Major power outages worldwide (2010–2019).
\r\n\tCongenital hearing loss means hearing loss that is present at birth. I have managed children with hearing loss for many years, and the most touching thing is the light that blooms on the face while the hearing-impaired child heard his mother's voice at first time. The scene of "happy tears" impressed me so much. To hear the voice that has not been heard is so pleasant, as if this ordinary listening experience is a supreme listening enjoyment.
\r\n\r\n\tAge-related hearing loss means a progressive loss of ability to hear high frequencies with aging, also known as presbycusis. Among them are the influence of internal and external factors such as genes, drugs and noise exposure. The studies pointed out that the brain stimulation of the hearing-impaired person is greatly reduced compared with subjects with normal hearing. The connection of auditory cortex and other brain areas has declined a lot, which is probably one of the important causes of dementia or even depression in the elderly.
\r\n\r\n\tNoise-induced hearing loss is hearing impairment resulting from exposure to loud sound. There is actually continuous and endless noise in many workplaces, which may cause chronic and cumulative damage. Some young people often work hard but easily neglect to protect themselves. In addition, in recent years, entertainment noise (such as nightclubs, concerts, and personal listening devices) has caused hearing impairment in young people. These should be avoidable and preventable.
\r\n\r\n\tHearing Science is the study of impaired auditory perception, the technologies and other rehabilitation strategies for persons with hearing loss. Public health has been defined as "the science and art of preventing disease", improving quality of life through organized efforts. To avoid the “epidemic” of hearing loss, it is necessary to promote early screening, use hearing protection, and change public attitudes toward noise.
\r\n\r\n\tBased on these concepts, the book incorporates updated developments as well as future perspectives in the ever-expanding field of hearing loss. Besides, it is also a great reference for audiologists, otolaryngologists, neurologists, specialists in public health, basic and clinical researchers.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-678-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-677-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-679-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a4b7dbb02ba00e7412422cd5dbffa029",bookSignature:"Dr. Tang-Chuan Wang",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10529.jpg",keywords:"Hidden Hearing Loss, Plasticity, Electrophysiology, Otoacoustic Emission, Newborn Hearing Screening, Genetics, Aging, Hearing Aids, Noise Exposure, Occupational Hearing Loss, Epidemiology, Prevention",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 3rd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 1st 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 30th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 18th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 19th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"4 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Tang-Chuan Wang is an excellent otolaryngologist-head and neck surgeon in Taiwan; a research scholar of Harvard Medical School and University of Iowa Hospitals. He worked in the Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania, Boston Children's Hospital, and Massachusetts Eye and Ear. Due to his contribution to biomedical engineering, he was invited into the executive committee of HIWIN-CMU Joint R & D Center in Taiwan.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"201262",title:"Dr.",name:"Tang-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"tang-chuan-wang",fullName:"Tang-Chuan Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201262/images/system/201262.gif",biography:'Dr. Tang-Chuan Wang is an excellent otolaryngologist – head and neck surgeon in Taiwan. He is also a research scholar of Harvard Medical School and University of Iowa Hospitals. During his substantial experience, he worked in Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania, Boston Children\'s Hospital and Massachusetts Eye and Ear. Besides, he is not only working hard on clinical & basic medicine but also launching out into public health in Taiwan. In recent years, he devotes himself to innovation. He always says that "in theoretical or practical aspects, no innovation is a step backward". 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"72526",title:"Goat Immunity to Helminthes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91189",slug:"goat-immunity-to-helminthes",body:'Global estimates gathered over time show that goat population is getting bigger as in comparison to sheep numbers. It is estimated that approximately that both share a staggering number of 2.1 billion—over 1.7 billion (80%) resides within Africa and Asia continent [1, 2] and more than 90% of the goat population found in Asia and Africa (Figure 1). This increase in goat population is accomplished with its economic value as an efficient converters of low-quality feeds into high quality meat, dairy, and leather products [3, 4].
Growth of sheep and goat population in the last 20 years.
