.
The time history of pressure coefficients, Cp(t), was obtained from the pressure time history, p(t), recorded using pressure scanners. The static pressure ps was considered reference for the pressure transducers. In addition, base line pressures were collected before and after each experiment. Once the time history of pressure coefficients was obtained, statistical analysis was done to obtain mean, minimum, and root mean square (rms) values. Measurements from LSU open-jet and TPU wind tunnel were processed the same way. The maximum and minimum values were obtained using MATLAB functions with a probabilistic approach described in Ref. [67]. This approach was considered, to account for the highly fluctuating wind flow, to yield a more stable estimator of peak values.
Sample of the findings of the experiment and comparison with TPU results is shown in Figure 12. The distribution of pressure coefficients obtained by open jet testing is symmetric like what is observed in the TPU wind tunnel testing. Since the model in open jet was tested at a higher Reynolds number, higher values of peak pressure coefficients are realized. Higher suction was observed near the zone of flow separation on the roof. Stronger suction for open-jet testing was found due to higher Reynolds number in open-jet and the presence of larger-scale turbulence compared to the wind tunnel. This difference in Reynolds number leads to difference in formation of flow separation zone, stagnation point on windward face, and the reattachment length. The difference between full-scale and reduced-scale wind tunnel tests is owed to similar reasons.
Minimum pressure coefficients on roof: (a) LSU open-jet (b) TPU wind tunnel (wind from bottom left corner).
On the computational side, the k- SST turbulence model was employed for improved mean pressure prediction near the flow separated region. An advanced approach is ongoing that employs large eddy simulation (LES) to generate accurate mean and peak pressures. Figure 13 shows a sample of high-quality mesh and CFD simulations in OpenFOAM.
With high-quality mesh and potential turbulence closure, CFD can provide continuous flow information: (a) 3D view of the computational grid, (b) meshing arrangement along the longitudinal section over a cube, and (c) velocity contour, after simulations in OpenFOAM.
In order to alleviate the challenges and shortcomings involved within the experimental tests in boundary-layer wind tunnels, in recent years, CFD was considered as an effective tool for the simulation of wind effects on civil engineering structures. However, it is necessary that the numerical CFD model would be capable of generating turbulence in a flow with certain spectral contents and eventually to reproduce peak pressures on building surfaces. The objective of this research is therefore to provide a basis for the development of recommendations and guidelines on using a CFD LES model that enables appropriate simulation of turbulence spectra of ABL inflow and reproducing the peak wind pressures on the roof of low-rise buildings. Figure 14 represents a schematic of the tools used by Aly and Gol Zaroudi [49] to simulate peak wind loads on a benchmark full-scale building from the Texas Tech University (TTU) in an open-terrain field. The details, advantages, and disadvantages of each tool are discussed in Aly and Gol Zaroudi [49].
The research tools employed to reproduce peak wind pressures on the roof of a benchmark low-rise building from the Texas Tech University (TTU) in an open-terrain field.
Considering the current rapid improvements in developing high-speed processors that can run in parallel on high-performance computing (HPC) clusters and devising new digital storage devices with huge capacities, CFD is becoming a promising tool in wind engineering applications. However, it is still a challenge for proper simulation of turbulence according to ABL wind characteristics and accurately reproducing peak pressures on low-rise buildings, even with supercomputers [40]. Aly and Gol Zaroudi [49], therefore, attempt to address some of the challenges in experimental and numerical simulations for aerodynamic testing of low-rise buildings, to reproduce realistic peak pressures. The study focused on wind flow processes in CFD with an objective to mimic full-scale pressures on low-rise building. The study implemented CFD with LES on a scale of 1:1 building. After a proximity experiment was executed in CFD-LES, a location of the test building from the inflow boundary was recommended, different from existing guidelines (RANS-based, e.g., COST and AIJ). The inflow boundary proximity showed significant influence on pressure correlation and the reproduction of peak pressures. The CFD LES turbulence closure showed its capabilities to reproduce peak loads that can mimic field data owing to the ability of creating inflow with enhanced spectral contents at 1:1 scale [49].
