Proximate and ultimate analysis of the three different fuels [11, 12, 13, 14, 15].
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
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\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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Member of various scientific organizations such as the Polish Sociological Association, Polish Society of Gerontology, and European Sociological Association. Author of many scientific papers in the fields of gerontology, labor economics, public management, and social policy. His recent monographs include "Economic Foundations for Creative Ageing Policy" (the two-volume set, Palgrave Macmillan, 2015, 2017), "Generations, Intergenerational Relationships, Generational Policy" (17 languages; co-edited with K. Lüscher and M. Sanchez, Universität Konstanz, 2017), "Selected Contemporary Challenges of Ageing Policy" (co-edited with Ł. Tomczyk; Pedagogical University of Kraków, 2017), "Between Successful and Unsuccessful Ageing: Selected Aspects and Contexts" (co-edited with Ł. Tomczyk; Pedagogical University of Kraków, 2019), and "Perspectives and Theories of Social Innovation for Ageing Population" (co-edited with Ł. Tomczyk; Frontiers Media, 2020). He is an editor of sections "Aging and Public Policy" and "Aging and Financial Well-Being" in the "Encyclopedia of Gerontology and Population Aging" (Springer Nature, forthcoming).',institutionString:"Warsaw School of Economics",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Warsaw School of Economics",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"23",title:"Social Sciences",slug:"social-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"247865",firstName:"Jasna",lastName:"Bozic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/247865/images/7225_n.jpg",email:"jasna.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"65494",title:"Energy and Exergy Analysis of an Advanced Cookstove-Based Annular Thermoelectric Cogeneration System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84237",slug:"energy-and-exergy-analysis-of-an-advanced-cookstove-based-annular-thermoelectric-cogeneration-system",body:'\nClean sources of enhanced energy recovery offer the best mitigating solution to the economic, environmental and climate effects from the continued high consumption/utilisation of fossil fuels. Biomass resource is an excessive source of carbon-neutral renewable energy (RE) available far and worldwide and is a good source of environment-friendly, clean energy resource. In the near future, the biomass energy is likely to be one of the most dominant REs, contributing to a substantial reduction in consumption of carbon-emitting fossil fuels and electricity for cooking as well as lighting. Many methods have been adopted to produce combined heat energy and power (CHP), in improved cookstoves with advanced features of the flat thermoelectric generator (FTEG). Easy availability, accessibility, low-cost per capita produced energy, reduced emissions and inbuilt driving force have led to greater attention to CHP cookstove systems. Subsequently, exploring an efficient biomass advanced cookstove technology is necessary. An accurate inbuilt electricity generation unit to drive forced draft combustion fan/blower, to optimise performance with high efficiencies, is proposed in this current study.
\nFor the previous two decades, the use of thermoelectric generators and its applications have been investigated and improved worldwide due to its significant advantages of straight conversion of thermal energy into electricity with minimum/no moving parts and reduced noise. Hence, newly developed thermoelectric generators (TEGs) are accepted as green sustainable technology and are widely used as flexible generators for a diversified applications [1, 2]. A combined advanced micro-gasifier cookstove with the TEG for heat and power cogeneration from a single system is presented here.
\nChampier et al. [3] have developed a prototype of a biomass cookstove with a higher-efficient combustion chamber (CC), and TEG modules are attached to either side of the cookstove. It was found from the experimental investigations that 6 W of electrical power was generated from four numbers of TEG. Experimental analysis was performed by Nuwayhid et al. [4] on the biomass domestic wood stove coupled with natural convection-cooled thermoelectric generator. It was obtained from the results that about 4.2 W of power was produced from each component. Kraemer et al. [5] built an innovative solar flat thermal panel for electricity generation adopting Seebeck effect concept with higher thermal concentration. There was an interesting result obtained from the study that an electrical convention efficiency of 4.6% for 1000 W/m2 solar conditions is about eight times much more powerful than the other systems. Omer and Infield [6] proposed a conceptual model of a TEG for the estimation of an optimal device in power production. By means of using their developed model, four different TEGs were compared. Besides, they have developed a two-stage solar concentrator for a cogeneration system (combined heat and power from the thermoelectric modules). It was proven from the studies conducted by Omer and Infield [7] that an improvement of thermal efficiency as well as overall characteristics of the solar thermal concentrator for combined heat and thermoelectric power generation can be achieved using second stage concentrator.
\nAtik [8] studies the thermoelectric performances of the concentrating collector, receiver and TEG modules. The electric power generation efficiency, system efficiency and surface area temperature of the receiver system were obtained from the different solar radiation (W/m2) and from different concentration ratios. Chen [9] suggested a model to examine the conceptual efficiency of solar thermoelectric generators (STEGs), which includes thermal concentration as well as optical concentration. It was obtained from his study that the component efficiency increases with increase in hot side temperature, but thermal efficiency decreases with increasing hot side temperature. Furthermore, he stated that the STEG efficiency can be improved when it has been maintained under evacuated condition.
\nManikandan and Kaushik [1] performed the energy and exergy study of the solar annular thermoelectric generator (SATEG) in view of the impact of Thomson effect in concurrence with Peltier effect, Joule effect and Fourier heat conduction. Their study proposed annular thermoelectric generator as an alternative for flat thermoelectric generator (FTEG) to increase the cross-sectional area along the radial direction. They have established that the power output (W) and whole exergy efficiency (%) of the SATEG were 1.92 W and 5.02%, respectively, which was established to be 0.52 and 0.40% greater than that of SFTEG. They suggested that this SATEG system could be effectively used as the thermal insulation material as it offered better heat transfer characteristics; it was simple to drive and maintain compared to the solar flat plate thermoelectric generator.
\nFrom an in-depth literature survey, it is established that there are certainly no research studies available on CHP system in cookstove and an ATEG. Studies have explored only the performance evaluation of energy efficiency and exergy efficiency of the cookstove with an FTEG. The advantage of using an ATEG instead of FTEG is that it enhances the heat transfer surface area on both hot side and cold side, due to cylindrical structure. It is proposed to study the behaviour of ATEG placed outside the cylindrical CC to convert waste heat (hot side) into electricity as well as dissipate heat (cold side) by passing and preheating air through annular fins. Hence, it is indeed essential to study the energy and exergy analysis of an advanced cookstove-based ATEG for clean combustion and self-sustained cooking options, particularly suited for developing countries. Here, the exergy analysis (second law of thermodynamics) is an advanced method to enumerate the real irreversibilities delivered in the thermodynamic process.
\nThe design and fabricated CC of the proposed biomass advanced micro-gasifier cookstove [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15] are clearly depicted in Figure 1. The CC is fabricated using carbon steel with an inner diameter of 110 mm and an inner height of 155 mm. By means of increase in the proportion percentage (%) of carbon content, the cylinder material becomes harder and stronger providing higher creep properties. Carbon steel with high carbon content has been used to ensure it can withstand high temperatures.
\nModel of the proposed cookstove.
The secondary air (combustion air) injection of the proposed cookstove is skewed to an angle of 45° towards bottom grate [11, 12, 16]. This is to confirm the better turbulence in the course of volatile combustion and for the period of char combustion. Exfoliated vermiculite mineral matter of 93% with glass wool of 2% and Portland cement of 5% altogether by weight is moulded into a mixture for the preparation of the thermal protection lining material inside the concentric cylindrical CC. The air gap between two concentric cylindrical rings of the CC is filled with the same refractory composite paste. The thermal conductivity (k) of the prepared composite blend slab is calculated to be about 0.047 W/m°C by performing steady-state thermal conductivity test, as suggested by BIS-IS 9489 [17]. Due care is taken to ensure the total absence of any bypass channels due to the faulty lining of the thermal composite insulation material in the gasification and combustion air paths. A blower of the capacity 12 V DC is fitted below the combustion chamber of the cookstove. It tends to force the ambient air upwards along the way through the side of the CC; gasification and combustion ducts of diameter 4 and 3 mm provide the needed gasification and combustion air.