Goat hematology, especially, shares considerable attention since the last 1980s [5, 6]. Large number of discrepant normal hematologic values is reported. The discrepancies resulted came from differences in age group, breed, and health standing of goats [7]. This makes it further complex with variances in climate of the region, its environment and size and methodology applied. With time, many inconsistencies, reasonably standardization in normal caprine kinetics hematologic values are in place [8, 9, 10]. Talking of immune system, specific evidence on the goat immune system remains hard to get as compared to other animal species [11].
Both goats and sheep are infested by the same key digestive tract Helminthes (DTHs) diseases [12]. These parasites are enormously efficacious parasites that affect innate immune response globally around the world [13, 14]. Helminthes are exceedingly ubiquitous worm parasites that progressed to adopt with many erudite means to evade host immune system [15]. They incite pathological features resulting in huge economic losses. Till now most data on the host-parasite interactions are accumulated through ovine (sheep) studies [12, 16]. Helminthes in the abomasum and related area of host still remains as one of the major threats that is responsible for weight loss, anemia, reduced performance and production in goat [17, 18]. In contrast to cattle, many of Cestodes, Trematodes and Nematodes readily cause disease in goat as well as in sheep (Figure 2). Recently, some data also highlights differences in caprine and ovine species/strains, especially for nematodes [4, 19]. In goats, it is understood that they tend to accumulate parasites, which is assessed from constant monitoring of increasing number of eggs, keeping in view about seasonal differences in excretion [20]. Sheep acts in reverse [11]. In developed nations, the main magnitudes of these infections is reflected as spartan losses of production. Whereas in underdeveloped/developing countries it translates in more aggravate DTHs mortalities [11, 21].
Developmental stages of immune cells during Helminth infection.
After goat and sheep domestication, both independently settled down to different feeding habits. The sheep are grazers and prefer to take grass and broad-leafed plant. Goats, on the other hand, are classified as browsers or intermediate browsers. They can ingest substantial amounts of woody plants, vines and brush according to their liking [3]. These feeding habits could upshot to sources of DTHs infestation and with distinct strategies with major consequences to host-parasite relationships [4].
In the caprine evolutionary processes, adaptation to this high miscellany of plants, direct for three consequences to regulate parasitic populations. They include (i) subdued immune response, (ii) increased metabolism of xenobiotics and (iii) self-medication [4]. Recent literature, and documentation show that sheep is studied more to greater depth than to goats. However, generally both species share high degree of genetic and physical similarities [6, 19]. Small differences, however, do exist between the two, such as, goats cannot harbor Helicobacter pylori in its gastric lumen. This is in contrary to wide range of animals including sheep and cattle.
The method used in this chapter mostly focuses on literature already published or still in draft form. The thorough insight in to literature discussed put some light on the immune response in general and goat immune system in particular for the further areas to be addressed in future studies.
In goats, full immune response expression, seems to be delayed by 6 months i.e. 12 months versus 6 months in goat to sheep [22]. Immune differences in expression between the two hosts are also been documented [4, 23]. It is also assumed that goats tends to accumulate parasites more than sheep. Because of goats weak recognition, and expulsion systems, larval reduction and expulsion of larval or/and adult worms are rarely observed [11, 24]. DTH infections under ordinary circumstances could be reduced as a result in changes to; (i) helminthes resistance by developing an immune response (ii) infective contact especially by avoidance feeding pattern of goats; and (iii) self-medication as results of alleviating worm challenges [4].
In this modern era, helminth’s genomics and proteomics understanding tend to provide dependable evidences on presence of large number of immunomodulatory products. These are abridged in number of articles. We can group them in immunological phases;
initiation,
recognition of antigen and processing,
adaptive immune response,
cellular effector factor responses, and lastly,
coagulation, healing, or remodeling.
In each phase, parasite immunomodulators acts specific phase [14, 25]. Immune responses, against most DTHs, are initiated by vulnerability signals generated by initial indicator molecule. The pivotal role of pathogen- or damage-associated molecules patterns (PAMPs and DAMPs respectively) are recognized through receptors on myeloid cells [14]. These chemical identities are acknowledged directly to the physical presence of helminthes in goats’ gut [25]. The parasitic induction by DAMPs and PAMPs signals are presented in following figure [14].