This chapter described the main characteristics of ABL winds, as well as some available tools for aerodynamic testing. Earlier studies confirm the presence of extreme negative pressures near ridges, corners, and leading edges of roofs in wind events. Turbulence (small- and large-scale) is responsible for large peak negative pressures and separation in the shear layer. This demands for precise replication of wind speed profile, turbulence intensity profiles, and spectral characteristics. Replication of true physics requires equality of Reynolds number which is not possible in wind tunnels. In traditional wind tunnels, only small-scale turbulence can be generated. An increase in large-scale turbulence content in incident flow allows vortices to attain maturity, and as a result higher peak pressures are obtained. The challenge of properly simulating wind effects on low-rise buildings is related to the lack of capability in turbulence modeling at a reasonably large scale and its limitation in reproducing the low-frequency part of the ABL turbulence spectrum. As a result, advances in aerodynamic testing employing modern tools such as open-jet testing for large- and full-scale testing were devised in recent years. Resolving the scaling issue by studying larger models at higher Reynolds number is another highlight of recent advances in aerodynamic testing. A large-scale cubic building model was tested in LSU open-jet facility at higher Reynolds number, and pressure coefficients were compared with those from wind tunnel testing. The results reveal the importance of large-scale testing at higher Reynolds numbers to obtain realistic peak pressures. Furthermore, CFD with appropriate turbulence closure was widely implemented recently for full-scale studies of wind effects on civil engineering structures. However, adopting proper inlet transient velocity is very crucial to correctly simulate ABL wind characteristics.
The Internet has irrevocably changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing. Consequently, we find it necessary to indicate, unambiguously, our definition of what we consider to be a published scientific work.
",metaTitle:"Prior Publication Policy",metaDescription:"Prior Publication Policy",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/prior-publication-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\\n\\nThe significance of Peer Review cannot be overstated when it comes to defining, in our terms, what constitutes a published scientific work. Peer Review is widely considered to be the cornerstone of modern publishing processes and the key value-adding contribution to a scholarly manuscript that a publisher can make.
\\n\\nOther than the issue of originality, research misconduct is another major issue that all publishers have to address. IntechOpen’s Retraction & Correction Policy and various publication ethics guidelines identify both redundant publication and (self)plagiarism to fall within the definition of research misconduct, thus constituting grounds for rejection or the issue of a Retraction if the work has already been published.
\\n\\nIn order to facilitate the tracking of a manuscript’s publishing history and its development from its earliest draft to the manuscript submitted, we encourage Authors to disclose any instances of a manuscript’s prior publication, whether it be through a conference presentation, a newspaper article, a working paper publicly available in a repository or a blog post.
\\n\\nA note to the Academic Editor containing detailed information about a submitted manuscript’s previous public availability is the preferred means of reporting prior publication. This helps us determine if there are any earlier versions of a manuscript that should be disclosed to our readers or if any of those earlier versions should be cited and listed in a manuscript’s references.
\\n\\nSome basic information about the editorial treatment of different varieties of prior publication is laid out below:
\\n\\n1. CONFERENCE PAPERS & PRESENTATIONS
\\n\\nGiven that conference papers and presentations generally pass through some sort of peer or editorial review, we consider them to be published in the accepted scholarly sense, particularly if they are published as a part of conference proceedings.
\\n\\nAll submitted manuscripts originating from a previously published conference paper must contain at least 50% of new original content to be accepted for review and considered for publication.
\\n\\nAuthors are required to report any links their manuscript might have with their earlier conference papers and presentations in a note to the Academic Editor, as well as in the manuscript itself. Additionally, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the publisher of their conference paper if copyright transfer occurred during the publishing process. Failure to do so may prevent Us from publishing an otherwise worthy work.
\\n\\n2. NEWSPAPER & MAGAZINE ARTICLES
\\n\\nNewspaper and magazine articles usually do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense. Articles appearing in newspapers and magazines rarely possess the depth and structure characteristic of scholarly articles.
\\n\\nSubmitted manuscripts stemming from a previous newspaper or magazine article will be accepted for review and considered for publication. However, Authors are strongly advised to report any such publication in an accompanying note to the External Editor.
\\n\\nAs with the conference papers and presentations, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the newspaper or magazine that published the work, and indicate that they have done so in a note to the External Editor.
\\n\\n3. GREY LITERATURE
\\n\\nWhite papers, working papers, technical reports and all other forms of papers which fall within the scope of the ‘Luxembourg definition’ of grey literature do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense.
\\n\\nAlthough such papers are regularly made publicly available via personal websites and institutional repositories, their general purpose is to gather comments and feedback from Authors’ colleagues in order to further improve a manuscript intended for future publication.
\\n\\nWhen submitting their work, Authors are required to disclose the existence of any publicly available earlier drafts in a note to the Academic Editor. In cases where earlier drafts of the submitted version of the manuscript are publicly available, any overlap between the versions will generally not be considered an instance of self-plagiarism.
\\n\\n4. SOCIAL MEDIA, BLOG & MESSAGE BOARD POSTINGS
\\n\\nWe feel that social media, blogs and message boards are generally used with the same intention as grey literature, to formulate ideas for a manuscript and gather early feedback from like-minded researchers in order to improve a particular piece of work before submitting it for publication. Therefore, we do not consider such internet postings to be publication in the scholarly sense.