\nIn the advanced micro-gasifier cookstove-based ATEG system, the exterior surface of the CC is in connection with the hot side junction of the GATEG. Hence, the waste heat ejected or lost is effectively used by the ATEG for the generation of electric power. The remaining heat energy available at the cold side junction of ATEG is exploited for preheating the secondary combustion air. The primary heat generated by the advanced micro-gasifier system is used for cooking food on the stove. This combined cogeneration cookstove system can deliver both electric power to drive fan/blower (also lighting, micro-charger applications) and cooking applications in rural areas from biomass energy. The graphical illustration of the combined biomass advanced micro-gasifier cookstove with ATEG system is shown in Figure 2(a and b).
\n(a) Advanced micro-gasifier annular thermoelectric generator system and (b) cross-sectional view.
The two different categories of biomass used in the study are:
Solid biomass
(i) Prosopis juliflora (Seemai Karuvelam)
(ii) Coconut shells (Thotti/Cherattai/Kottanguchi)
Pellet (densified biowaste)
(iii) Tamarind seed pellet (Puliyan kottai)
The three types of biomass with different densities and ash content considered for this work are depicted in Figure 3, including two types of solid biomass wood with different properties and an agro residue seed pellet. All the solid biomass and pellets used are first dried in sunlight for 24 hours to ensure uniform moisture content (5–10%).
\nPhotograph of the biomass fuels considered for the experimental study.
Table 1 summarises the properties of all the types of biomass used. Pictures of all the biomass types used in the experiments are illustrated in Figure 3.
\nCharacteristics | \nProsopis juliflora | \nCoconut shells | \nTamarind seed pellet | \nStandard | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Size (cm3) | \n5 × 2 × 0.5 | \n5 × 3 × 0.25 | \n5 × 1 | \n– | \n
Bulk density (kg m−3) | \n560±20 | \n610±20 | \n1200±10 | \n– | \n
HHV (MJ/kg) | \n17.7 | \n17.37 | \n16.2 | \nASTM E711-87 | \n
Moisture content (%) | \n5.4 | \n10 | \n10.07 | \nASTM E871-82 | \n
Volatile matter (%) | \n77.9 | \n72.05 | \n63.02 | \nASTM E872-82 | \n
Ash content (%) | \n1.0 | \n0.59 | \n9.07 | \nASTM D1102-84 | \n
Fixed carbon (%) | \n15.7 | \n17.34 | \n18.04 | \nBy difference | \n
Carbon (%) | \n45.5 | \n45.84 | \n50.15 | \nASTM E777-08 | \n
Hydrogen (%) | \n6.4 | \n5.51 | \n6.02 | \nASTM E777-08 | \n
Nitrogen (%) | \n0.6 | \n0.35 | \n0.42 | \nASTM E778-08 | \n
Oxygen (%) | \n47.2 | \n47.58 | \n41.41 | \nBy difference | \n
Sulphur (%) | \n0.3 | \n– | \n0.28 | \n– | \n
The graphical illustration of the advanced micro-gasifier cookstove with the ATEG is presented in Figure 4. The thermal resistance network of the combined advanced cookstove ATEG is exposed in Figure 5.
\nSchematic illustration of the advanced micro-gasifier ATEG.
The thermal network of advanced micro-gasifier ATEG.
By using the first law of thermodynamics, the energy balance equation of the biomass advanced cookstove ATEG can be written as
\nConductive resistance from a CC to ATEG (radial direction) is determined considering one-dimensional (1D) with steady-state conductive heat transfer via composite cylindrical walls. Three different types of materials, namely, steel-1 and steel-2 made up of extraordinary carbon steel, are used; the thermal insulation material used is Vermiculite composite:
\nConvective resistance from ATEG to combustion air (radial direction) is considered as 1D steady-state convective heat transfer for ATEG (through extended surface finned annulus):
\nWaste heat from the outer surface of CC is absorbed by the ATEG (Qh) at the hot junction can be deliberated by the energy balance equation given as
\nThe transmitted heat through the ATEG is released at the cold side junction (annular fins) of the ATEG by preheating the combustion air. The equation is written as
\nA cross-sectional observation of the thermoelement of an ATEG is depicted in Figure 6. The cross-sectional area A(r) of the ATEG thermoelectric pair increases in a radial direction (r). The exhaustive thermodynamic modelling and energy and exergy analysis of the ATEG in view of the Thomson effect have been deliberated in the following section, as studied by Kaushik and Manikandan [18]. The assumptions used for the thermodynamic modelling and investigations of ATEG are:
1D steady-state heat transfer equation of ATEG alongside the radial path is deliberated for the study.
The thickness (δ) of the ATEG module is constant throughout.
Convection losses and radiation losses from the sides of the thermoelectric modules to the atmosphere are negligible (as heated air is recirculated into the combustion chamber).
The electrical resistance of the contact is presumed to be about 10% of the actual inbuilt electrical resistance.
Cross-sectional view of ATEG [1].
For the study, it has been assumed that \n
Based on the assumptions, the cross-sectional area, length (L) and thickness (δ) of the p-type and also n-type thermoelectric (TE) leg are the same; the dispersal of temperature in the p-type and n-type leg of the ATEG is also assumed to be the same. Shen et al. [19] have studied the thermal conductance (K) and electrical resistance (R) of the ATEG are as given below:
\nThe only difference is the value of K and R in the thermodynamic modelling of the FTEG and ATEG; the rest of the equations for the GATEG and GFTEG are comparable with Shen et al. (2015):
\nThe thermal properties and electrical properties of a TE material combined together are referred to as figure of merit (FOM). Dimensionless FOM has been generally used to measure the desirability of TE materials for devices by multiplying with mean operating temperature (Tm) [1]:
\nThe power output (W) produced, electrical energy efficiency (%) and exergy efficiency (%) of an advanced micro-gasifier-based ATEG system can be considered from the altered work done by Manikandan and Kaushik [1]:
\nEq. (19) designates that the Thomson effect will decrease the power output of the ATEG. The energy efficiency (electrical) of advanced cookstove-assisted ATEG is given as
\nThe exergy efficiency (electrical) of the advanced cookstove-assisted ATEG is derived as
\nHence, the combination of potential energy and exergy efficiencies of the advanced micro-gasifier cookstove ATEG system can be written as
\nThe energy as well as exergy analysis of the micro-GATEG is analysed via engineering equation solver (EES) for different operating conditions.