Helminthes and some of its products, released by them, can damage the epithelial layer, resulting in the release of damage associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) and which ingresses in the intestine. DAMPs and pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) can be sensed by receptors that are present on dendritic cells (DCs) and macrophages (Mϕ) [14, 26]. The attachment signals are followed by activation, and antigen presentation to appropriate lymphoid cells [27, 28]. These extracytosolic signals, transmitted as cytokines, influence the central hub of innate lymphoid cells 2 (ILC 2) bundle that stimulates IL 25, IL 33, and thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP)—protein that enhances the maturation of myeloid (CD 11c) dendritic cells. The release of ILC 2 consequential provide signals to type 2 cytokines that amplifies immune type 2 reaction. This aids in the initiation and amplification of the type 2 immune response [29].
Since last a few years, new players have emerged in cell activation and sustaining an immune response to helminthes infection. The innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) bundles are collection of assorted population that are discovered recently. These collections does not initially express any specific antigen on receptors [30]. These lymphoid cells believed to orchestrate adaptive immune system, type-2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC 2), activities were able to demarcating ILC 2 functions, especially in helminth infection [31] (Figure 3).
Types of ILC and activation of ILC 2 and release of various interleukins [30, 31].
This all came into the picture, after the discovery, within the T- and B-cell-deficient mice. Functional analysis of ILC 2 and TH 2 cells showed that they share common roles. To secrete rapidly cytokines and in large quantities, these two group of cells coordinate and interact with each other directly [14]. The cells release cytokines (type-2) after spur from Alarmin—IL 25 axis [32, 33]. On the topic, many study reports on origin, differentiation, mobility, functionality, plasticity, and communication skills of these cells within the immune system [33]. The ILC family includes ILC 1, ILC 2 and ILC 3 [30]. These clusters originate from common innate lymphoid progenitors (CILPs). CILPs cells transform into differentiate into ILC precursors (ILCPs) [34, 35]. The system polarize into three different innate lymphoid cell populations; ILC 1 via expression of Tbx 21/T-bet [36, 37] that predominantly express IFN-γ The ILC 2 bundle is acted upon by GATA 3 and RORα factors. The RORα is an absolute requirement for the development of ILC 2 bundle which expresses IL 5 and IL 13 [27, 31]. Literature citations show that development of ILC 2 is rather primitive. Transcriptional programs define molecular characteristics of innate lymphoid cell classes and subsets [38]. The last but not least, ILC 3 differentiate with RORγt expression that provide stimulus by cytokine signals through IL 22 and/or IL 17 [33].
ILC 2 is considered as tissue-resident in the gut. On infection with helminthes, expansion occurs at the location of mucosal place [39]. ILC 2 s were first discovered in gastrointestinal (GI) nematode infection models. These bundle of cells modulate immune system at tissue mucosal sites; i.e. lung, small intestine, colon, and MLN. These cells are also present in the bone marrow, spleen, liver, kidney, and adipocyte tissue [38]. When parasites drive the immune reaction to produce goblet cell hyperplasia, mucus production, smooth muscle hypercontractility and ultimately worm expulsion [31] (Figure 4).
Cell signalling of transformation of Immune cells [40].
ILC 2 group, important in helminth infection, is further categorized into (i) natural and inflammatory (ii) cytokines responsive groups [41]. This classification is recently challenged by Germain and colleagues [42]. This model is further refined with tissue-resident lymphocytes across innate and adaptive ancestries with migratory capabilities [43].