\\n\\nNevertheless, Authors are encouraged to disclose the existence of any internet postings in which they outline and describe their research or posted passages of their manuscripts in a note to the Academic Editor. Please note that we will not strictly enforce this request in the same way that we would instructions we consider to be part of our conditions of acceptance for publication. We understand that it may be difficult to keep track of all one’s internet postings in which the researcher´s current work might be mentioned.
\\n\\nIn cases where there is any overlap between the Author´s submitted manuscript and related internet postings, we will generally not consider it to be an instance of self-plagiarism. This also holds true for any co-Author as well.
\\n\\nFor more information on this policy please contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2017-03-20
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\n\nThe significance of Peer Review cannot be overstated when it comes to defining, in our terms, what constitutes a published scientific work. Peer Review is widely considered to be the cornerstone of modern publishing processes and the key value-adding contribution to a scholarly manuscript that a publisher can make.
\n\nOther than the issue of originality, research misconduct is another major issue that all publishers have to address. IntechOpen’s Retraction & Correction Policy and various publication ethics guidelines identify both redundant publication and (self)plagiarism to fall within the definition of research misconduct, thus constituting grounds for rejection or the issue of a Retraction if the work has already been published.
\n\nIn order to facilitate the tracking of a manuscript’s publishing history and its development from its earliest draft to the manuscript submitted, we encourage Authors to disclose any instances of a manuscript’s prior publication, whether it be through a conference presentation, a newspaper article, a working paper publicly available in a repository or a blog post.
\n\nA note to the Academic Editor containing detailed information about a submitted manuscript’s previous public availability is the preferred means of reporting prior publication. This helps us determine if there are any earlier versions of a manuscript that should be disclosed to our readers or if any of those earlier versions should be cited and listed in a manuscript’s references.
\n\nSome basic information about the editorial treatment of different varieties of prior publication is laid out below:
\n\n1. CONFERENCE PAPERS & PRESENTATIONS
\n\nGiven that conference papers and presentations generally pass through some sort of peer or editorial review, we consider them to be published in the accepted scholarly sense, particularly if they are published as a part of conference proceedings.
\n\nAll submitted manuscripts originating from a previously published conference paper must contain at least 50% of new original content to be accepted for review and considered for publication.
\n\nAuthors are required to report any links their manuscript might have with their earlier conference papers and presentations in a note to the Academic Editor, as well as in the manuscript itself. Additionally, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the publisher of their conference paper if copyright transfer occurred during the publishing process. Failure to do so may prevent Us from publishing an otherwise worthy work.
\n\n2. NEWSPAPER & MAGAZINE ARTICLES
\n\nNewspaper and magazine articles usually do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense. Articles appearing in newspapers and magazines rarely possess the depth and structure characteristic of scholarly articles.
\n\nSubmitted manuscripts stemming from a previous newspaper or magazine article will be accepted for review and considered for publication. However, Authors are strongly advised to report any such publication in an accompanying note to the External Editor.
\n\nAs with the conference papers and presentations, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the newspaper or magazine that published the work, and indicate that they have done so in a note to the External Editor.
\n\n3. GREY LITERATURE
\n\nWhite papers, working papers, technical reports and all other forms of papers which fall within the scope of the ‘Luxembourg definition’ of grey literature do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense.
\n\nAlthough such papers are regularly made publicly available via personal websites and institutional repositories, their general purpose is to gather comments and feedback from Authors’ colleagues in order to further improve a manuscript intended for future publication.
\n\nWhen submitting their work, Authors are required to disclose the existence of any publicly available earlier drafts in a note to the Academic Editor. In cases where earlier drafts of the submitted version of the manuscript are publicly available, any overlap between the versions will generally not be considered an instance of self-plagiarism.
\n\n4. SOCIAL MEDIA, BLOG & MESSAGE BOARD POSTINGS
\n\nWe feel that social media, blogs and message boards are generally used with the same intention as grey literature, to formulate ideas for a manuscript and gather early feedback from like-minded researchers in order to improve a particular piece of work before submitting it for publication. Therefore, we do not consider such internet postings to be publication in the scholarly sense.
\n\nNevertheless, Authors are encouraged to disclose the existence of any internet postings in which they outline and describe their research or posted passages of their manuscripts in a note to the Academic Editor. Please note that we will not strictly enforce this request in the same way that we would instructions we consider to be part of our conditions of acceptance for publication. We understand that it may be difficult to keep track of all one’s internet postings in which the researcher´s current work might be mentioned.
\n\nIn cases where there is any overlap between the Author´s submitted manuscript and related internet postings, we will generally not consider it to be an instance of self-plagiarism. This also holds true for any co-Author as well.
\n\nFor more information on this policy please contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-03-20
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