\nThermal efficiency (%) is defined as the fraction of heat energy given off by the biomass fuel that is successfully transported to the water in the cooking vessel. The remaining unrecovered heat energy is dissipated into the largest heat sink of an atmosphere. The method used to assess the thermal energy efficiency is specified in Eq. 23, as follows:
\nThe maximum possible work, which can be created by a system for a particular environmental condition, is generally taken as the Carnot hypothetical maximum relating to the ambient temperature. The thermal exergy input supplied to the pot for water boiling can be stated as below [13, 14, 20]:
\nThe exergy output of the ATEG attached advanced micro-gasifier cookstove is the quantity of energy spent by the boiling water times the Carnot factor as follows [20]:
\nGenerally, lowering heat source or raising heat sink lowers exergy. The exergy efficiency (ψ) is well defined as the fraction between the output exergy and the input exergy as shown below:
\nA small number of essential parameters like the mass of water (kg), the weight of fuel (kg), the volume of the kerosene sample (for the ignition of fuel) and the weight of unfilled Al vessel were computed before starting the test. Readings of water temperature (°C) and pot temperature (°C) were taken on a minute-to-minute basis. The reference conditions taken for exergy analysis are To=303 K and Po=101.325 kPa.
\nThe performance of the ACS cookstove is assessed in terms of energy efficiency (%) and exergy efficiency (%) using Prosopis juliflora, coconut shells and tamarind seed pellets as fuel. It is perceived that the thermal efficiencies of the stove are 36.7±0.4, 37±0.4 and 35±0.4% for coconut shell, Prosopis juliflora and tamarind pellets, respectively, after four repetition tests. The exergy efficiencies (%) of the cookstove are 15.6±0.45, 17.5±0.45 and 15±0.45% for the discussed three different fuels. The uncertainties for energy and exergy efficiencies are established as 0.43% and 0.48%, respectively.
\nThe comparison on the energy efficiency and exergy efficiency of the advanced micro-gasifier cookstove is illustrated in Figure 7 for a distinct set of operational constraints. It is also witnessed that the energy efficiency (%) performance of the ACS cookstove is considerably higher than that of exergy efficiency (%) performance. This is due to the extent of energy extracted in the hot water for ACS cookstove being much less than the worth of energy extracted due to temperature constraint; this phenomenon is common for all cookstoves.
\nEnergy and exergy efficiencies of the advanced micro-gasifier cookstove.
In this investigative study, the energy and exergy analysis of an advanced micro-gasifier cookstove ATEG is studied under various operating circumstances. The influence of hot side and cold side junction temperature and the influence of the number of thermocouples and operating electric current (A) on electric power output (W), thermal output (of cookstove) and energy and exergy efficiencies (%) of the GATEG system are studied.
\nThe influence of CC temperature outside the insulation on the power output as well as the energy and exergy efficiencies (%) of the ATEG have been studied. The combustion air temperature passed over the annular fins of the TEG varies with time so the cold junction temperature is also varied between 30 and 150°C in this study. The atmospheric temperature is considered as 30°C.
\nThe effects of various hot junction temperatures on the power output of the ATEG are shown in Figure 8(a–f). The various zones of the CC temperature determine the hot side temperature of the ATEG. During combustion of the advanced micro-gasifier cookstove, the flame front propagates downwards with respect to the fuel bed density and heat transfer rate. Hence, heat is not uniform throughout from top to bottom. The uniform temperature is reached only after the conversion takes place from volatile combustion mode to char combustion mode, almost at the end (after 70% of weight loss in fuel). Therefore, when there is a variation in hot junction temperature, like an increase from a smaller value to higher, the power output (W) and the optimum current (A) value for maximum power output also increase. The reason is that when the temperature inside the combustion zone increases, a respective temperature of the outside chamber after insulation increases, thus increasing the power output of the TEG. It is also clear from Figure 8(a–f) that the power output of the micro-gasifier annular thermoelectric generator is maximum when the outside combustion temperature is at a maximum of 275°C. At a current flow rate of 0.8 A, the actual power output of GATEG is 10.05 W, electrical energy efficiency is 6.76% and exergy efficiency is 15%.
\nPower output (W) with respect to current (A) for (a) 275°C, (b) 250°C, (c) 225°C, (d) 200°C, (e) 175°C and (f) 150°C.
Similarly, from Figure 8(a–f), it is clear that the power output of the micro-gasifier ATEG is minimum when the outside combustion temperature is at a minimum of 150°C. At a current flow rate of 0.4 A, the power output of GATEG is 2.414 W, electrical energy efficiency is 1.31% and exergy efficiency is 4.62%.
\nThe influence of variation of hot lateral temperature on the electrical energy efficiency (%) of GATEG is shown in Figure 9(a–f). It can be observed from Figure 9(a–f) that the electrical energy efficiency of GATEG is for the range of heat input considered, for the maximum hot side temperature of 275°C and an operational current flow of 0.8 A; the electrical efficiency (%) of GATEG is 6.76%.
\nElectrical energy efficiency (%) with respect to current (A) for (a) 275°C, (b) 250°C, (c) 225°C, (d) 200°C, (e) 175°C and (f) 150°C.
The variation of exergy efficiency of GATEG for changing cold junction temperatures at maximum hot side temperature of 275°C is shown in Figure 10(a–f). It is seen that the exergy efficiency of the GATEG is high for all working conditions. It is obvious that the exergy efficiency of GATEG obtained for the heat input of 149 W at a working current of 0.8 A is 6.76%. This is due to the power output (i.e., exergy output) of the GATEG that is marginally greater because of superior heat transfer rates.
\nElectrical exergy efficiency (%) with respect to current (A) for (a) 275°C, (b) 250°C, (c) 225°C, (d) 200°C, (e) 175°C and (f) 150°C.
The influence of the number of thermo-plates (i.e., thermocouples) on the performance variance like power output (W), energy efficiency and exergy efficiency of the ACS cookstove annular/flat thermoelectric generator cogeneration system is studied. With an increase in the number of thermocouples, there is a rise in the heat transfer area. Hence, heat transfer between a hot side and cold side junction of the ATEG system is improved, as deliberated by Manikandan and Kaushik [1] and He et al. [21]. Figure 11 shows the effect of numbers in thermocouples on the power output (W) of GATEG, with a clear indication of the number of thermocouples being directly proportional to the power output of GATEG, as proposed by Manikandan and Kaushik [1].
\nInfluence of the number of TEG modules on the power output.
The hot junction temperature is considered as 275°C, and the cold side temperature is retained at 30°C. The losses in the systems are considered as negligible. Figure 11 demonstrates the influence of the number of TEG modules on the electric power generation for variation of current (A) levels. Figure 11 clearly indicates the power produced; it is maximum as a result of the addition of/rises in the number of TEG modules.
\nEventually, the addition of modules leads to overall thermal resistance causing a reduction in the combined modules, Rtem, which leads to a fall in temperature difference, rapidly offsetting any further rise in voltage output. The plots shift to small current range slowly as “n” increases primly due to the interior electrical resistance upsurges steadily with the number of modules. The maximum power (W) is obtained once the load resistance (RL) matches with the system resistance according to maximum power transfer theorem. A similar curve with a notable difference in power output indicates that the maximum power output is attained for an increasing number of thermoelectric modules. The increase in efficiency by increasing 100 numbers into 1000 numbers is 100%. Thus, from the power output point of view, using an increased number of modules produces more power. This observation is similar to that of a steady state conducted by Jie Chen et al. [22]. A further intensification in the number of thermocouples results in an increase in surface area and volume which offers more resistance, thereby increasing the temperature of combustion air and consequently reducing the power output of TEG (refer Figure 11) and its electrical energy efficiency. These outcomes are comparable to those recorded by He et al. [21, 23].