Unlike T cells, ILC 2 bank on the activation on cytokines. ILC 2 bundle are a critical innate source of type 2 cytokines. As discussed above, helminth infections excite type-2 adaptive responses which results in a SOS on the immune evasion strategy [44]. This circumvention quality was identified over decades ago. Helminthes evolved to modulate their host’s immune responses also [43]. This down-regulation of immune response outcomes in asymptomatic animals that maintains the life cycle of the helminthes within them [45]. The transducer signals initiate secretion of moderate magnitudes of IL 5 and IL 13. In the second activation signal, IL 4, IL 9, granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF), and Amphiregulin (protein produced after stimulus by IL 33 on the tissue damage of intestine) are produced. These cytokines potently induce Mϕ migration inhibitory factor (MIF), rapid production of eosinophils [46]. ILC 2 clusters tend to be extremely receptive to Alarmins—host biomolecules that cause noninfectious inflammatory response [33, 46].
The TH 2 type immune responses comprises with three independent modules; inflammation, wound repair, and resistance to helminthes [47]. The TH type 2 specific immunity against helminthes are delimited by CD4 TH 2 cells that create signal transduction to produce interleukin (IL) 4, IL 5, IL 9, IL 10, IL 13, Immunoglobulin (Ig) E and chemokine ligand CCL 11 [48] (Figure 5).
Cell signaling of transformation of immune cells [49].
Helminthes, especially nematodes, developed numerous workings that restrain host to act on them. This provoke instigation to innate and adaptive regulatory cells, inflammatory cytokines and inhibitory antibodies [50]. One of studied example, is the chronic infection of H. polygyrus, which showed that there is very little expansion of ILC 2 pool in nearby mesenteric lymph nodes [51, 52]. Probable enlightenment on the issue showed that such infections validate with the release of host derived IL 1β which take a check on for the production of IL 25. This IL 25 acts in return on the ILC 2 cluster [27, 53]. ILC 2 cluster are identified by their expression of IL 2, IL 25, IL 33 and IL 33 receptor (IL 33R) with activation of p38 MAPK that phosphorylates GATA 3 [54]. These factors in return reduce the Ig E, as well as IL 4 and IL 5. They recruit, migrate and infiltrate with these activated eosinophils, basophils and mast cells [33].
The dendritic cells (DCs) are a heterogeneous population of immune cells that have specialized functions. All types of DCs are principally regulated by well conserved, various transcriptional factors. These cells are divided into conventional or classical DC (cDC) and the plasmacytoid DC (pDC) [55]. The plasmacytoid DC acquired function to intuiting the nucleic acids and in response producing large quantities of type 1Interferon (IFN) [40, 56]. The other, cDCs, tend to be more active in specialized work of antigen presentation, and later activation of primary T cells. Today, we can further subdivide cDC into murine CD8a/CD103 and CD11b cells [57]. Transcriptomic studies represent a powerful tool to determine the phylogenetic relationship between different cell types of the immune system, including DC [58]. Analysis between goats/murine and human DC subsets differentiating into MF from DC and classifying DC subsets [59]. Dendritic cells (DCs), in animals, in immune competent system accredited to helminthes infection as extensively reconnoitered in past. These infections tend to incline and persuade TH 2 type cells to respond effectively. However, this recognition of helminthes is not yet fully resolved or understood [60]. In the first set of cells are those which specializes in presentation of antigens to CD 8 T cells. These cells prompt to mucosal immunity through TH 1 cells. Whereas the other, murine CD 11b cells, cooperate with both CD 4 and CD 8 cells for its subset activation. These cells provoke specialized TH 17 cells through the stimulus of Interleukin (IL)—17 secretion [59]. The IL 17 activities setup all the framework for type-2 cytokines, and mesenteric lymphoid clusters activation [61]. These neo innate lymphocyte clusters, found confined to differing tissues, which is part and parcel of type 2 cytokines albeit to monikers as “nuocytes” or “natural helper cells” [62]. This stimulation geared up for the first response to the immune challenges caused by helminth infections [63].
Dendritic cells (DCs) subsets, which differentiated from ILC bundle, perform compounded roles in final outcome in the immune responses. In the gut, DCs handshake many exogenous antigenic pathogen to prevent infections [64]. The intestine DCs and amended Mϕ appears to be indispensable in the instigation of active immunity and homeostasis in the gut. These cells have unique ability to rove through the goats mesenteric lymph nodes (MLNs) to perform key start of naïve T cells priming for adaptive immune response [65]. These intestinal DCs and Mϕs within the lamina propria perform vital steps in the initiation, development and regulation of specific intestinal immunity [66]. Most naïve T cells mature up in peripheral lymphoid organs. These cells get expression activation through gut-associated lymphoid tissues (GALTs). In goats, Peyer’s patches and mesenteric lymph nodes (MLNs) act as hub of transformation of the CD 4 T and CD 8αβ T cells which in turn prime the antigen-presenting cells (APCs) [67]. The lymphoid associated organs attain the ability to transfer to intestinal area with specific gut homing molecule, integrin α4β7, by its upregulation and others [68].
In the small intestine, Lamina propria harbor large number of DCs. All of these intestinal DC subsets are well studied and documented. Of these both highly expressed CD11c and Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) class II cells are of real importance [69]. Phagocytic group of cells in Lamina propria comes from different lineage and perform diverse functions [70]. Relocation of these DCs tend to be tightly regulated by one gene product, CCR7. Expression levels of this gene largely control non-migratory and migratory scenarios [43, 71]. In payer patches, CD103, CD11b expressing and non-expressing DCs are well studied that induces lymphocytes [72]. Many T cell receptor (TLR) expressing DCs also induce the production of Immunoglobulin (Ig) A. On the other hand, pDCs can incite IgA directly and repress inflammatory processes [73].
Research studies on helminthes immune modulation system is more engrossed to find cytokine activation, release and mechanisms of cytokine-mediated effector functions. This all rely on the first immune recognition, probably PAMPs and DAMPs, and message of early immune response activation or even suppression. Later this signal is converted to sustained and regulatory immune response [14]. It is observed that in the early phase, limited inflammation occurs in the invading tissues which is overlooked by immunoregulatory milieu to evade, and survive [74]. One of the tool these invading parasites is are; (i) apoptotic processes against immune cells [75], (ii) manipulation of Pattern Recognition Receptors (PRRs), (iii) lowering of TH 1/TH 2 cells and (iv) associated cytokines activation [76]. Recently many goat helminthes shown to ubiquitous cog with the release of endocytologic extracellular vesicles (EV) on to cytoplasmic membrane in the intestinal Lamina propria. EVs are vesicles slashed out by different categories of cells which plays role in modulation of immune response to helminthic pathogenesis [77]. Depending on their sizes and origin, these are classified into three types; Microvesicles, Exosomes, and Apoptotic bodies. The exosomes range in size from 30 to 100 nm in diameter that are released by the cells. Microvesicles, however, also called ectosomes—shed 100–1000 nm vesicles or microparticles. Lastly apoptotic bodies are just 2–4 μm in size that are released by dying cells [78].
The chemical analysis of EVs revealed that they contain soluble proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates with immunomodulatory action [79]. Helminthes counter with a palette of protein modulators, from protease inhibitors to receptor ligands that target these pathways [14]. The list of these immunomodulatory molecules are increasing over the last decade [80]. Many parasites release exosome and/or microvesicles. These vesicles play a cornerstone to the downstream communication into the immune system [81]. These vesicles actively induce IL 33 which binds to IL 33R that pledges an allergic reaction. These EVs or exosomes also inhibits activates ILC 2 and eosinophils [77]. Recent investigation on EVs of H. polygyrus showed that they suppress receptor for the Alarmin—cytokine IL-33 in ILC 2 [74]. The internalization of EVs causes down regulation of IL 33 and type 1 and type 2 immune cytokines; IL 6 and TNF, and Ym1 and RELMa [81]. Several documents demonstrate that exosomes promote TH 2 slanting towards the activation of DCs and T cells during infection and vaccine development (Figure 6) [82]. Recently, evidences are brought forward to the notion that EVs are secreted by both the parasite and the host [80]. Interestingly, it is suggested that there helminth plagiaristic EVs structures could also be used in the inflammation regulation, especially in allergic, autoimmune, and metabolic disorders regulated by miRNA [83, 84]. Helminth immune modulation has some beneficial effects as allergies, and inflammatory and autoimmune diseases which are less common in populations infected with helminthes. A large body of literature provide reasonable evidences on mechanism of immunomodulation that arise from the helminth infections [85].