\nAn investigation of the micro-gasifier ATEG is conducted based on the first law and second law of thermodynamics, and its performance factors are investigated for varying hot and cold side temperature conditions and by varying number of thermocouples. From the conceptual modelling, the following conclusions are summarised:
The power output (W), electrical energy efficiency (%), exergy efficiency (%) and combined system energy and exergy efficiencies (%) of the GATEG are 10.05 W, 6.76%, 15.12% and 43.46% and 30.72%, respectively, calculated for the maximum temperature difference of 275°C across the TEG, with the help of EES software.
The same modelling is repeated for a low surface temperature of 150°C outside the combustion chamber. The power output (W), electrical energy efficiency (%), exergy efficiency (%) and combined system energy efficiency (%) of the GATEG are 2.41 W, 1.31%, 4.63% and 38% and 20.23%, respectively, for the maximum temperature difference of 150°C across the TEG.
The advanced micro-gasifier cookstove annular thermoelectric generator is a suitable option since it has many advantages like enhanced heat transfer characteristics in the hot side and cold side of the ATEG due to the greater heat transfer area. The diameter (D) of the CC (based on the cooking load requirement) can be increased if necessary, to provide more heat transfer surface area to the ATEG.
The fixing of the ATEG with the cylinder-shaped CC will be very easy, and the facility to arrange for thermal insulation to the cold lateral of the TEG will become easier if the ATEG has been adopted. The conceptual model analysis untaken in this study may be supportive in designing actual GATEG systems for electric power production from engine exhaust heat (flue gas), other heat pipes, etc. As the power output (W) and overall exergy efficiency (%) of the GATEG are low, these arrangements are improvident, but with the improved/novel TEG materials with the higher ZT, this type of concepts will gain more significance in the near future.
\nheat generated inside the combustion chamber of gasifier (W)
\nheat loss by conduction, convection and radiation (W)
\nthe heat input to the purpose of water boiling (W)
\nmass rate of fuel consumed (kg/s)
\ncalorific value of wood (kJ/kg)
\nradiation loss offered by the pan (W)
\nStefan-Boltzmann constant (W/\n
emissivity of the pan
\nsurface area of the pan (\n
final temperature of the pan (K)
\natmospheric air temperature (K)
\nheat input to the ATEG (W)
\ntemperature inside the combustion chamber (K)
\ntemperature at hot junction of ATEG (K)
\nconductive resistance for steel-1 (K/W)
\nconductive resistance for insulation (K/W)
\nconductive resistance for steel-2 (K/W)
\nconductive resistance for ATEG (K/W)
\nheat rejected by the cold junction of ATEG (W)
\ntemperature at hot junction of ATEG (K)
\ntemperature at cold junction of ATEG (K)
\nthermal conductivities of steel-1 and steel-2 (W/m K)
\nthermal conductivity of insulation (W/m K)
\nthermal conductivity of TEG (W/m K)
\nlength of the combustion chamber or ATEG (m)
\ninner diameter of combustion chamber or steel-1 (m)
\nouter diameter of steel-1 and inner diameter of insulation (m)
\nouter diameter of insulation and inner diameter of steel-2 (m)
\nouter diameter of steel-2 and inner diameter of ATEG (m)
\nouter diameter of ATEG (m)
\nconvective heat transfer coefficient (W/\n
heat absorbed by the hot junction of the ATEG (W)
\nheat rejected by the cold junction of the ATEG (W)
\nthermal conductance of the ATEG (W/K)
\nelectrical conductance of the ATEG (\n
angle (radians)
\nthermal conductivity of p and n legs of ATEG (W/m K)
\nelectrical resistivity of p and n legs of ATEG (\n
current (A)
\nSeebeck coefficient (V/K)
\nThompson coefficient (V/K)
\nexternal resistive load of imposed on ATEG (\n
dimensionless figure of merit
\nfigure of merit (1/K)
\npower output from the ATEG (W)
\nno of thermoelectric couples
\nelectrical energy efficiency (%)
\nexergy efficiency (%)
\nIncreasingly, cities are faced with various natural hazards. Urban flooding has increased in frequency and caused loss of life and infrastructure all over the world. Rapid urbanization and increased anthropogenic activities have led to haphazard development on eco-sensitive areas. Changing climate scenario has put livelihood of many vulnerable people at risk. Hyderabad has also faced increasing flooding event over the years. While flooding in 2000 was most destructive for the city in recent times, it has also faced the disruptive floods in 2008 and more recently in 2016 and 2017. Urban governance plays a key role in shaping various processes of disaster risk reduction (DRR) and flood resilience. Primarily, flood mitigation measures can be approached as structural and nonstructural measures. Structural measures include flood defense construction, and nonstructural measures include policy changes, flood awareness programs, and so on. Increasingly, the focus has been shifting from structural to nonstructural measures, which have more long-term impact on flood preparedness and mitigation.
\nFor effective nonstructural measures, we need to strengthen our understanding of root causes behind the urban flooding, for which along with technical knowledge of urban growth, we need deeper understanding of urbanization processes and land use changes. Such an endeavor requires deciphering of power relations between various stakeholders. Urban space is laden with constant negotiations and power conflicts. Sociopolitical tensions and socioeconomic conditions of city dwellers are reflected in socionatural changes in land use. Urban environmental change is the result of deliberate efforts of appropriation of resources by the dominant vested interests, which maintain status quo through fragmented role of institutions and agencies [1]. Hence, governance of socioecological changes cannot be looked in silos but occurs in the highly politicized urban space [2].
\n‘The prevalent flood governance strategies rely on hybrid forms of neoliberal governance, where technological risk prevention is linked to programs that promote social resilience and cultural adaptation’ [3]. Neoliberalism has a powerful influence on current urban governance and development by defining policy formulations, limiting democratic participation, and managing dissent and counter narratives by proclaiming new futuristic visions of the city [4]. Neoliberalism anchored in supralocal forces of capital accumulation, and there collaborations with state power have managed to engulf cities in market-driven governance regimes.
\nThe neoliberal ideology gives primacy to market forces and motivation to maximize material benefits over the government’s role as a responsible representative of people [5]. The emerging neoliberal self is driven by individualism and consumerism, which comes in conflict with sustainable development [6]. In Indian cities, neoliberal policies had most debilitating effects on economically weaker sections such as forced eviction or displacement of slum dwellers for urban mega projects [7]. The supralocal forces and parastatal agencies behind such mega projects interact with native sociopolitical narratives to produce a complex urban space. Scholars have investigated urban flooding to reveal contradictory nature of neoliberal urban policies such as (see [8]) the study on storm drainage network in Bangalore to bring the socionature intricacies of flow and fixity of water and storm drains, respectively. Another study on Surat highlighted the overlapping nature of risks in the city [9].
\nIn context of Hyderabad, there are few studies examining urban flooding. Most studies are technical in nature, which use GIS tools for presenting land use change, vulnerability, and flood prone areas. Theoretical studies analyzing the policy changes and its implementation are scarce. Among policy-oriented studies, some have explored the increasing pollution and vanishing of the water bodies. And others have looked at urbanization processes, broad governance issues at the municipal level, and financing of various government projects in the city. While investigating the urban flooding, the present study is also an attempt to integrate the relevant literature in informing urban flood resilience in Hyderabad.
\nFollowing above theoretical framework, the next section elaborates the methodology, Section 3 describes the way urban development activities have contributed to flooding. Section 4 presents an analysis of policy, implementation, and existing barriers. Section 5 discusses the ways to overcome the barriers to urban flood resilience. And final section gives the concluding remarks.
\nUnplanned development and growth of the city pose not only the ecological risk but also risks the sustainability of city itself. Policy framing and implementation give a more organized platform for a restrictive and planned process for city growth. It plays an important role in the regulation of land use change, building resilience and mitigation of hazards as urban flooding. Environmental acts, building regulations, and realizing the ground implementation of policy documents have a key role in flood management in the city. Hence, in cities frequently faced with hazards, it becomes essential to critical analyze both the policy framing and its implementation. Therefore, in the present study, various official documents such as government orders, municipal laws, environmental policies, court orders, civil society engagement, and existing research literature are analyzed to understand the present flood vulnerability in Hyderabad (Figure 1). Also, the focus has been to look at policy gaps in two ways. One is the gap in terms of conception of the policy whereby policy documents itself fail to recognize the complexity of the challenges of environmental hazard faced by the city. And second is the gap in policy conception and implementation whereby policy documents may be ideal to follow, but implementation has lag behind in releasing the vision of such policies.
\nLocation of study area.
First, digital elevation model (DEM) of the area under Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation (GHMC) was prepared to have better understanding of the topography of the study area. DEM represents the land surface and helps to visualize the terrain of an area. DEM for Hyderabad city was obtained from Bhuvan Cartosat. It was clipped using mask layer of shape file of the city and processed in QGIS. Second, to analyze the policy and implementation, this study employs heuristic framework of reflexive governance. This framework analyzes in terms of policy, polity, and politics with three levels of governance at macro, meso, and micro. In adapting the framework for the current study, the policy aspect highlights the problem at hand. Polity aspects elaborate on formal instruments and key institutions such as master plans, disaster management acts, and so on. Finally, the political aspects focus on barriers in improved governance and interaction among various stakeholders.
\nHeuristic framework can be applied to understand the interaction among the key interest groups and its impact on land use change and flood management [1]. Framework is useful in discerning blind spots and prevailing narratives to address shortcomings in governance. It draws attention to the power relations among various actors influencing the urban change to fulfill particular interests [10]. The main documents that have referred in the present study at macro level are disaster management act 2005, disaster management policy 2016, role of national disaster management authority (NDMA), and its plans/guidelines. At meso level, role of state disaster management authority (SDMA), Telangana climate change plan, state level urban policies, and urban mega projects have been analyzed. Lastly, at micro level, the main focus was on the master plans, building by laws, municipal governance, and their impact on the city sustainability and flood vulnerability.
\nRole of anthropogenic activities that have been responsible for increased flood vulnerability in Hyderabad is discussed in this section. An attempt was made to bring the entire study area into a DEM for better understanding and evaluation (Figure 2). Thus, from the terrain elevation model, it can be observed that the maximum elevation is in the western part, whereas the minimum elevation is seen towards south east of the city. The low lying areas particularly surrounding water bodies as lakes and rivers are not favorable for habitation. And any extension of built up area around these sites must be with some precautionary measures and at best avoided. But most of such areas have already been covered by dense population. As per the census, population of Hyderabad increased rapidly from 3.05 million in 1991 to 3.64 million in 2001. And after creation of GHMC in 2007, it reached to 6.81 million on 2011. Most vulnerable to urban flooding is the population with minimum socioeconomic resources to cope with disasters. As per the last census 2011, there were 2.29 million people residing in slum and squatter settlements in Hyderabad. As per GHMC’s own estimation, there are 13,509 families directly vulnerable to flooding in the city.
\nDigital elevation model of Hyderabad.
The maximum mean monthly rainfall in last decade has been recorded 544 mm in August 2000. The lowest rainfall is mostly in the months from December to March. Highest average rainfall for 100 years (1908–2008) in Hyderabad is observed in the month of July (192 mm) followed closely by August (182 mm) and September (180 mm), that is, during southwest monsoon. In August 2000, Hyderabad recorded a rainfall of 240 mm in a day, consequent flooding affected 35,693 homes and 26 people lost their lives along with estimated property loss of Rs. 13.5 million. In August 2008, 237 mm rainfall in 36 hours resulted in property loss of Rs. 4.9 million [11]. But even small rainfall presents the challenges in the city such as with just 50–60 mm rainfall in July 2005, transport came to standstill, and there were deaths from being swept into the manholes. In recent flooding in 2016 and 2017, there were many reports of death due to collapse of walls, roofs, and buildings after rainfall. In some localities, National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) has to be called in for rescue and relief operations.
\nConcretization cover has increased rapidly over the year’s throughput the city. Total build up was 17,092 ha in 1964, which increased to 26,312 ha in 1974 and 45,550 ha in 1990. Area under the river/streams changed from 762 ha in 1964 to 512 ha in 1974 and further to 312 ha in 1990 [12]. It is the low-density area that has continuously contributed to high-density urban area growth in the city. Total urban built up area of low- and high-density area has grown by 43,607 ha between 1989 and 2011 [13]. Total built up area in 2015 for Hyderabad urban agglomeration increased to 86,535 ha.
\nWater bodies have been worst affected by such rapid haphazard urbanization. Construction activities on lake and river bed have pushed more people toward high vulnerability to floods. Water bodies in the area are reduced from 2.28 to 1.64% from 2001 to 2016 [14]. Area under water bodies reduced from 5949.28 ha in 2001 to 4764.73 ha in 2015, that is, area of 84.61 ha/year of water bodies has vanished [15]. The expansion in peri-urban has also been at the cost of vanishing water bodies. Urban sprawl has consumed water bodies and open lands to accommodate housing and other economic activities. Even the floodwaters carrying channels connecting one water body to the other have been encroached by private, government agencies, and their coalitions [16].
\nPollution and waste disposal have further aggravated the flood vulnerability by clogging the drainage system and degrading the water bodies with toxic industrial chemical waste. The black-colored sewage of untreated toxic effluents from many industries is discharged into Hussain Sagar Lake through Kukatpally nala [17]. Further during Ganesh festival, many idols made of plaster of Paris (PoP), iron, and other chemicals are immersed in Hussain Sagar Lake. After dissolving, these idols not only alter the water quality but also accumulate in the lake bed causing serious damage to the lake [15]. Solid waste disposal is another concern as unsorted waste ends up in the water bodies, which clogs the drainage system and results in flooding of nearby areas. The uncontrolled disposal of solid waste will also worsen the condition with increasing pace of urbanization. The projected per capita solid waste generation by 2021 in GHMC is likely to be 803 g/cap/day [18].
\nPeri-urban expansion in the city has even affected the agriculture land. Open cultivated lands act as sponge for excess water during heavy rainfall, but with increasing concretization, agriculture land use has reduced in Hyderabad over the years. In the city’s periphery, in Medak, of 66,055 ha that has been put to nonagricultural use, nearly half have been consumed by the real estate [19]. The Rangareddy area has witnessed such conversion even at more rapid pace. Development projects such as SEZs, outer ring road (ORR), and IT parks have come at the cost of decreasing open and farm land.
\nForest areas are essential for maintaining environmental sustainability in the city and help to absorb/slow down excessive runoff water. According to EPTRI [15] report, area under scrub and forest land has decreased from 8189.51 ha in 2003 to 8177.75 ha in 2014. Area under parks and recreational playground has increased from 21.68 ha in 2003 to 50.92 ha in 2014, and urban vegetation has increased from 11.31 ha in 2003 to 27.73 ha in 2014. This can be misleading as many parks and urban vegetation have come up on the lake beds to attract tourism and recreational activities. As often lakes are encroached, dried up, and converted into parks such as Chacha Nehru Park came up on site of Masab Tank, similar is the case for Yousufguda cheruvu.