Types of dendritic cells.
In goats, a definite systematic immune regulations is contemporaneous placed in various world breeds of goats [25]. In sheep, explorative investigates lead us to draw near perfect immune mechanisms followed after the helminth infections and vaccination [86]. It is to remember that helminthes when infect goats, they are not recognize merely whole organism, rather it is a combination of small amino acid sequence derived from PAMPs and DAMPs attached to the cellular peptide-MHC (pMHC) within the groove of MHC molecule [87]. The bound peptide (8–11 amino acids for MHC I and 13–22 amino acid for MHC II) is presented to antigen-presenting cells (APC) through groove—exposed motif (GEM) [45]. The induction of systemic immune responses following parenteral immunization occurs in similar ways in many species including mice, humans, and small ruminants [88].
The development of effective mucosal immune responses by way of vaccination is considered important because mucosal immunity is able to prevent early establishment of the pathogen and hence could at least theoretically prevent infection at an earlier (less damaging) time point. Thus, vaccines targeting mucosal sites have been in development for a considerable amount of time [88]. The primary protective surface at mucosal sites is the secretion of mucus form gastrointestinal lining. Mucus is a dynamic multimolecular matrix built on polymeric, gel-forming glycoproteins (mucins), with different mucins dominating the barrier at different mucosal sites [89]. At mucosal sites, specialized epithelial cells such as goblet cells secrete gel forming mucins. Upon infection, these cells undergo hyperplasia and increase mucin production, which expands the secreted mucus barrier and provides protection against multiple pathogens [90, 91]. The formation of mucus layer also add on; (a) antimicrobial molecules (e.g., IgA, lysozyme, defensins), (b) immunomodulatory molecules (e.g., cytokines, secretoglobins), (c) repair molecules (e.g., trefoil proteins) [29]. In mice model, the mucin producing Muc 2 are major producer of gel like mucus formation that creates a barrier against contact to the lining in the gastrointestinal tract. This mechanism also provide in return helminthic worms modulating antigen and tolerance [92]. Off the subsets, Muc5ac cells are specifically upregulated after worm infection that also influences expulsion of worm [93, 94]. The sheep model in studying immune mechanisms, with special reference to mucosal immunity, by using nasal vaccines and delivery systems suggested specifically the distribution of the antigen with in the lymph nodes, processing, induction and drainage [88]. Innate lymphoid bundle cells (ILC 2) and TH 2, as discussed above, share common feature of secretion of IL 13 with differential kinetics for each type [29] (Figure 7).
Cell signaling network through mucosal immunity.
T cells as well B cells tend to form two major components within the adaptive immune system. The initial T cell development starts in the bone marrow from hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). The T cell predecessors pass through to the thymus, from where it gets acronym. The differentiation steps provide ultimately culminate into various mature T cell subsets. The whole process is summarized in Figure 1 [95]. T-cell development/maturation is very much dependent on their presence within the thymus. In mice, absence/removal of it generates severely impaired T cell development [96]. The differentiations and developments of, especially, T cells produces T cells, B cells, natural killer (NK) cells, or dendritic cells (DCs). However, further stoppage within the thymus, further differentiate into these subsets the maturation of these subsets i.e. B cell, NK cell, or DC differentiation occurs in bone marrow and fetal liver (Rich eBook).