\nHyderabad has even been affected by legal and illegal mining in the city, which has degraded land. Other than sand mining, there is active mining of feldspar, limestone, and granite in the city and its periphery. Most of the laterite and granite mines are in the Rangareddy district. High Court issued guidelines under which the mines were not allowed to function inside the ORR, and court observed that such mining in the city is threat to residential colonies and environment. Deccan chronicle has reported frequent mining explosions in Manikonda, Puppalaguda, and Vattinagulapally localities in complete disregard of the norms [20]. Such land use pattern will only add to the woes of flood vulnerability in the city.
\nThe multiple processes of land use for economic growth have severely degraded and concretized the land in the city. This has resulted in increased flow of water even after moderate amount of rainfall. Disappearance of water bodies has reduced the aquifers and capacity of land to act as absorbent for rain water. In the next section, the policies and acts have been analyzed to understand the process that leads to such dismal conditions in the city.
\nFollowing the heuristic framework of reflexive governance, analysis is organized in terms of policy, polity, and politics with three levels of governance at macro, meso, and micro (Table 1).
\nLevels | \nMacro | \nMeso | \nMicro | \n||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Politics (Focus on barriers to improved governance) | \nLack of mainstreaming of DRR and spirit of decentralization. | \nPoor awareness, risk mapping and clarity on disaster mitigation fund | \nNo mandatory power to NDMA and reliance on ad hoc generation of data. | \nNon- engagement of SDMA in developmental decisions. | \nAbsence of focus on flood proofing, mitigation and evacuation measures. | \nWeak regulation of land use and provision of basic amenities. | \nAdministrative vacuum & Influence of real state aspirations. | \nParastatal agencies & Supralaocal forces | \nIncapacity of storm drainage network and absence of efforts for green growth. | \n
Polity (Focus on formal instruments and institutions) | \nArticle 51 A (g), 74th amendment, Sendai Framework | \nDisaster Management Act 2005, National Disaster Management Policy 2016. | \nNDMA Plans and Guidelines | \nSDMA & Disaster Management Cell. | \nState Disaster Management Plan & State Action Plan For Climate Change | \nUrban Policy & Urban Mega Projects. | \nMunicipal Corporation & Governance | \nBuilding By laws, Municipal Finances & AP Vision 2020 | \nMaster Plans & Kirloskar Report | \n
Policy (Focus on problems) | \nIncoordination and global structural factors. | \nFragmentary implementation of disaster management act, policies and financing of disaster mitigation efforts. | \nDispersed responsibilities and non-implementation of NDMA guidelines. | \nAmalgamation of disaster management with other departments. | \nNo comprehensive plans for integrated flood management | \nExploitative land use and water management practices | \nLow level of public engagement and focus on environmental aspects in the city | \nFocus on short term economic gains | \nIncreased runoff water, decreasing green cover and open spaces. | \n
Policy analysis framework.
Article 51A (g) of the Indian constitution states that “it shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures.” But over the years, these natural endowments have been degraded, at much accelerated rate in the cities. For realizing the spirit of Article 51A (g) at grass root level, it was essential to empower the local bodies. Seventy-fourth amendment provided for the decentralization of power at the municipal level, which has remained an unrealized dream. Hyogo and Sendai frameworks also stress on national and local level mobilization for disaster risk management. But even these international frameworks not consider how global structural factors, which are out of bounds of local controls, influence the status of disaster risks.
\nNDMA is topmost organization for disaster management in India. It has fallen short of successfully coordinating with state and district authorities. Rather many times, other government bodies are found to be filling the shoes. This is because of dispersed responsibilities for different disaster and no mandatory power to enforce its guidelines. NDMA guidelines provide for city disaster management committee, formation of community-based disaster management plans, and urban citizens’ forum for disaster risk reduction in the cities [21]. But none of such active bodies or plans can be found in Telangana with national and state level coordination.
\nNDMA is more occupied with rescue, relief, and rehabilitation. There is no institutionally centered mechanism for collecting the disaster risk data and archiving the disaster lived experiences of population, rather agencies mostly function on ad-hoc generation of data [22]. Another area of concern is the identification of victims, which becomes more challenging in case of mass fatalities in disaster, and NDMA plans/guidelines do not address victim identification process [23]. In terms of financing DRR, there is still no clarity on disaster mitigation fund even though supreme court has also urged for its creation as per Section 47 of Disaster Management Act 2005 [24]. Rather, its absence is justified by the presence of many existing social sector schemes [25].
\nFurther, more than decade after disaster management act 2005, center has failed to convince and convey the urgency for the need of independent disaster management bodies and their coordination with various departments across sectors. Many states still do not have full-fledged disaster management plan to imbibe the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030. At national level, recently National Disaster Management Policy 2016 was prepared.
\nAt meso level, there are serious gaps in policy framing and implementation. Disaster Management Act 2005 under Section 14 asserts for the formation of SDMAs for effective disaster management. Telangana has formed State Disaster Management Response and Fire Services. But it is more concerned with fire safety, even training and evacuation procedures are also limited to fire incidents. There are no concrete guidelines, procedures, and mock drills for flood evacuation. As seen in floods during 2016, it heavily relies on the response of NDRF for evacuation and rescue operations. In Section 22, mandates for drawing state disaster management plan as per national plan, and under Section 28, SDMA is to ensure a disaster management plan for all departments. The Telangana State Action Plan for Climate Change only briefly mentions the floods and does not even address urban flooding as the particular challenge facing the cities in the state. In City of Hyderabad, only administrative structure to be found is the disaster management cell under GHMC. Absence of proper administrative structures and comprehensive plans results in conflict and poor accountability in disaster management.
\nAnother concern at meso level is urban policy, which directly influences the land use change in the city. Socioeconomically, vulnerable populations inhabiting the low lying river and lake bed areas are most affected during flooding in the city. Specifically, in Hyderabad, there is continuous inhabitation along the Musi River, which at many places such as Chaderghat, Shankar Nagar Colony, and so on get inundated, and overflowing sewage/wastewater frequently enters into the houses. Poor provisions of basic amenities as proper closed drainage for wastewater further worsen the situation. Not surprisingly, drinking water many times may get mixed with wastewater. The weak regulation of land use provision in the urban policy is the primary reason for diversion of eco-sensitive areas for fulfilling the real-estate aspirations. Hence, a state level urban policy sensitive toward the needs of vulnerable population will inspire municipal bodies for proactive flood resilient outlook for the city.
\nUrban mega projects such as outer ring road and Hyderabad Metro project have also compromised urban flood resilience. Metro project has been very contentious with questions on land acquisition in eco-sensitive sites in the city, lack of public engagement, and sidelining of municipal body [26]. In case of outer ring road (ORR), supposedly a road-cum-area development project was in violation of Government Order (GO) (see [27]), and nearly half of the land required was under agriculture. The erstwhile Government of Andhra Pradesh has been directly involved in encroachments of lakes by omitting full tank level (FTL) markings and particularly in case of Hussain Sagar Lake by building the memorial parks [28]. Such diversion of large agriculture tracts, vegetation, lake/river beds, and their rapid concretization has been one of the primary reasons behind the increased surface runoff resulting in flooding. State government initiatives for riverfront development as Nandanavanam project in 1997 and Save Musi Campaign in 2005 were ill conceived, which led to eviction and public interest litigations. Latest attempt of grander project was announced in 2017, which was put on hold, while Musi River continues to be polluted, encroached, and prone to flooding [29].
\nAnalysis at micro city level in Hyderabad further reveals the existing policy gaps; particularly, it is helpful in discerning gaps in implementation of policy at ground level. Municipal planning process can be traced to the formation of Hyderabad Urban Development Authority (HUDA) in 1975. It is in the wake of liberalization and decentralization in the 1990s that a new phase of urban process followed, which completely changed the city. Urban flooding is geographically local phenomenon, and municipal bodies are at forefront in facing the immediate challenges of urban flooding. Even then, since the 1990s, Hyderabad municipal governance body has either been sidelined or downgraded as the city has seen long periods of democratic deficits and administrative vacuum [30].
\nThis has coincided with the proliferation of state supported parastatal bodies, which were out of the preview of municipal bodies but had large role to play in the development of city infrastructure. Hyderabad municipal bodies had no involvement whatsoever in their formation or working of these bodies. These parastatal bodies were created for specific purposes to turn Hyderabad into a global city and favorite destination of investments. But this has compromised the city’s flood resilience not only in terms of infrastructure but also putting more vulnerable people at risk of flooding. Some of such bodies are Hyderabad Airport Development Authority (HADA), Cyberabad Development Authority (CDA), and many other Industrial Area Local Authorities (IALAs).
\nHADA acquired land in the catchment area of Himayatsagar Lake, threating the existence of the water body. Development of Cyberabad and nearby Serilingampally ward saw influx rural migrants sheltering in slums. As per the Census 2011, the ward of Serilingampally has one of poorest provision of basic amenities in Hyderabad. The above concretization of city has been because of flouting of building bylaws resulting in vanishing agricultural land, vegetation, and water bodies. This has reduced the capacity of the land to absorb rain water and increased the runoff flow. The whole process of parastatal bodies for the creation of world class enclaves has put greater number of people at risk of urban flooding.
\nThe creation of parastatal bodies has also been the reason for limited financial capacity of Hyderabad Municipal Corporation to take up effective flood management and preparedness. As per provisions for governing IALAs, significant part of building fees and property taxes is kept internally; hence, collected revenue is barely shared with GHMC [31]. Creation of such bodies also surpasses democratic process as the decision-making process does not involve the elected member of municipality. Rather that is the primary reason, such bodies are created to cut through the scrutiny and achieve faster implementation of the plans by the state. This has only undermined the city’s flood resilience as in pursuit of global city imaginary, basic urban challenges of provision of efficient drainage and protection of urban commons have been neglected.
\nSuch pursuits of seeing city as engines of growth by creating parastatal bodies and bypassing democratic institutions have its origin in neoliberal supra local forces. The imagination of Chief minister Chandrababu Naidu of transforming Hyderabad as information city was influenced by Malaysia’s technological corridors, which in turn are based on silicon valley imaginations. To persuade for investment of funds in Hyderabad, under the aegis of World Bank and IMF, Naidu hired McKinsey for preparing a model development plan that resulted in AP vision 2020, which guided the transformation of the city in the next decades [32]. The effort to project the city as technological hub was successful, and the following concretization left the landscape flood prone with accentuated disparities.
\nInfluence of supra local forces, which are independent of municipal body engagement and bypass democratic institutors, has also seen development of many special economic zones (SEZs). And as mentioned earlier even though the high court had initially prohibited any mining activities inside the ORR, it was exempted for some to supply of raw material for developing SEZs. One can only imagine the two folded damage of quarrying, and increased pace of concretization would have done to city’s flood resilience.
\nOther than above forces, role of GHMC has not been encouraging in city’s increased vulnerability to floods. Areas near the drains in several localities such as Malkajgiri, Alwal, and Ashoknagar were completely inundated during floods in 2016 and 2017. There is only 1200 km of storm water drains with carrying capacity of only 2 cm of rain/hour [33]. The Kirloskar report had suggested demolition of many structures and widening of drains, which has been long pending. As in case of other urban agglomeration, major development activities in Hyderabad are guided by Master Plans. Fragmentary nature of process can be seen in master plans for the city. Surpassing the existing institutional structures and master plan for the city, new agencies like CDA were provided with special master plan with separate building rules, land use, and financial instruments [34]. This has only exacerbated the tendency to see the planning area in isolation from its broader socioecological context. Poor implementation and lack of harmonization between the master plans have left it more vulnerable to floods over the years.
\nThe HUDA’s 2003 draft master plan proposed to increase area under water bodies to 95.44 sq.km by 2020. But, the area has shrunk by over 10 sq.km, and there were no modalities in plan for reclaiming the lost area [16]. The zoning regulation in the latest Development Plan 2031 (Master Plan) for the Hyderabad Metropolitan Region also has no priorities for the protection of areas such as farm and scrub land, which act as sponge for absorbing rain for the city [35], thus leaving the land vulnerable for real estate aspirations and urban flooding in the coming years.
\nResilience requires attention toward transformative attributes and long-term process that help system absorb shocks and stressors. Focus for building resilience to urban flooding can range from strengthening specific resilience at local level to general resilience at national and global levels. For rapidly growing cities, this involves efficient coordination and collaboration at various administrative levels for assisting gradual changes while being attentive of indirect impacts [36].
\nResilience strategies are embedded in sociopolitical power structures; hence at international and national policy levels, an impact assessment of global structural factors’ influence on local disaster risks is much needed. Accordingly, strengthening and guiding of local bodies by coordination of national and state level bodies are an essential step in giving responsive governance and building resilience to disasters. This may be achieved by giving mandatory power to NDMA to enforce the guidelines. Disaster risk mapping, data collection, and archiving are increasingly central to efficient response, which can be institutionalized in NDMA or with National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM). NDRF has been shining armor in times of crisis and can mentor State Disaster Response Force (SDRF). For identification of disaster, victim’s Interpol’s DVI process may be followed [23].
\nObjectives of 74th amendment can be achieved by actively engaging district disaster management authority (DDMA) through community participation in making local level plans, forums, and committees for disaster management. Engagement with civil society groups is another area where lot may be achieved as in Hyderabad, there are many active organizations such as Hyderabad Greens, Forum for a Better Hyderabad, and so on, which can contribute immensely to resilience building.
\nNational Disaster Management Policy 2016 places lot of emphasis on flood early warning systems and generating awareness through various mechanisms. It advocates for ward level risk mapping and vulnerability assessment and setting up of urban flooding cell for integrated urban flood management at municipal level. In New Brunswick, Canada, the land use controls were even linked with flood risk mapping with different restrictions for high- and low-risk zones [37]. NDMA guidelines on management of urban flood offer many practical and innovative solutions such as rain gardens, detention ponds, and lined channels [38]. Emphasis is much needed for interagency and interstate coordination through NDMA and SDMAs. For financing DRR, there is robust institutional mechanism of National and State Disaster Response Funds. There is a need for more targeted financing for mitigation measures, which can be achieved by the creation of disaster mitigation fund and by encouraging micro insurance cover to low-income groups as highlighted in Prime Minister’s Ten-Point Agenda on DRR [39].
\nTelangana State has taken proactive steps by strengthening the disaster response force and deploying the monsoon teams during heavy rainfall. An independent SDMA nodal body along with SDRF involved in integrated plans, evacuations strategies, frequent mock drills, and generating awareness can go long way in streamlining the fragmented nature of disaster planning. Comprehensive state and district disaster plan well aligned with national plan following the vision of Sendai framework will mainstream disaster with development processes for specifically integrating flood mitigation and preparedness at all levels. For early warning, Telangana planning development society (TPDS) has been involved in weather monitoring on real-time basis through automated station and sensors. Central water commission also assists in early warning with its network of river gauge and rainfall stations. Further, Telangana state remote sensing application center actively involved in modeling, forecasting, and giving assessment reports for decision making. Presently, in environmental clearance/impact assessment, pollution control board and state environmental impact assessment bodies are responsible. A greater involvement of SDMAs in developmental decisions will catalyze streamlining and mainstreaming of disaster preparedness.
\nUrban policies are not only mere top down instrument for stimulating economic growth but also opportunity for bottom up engagement of residents, municipality, and civil society for steering toward sustainable disaster resilient cities. Hyderabad has many lakes, and their protection following the GO 111 and demarcation of FTL boundaries will be helpful in protecting them. Planning for catchment area for Musi River along with water treatment and segregation of solid waste disposal will not only revive the river but also reduce the runoff water during the heavy rainfall. Implementation of land use and zoning regulations in execution of mega urban projects will be instrumental in protecting eco-sensitive sites and restricting mindless concretization of city. The government of Germany and England adopted the concept of “room for rivers” and “making space for water,” respectively, which makes land use regulation central to flood management. Germany has ensured flood mitigation with more restrictive approach of land use policy based on the return period of 100-year floods [40].
\nPolitical decentralization at the municipal level is central to building disaster resilience in the cities. Active engagement of local institution in developmental decisions instead of leaving them in vacuum will give them greater administrative exposure, which has direct impact on land use change and flood resilience in the city. It will also further the much needed public oversight on the supra local forces of urbanization along with fair sharing of revenue with parastatal bodies or subsuming them to strengthen flood preparedness capacity. Provision of basic amenities empowers people to cope with disruption caused by urban flooding. Many wards such as Serilingampally, Rajendra nagar, and Hafeezpet have poor provision of basic amenities as closed drainage and treated drinking water [41]. Weak housing structure and poor basic amenities particularly in old city area have to be addressed through ward level targeted approach.
\nBuilding bylaws in the city encourage rain water harvesting, which help in reduction of run off and flood hazards. They also provide for not sanctioning building permits to floodable areas with nonpercolating soils or more than 45 degrees of slopes or for not taking proper measures of drainage [42]. Floor space index is another instrument through which sustainable urban form in the city can be promoted. No building or development activity is allowed in bed of water bodies and FTL of lake, ponds, and so on [43]. Implementation of model building bylaws and provisions of open spaces will assist in sustainable urban development and flood resilience. Regular inspection and impact assessment of industries/constructions for compliance and protection of water bodies as per water and waste management acts/rules will accelerate the flood resilience in the city [44, 45, 46].
\nSewage and storm water drains have to be delinked to avoid congestion and mixing of runoff water. By taking into consideration, the natural contours of flow, existing drainage pattern and neighborhood catchment area, maintenance of an integrated storm water system are essential for long-term flood resilience in the city. Kirloskar & later Voyants report had already provided recommendations, and its implementation will strengthen the storm drainage. Master plan should focus more on socioenvironmental factors, restoring urban water bodies, vegetation, and creating a network of multifunctional open spaces. Master plan of Auroville adopted the concept of bioregion where part of area is designated for green growth for environmental restoration, regeneration, and biodiversity. Mandi planning area adopted the zone of “no construction” in the land below the high flood level and “green zone” in a belt of 25 m buffer along the banks of river [47]. A convergence of hierarchy of plans may be developed as regional plan, town plan, and neighborhood plan along with master plan. These measures will essentially require coming out of silos and periodical review of planning processes.
\nThere still exists gap between Sendai framework, national, and provincial level disaster management. Particularly highlighting is the seemingly lack of urgency and poor integration with developmental plans. Policy frameworks at state level influence land use decisions and distribution of public services. Weak land use regulations transpire into degrading natural resources and creating multilevel vulnerabilities. At micro-city level, the development activities are framed under broad master plans and subjected to building bylaws. But, flouting of these laws has led to mushrooming of settlements in the low lying flood prone areas. Particularly noticeable is the influence of parastatal bodies and supra local market forces which often bypass regulations and democratic processes. In this scenario, water bodies, forest, agricultural land, and open spaces are being consumed at accelerated rate to produce real estate products. Current policy approaches being clouded by the neoliberal self and technocratic narratives still see disasters management as separate from developmental processes. The resulting poor multi-institutional coordination can only be overcome by empowering key institutions with agenda cutting across sectors and departments both horizontally and vertically. Focus on green growth and flood proofing with engagement of all stakeholders will play a central role in mainstreaming DRR.
\nAs this section deals with legal issues pertaining to the rights of individual Authors and IntechOpen, for the avoidance of doubt, each category of publication is dealt with separately. Consequently, much of the information, for example definition of terms used, is repeated to ensure that there can be no misunderstanding of the policies that apply to each category.
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\\n\\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
\\n\\nHOW COPYRIGHT WORKS WITH OPEN ACCESS LICENSES?
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\\n\\t\\t\\t Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t\\t\\n\\t\\t\\t 1 July 2005 (2005-07-01) \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t\\t\\n\\t\\t\\t 3 October 2011 (2011-10-03) \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t
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The CC BY 3.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
\\n\\nContent reuse:
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\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
\n\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
\n\nHOW COPYRIGHT WORKS WITH OPEN ACCESS LICENSES?
\n\nAgreement samples are listed here for the convenience of prospective Authors:
\n\n\n\nDEFINITIONS
\n\nThe following definitions apply in this Copyright Policy:
\n\nAuthor - in order to be identified as an Author, three criteria must be met: (i) Substantial contribution to the conception or design of the Work, or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the Work; (ii) Participation in drafting or revising the Work; (iii) Approval of the final version of the Work to be published.
\n\nWork - a Chapter, including Conference Papers, and any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of or accompanying the Chapter/Conference Paper.
\n\nMonograph/Compacts - a full manuscript usually written by a single Author, including any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials.
\n\nCompilation - a collection of Works distributed in a Book that IntechOpen has selected, and for which the coordination of the preparation, arrangement and publication has been the responsibility of IntechOpen. Any Work included is accepted in its entirety in unmodified form and is published with one or more other contributions, each constituting a separate and independent Work, but which together are assembled into a collective whole.
\n\nIntechOpen - Registered publisher with office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ - UNITED KINGDOM
\n\nIntechOpen platform - IntechOpen website www.intechopen.com whose main purpose is to host Monographs in the format of Book Chapters, Long Form Monographs, Compacts, Conference Proceedings and Videos.
\n\nVideo Lecture – an audiovisual recording of a lecture or a speech given by a Lecturer, recorded, edited, owned and published by IntechOpen.
\n\nTERMS
\n\nAll Works published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License, a license which allows for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
\n\nCopyright on the individual Works belongs to the specific Author, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen. The Creative Common license is granted to all others to:
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\n\nAll Works are published under the CC BY 3.0 license. However, please note that book Chapters may fall under a different CC license, depending on their publication date as indicated in the table below:
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LICENSE | \n\t\t\tUSED FROM - | \n\t\t\tUP TO - | \n\t\t
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Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t 5 October 2011 (2011-10-05) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCurrently | \n\t\t
The CC BY 3.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
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\n\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
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\n\nAll rights to Books and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
\n\nThe copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to separate copyright from those that exist in the included Works.
\n\nAll Long Form Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others.
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\n\nContent reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
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Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. 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