In the formulation of immune response, Treg cells a produce homeostasis and secondly the autoimmune suppression. A growing body of evidence suggests that the Treg cell repertoire contains organ-specific/tissue specific Treg cells. Treg cell share specificities in lymph nodes throughout the body, suggesting that the anatomical distribution of Treg cells is shaped by the presentation of regional organ-specific antigens [97]. On the other hand, the Macrophages (Mϕ) show profound differences with various profiles. Under the influence of an alternative phenotype (also labeled M2 cells) which occurred by the presence of helminth infection. This is driven by type 2 cytokines IL 4 and IL 13 cytokines (Figure 3). Ongoing research divided these Mϕ by gene expression, metabolism, and function differences into classically activated (M1) macrophages. However, M2 macrophages are required in the effective immunity to some parasites (including H polygyrus) [15]. The DCs are professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs) that play an essential role in presenting antigen to T cells to initiate immune responses. Although the role of DCs in inducing TH 1, TH 17, and Treg responses is well established. Often overshadowed by their T-cell counterparts, regulatory B (Breg) cells are also crucially important in control of the immune response during helminth infection [15] (Figure 8).
Microenvironment in the Helminth infection.
These DCs can also patrol among enterocytes while extending dendrites towards the lumen [16]. Treg cell population by producing IL-10 to harness immune tolerance [98]. CX3CR1+ phagocytic cells can capture Salmonella by extending dendrites across epithelium in a CX3CR1-dependent manner [99]. Antigens captured by CX3CR1+ phagocytic cells can be transferred through gap junctions to CD103+ DCs in the lamina propria to establish oral tolerance [100]. In addition to luminal antigen, lamina propria CX3CR1+ cells facilitate the surveillance of circulatory antigens from blood vessels [73].
Almost all animals get gastrointestinal infection (GI) by helminthes in their lifetime. Though all parasite (Helminthes) species share a very similar general morphology and they undergo into four molts reforms during their development period [101]. Each of the species shares dioeciously life spans that could be weeks to years. These worms are investigated because they threaten animal as well to the human health [102]. Nearly all helminthes invade tissues and install an immunomodulatory surrounding for their survival especially taking care of Treg cells [103]. Recently cites articles suggest that both, worms and host, evolved to get reciprocal immune related benefits during the disorders with some clinical outcomes. Numerous studies suggest that immune response appears to be imprisoned that is even extended to expansion of Treg cells [103]. As a consequent a melioration of type 2 immune response that resulted in chronicity [103]. Many findings, however, chronic helminth infection are still poorly understood. These parasites are also important as a model where they create constant, foremost challenge to host immune system [101]. Many of aspects, especially regulation of chronic GI infection, remain to be defined. It is believed that during the evolutionary processes they exclusive adapted to such avoidance to host defenses [104]. These masterful adaptations enable them to remodulate host immune response [105]. It may well be the evolutionary mechanisms that exclusively down regulates early expansion of ILC 2. This is seen in Heligmosomoides polygyrus system where IL 1β shows to down regulate early ILC 2 responses in mice [106]. However, this is not true for another parasitic Trichuris muris infection where IL 1β null mice [107]. This depression in the levels of IL 1β provokes type 2 protective immune responses, and leads to worm expulsion [53]. The helminthes in the GI tract interact with the mucus layer and many a times pass through into the epithelial layer and reproduce at the site [108]. One of the interaction of worms to intestinal mucosal barrier and hyperplasia, secretion large mucin forming a layer. The mucus layer is a highly hydrated gel mucins. These are largely high molecular weight glycosylated glycoproteins secreted by goblet cells (GCs). The initial also interact with antimicrobial compounds, commensal metabolites and finally antibodies. Like in mouse as well as in humans, MUC 2 cells produces to mucus layer as predominantly part first line of innate immune response [109]. Mucin production is synchronized by many immune type 2 cytokines. As discussed above, IL 4 and IL 13, plays key role in proliferation and differentiation of these GCs [101]. As the intestinal infection ensues it initiates worm expulsion seen for many helminthes [110]. This expulsion is influenced by the presence of CD 4 TH 2 cells which are controlled by IL 13 secretion [27]. In the knock down mutant studies in mouse showed that MUC 2, regulated by IL 13, led to defective delay in worm expulsion [101]. The, above described, incitation of type 2 immunity releases IL 4, IL 5, IL 9 and IL 13. Several other immune and nonimmune cell activators also participates in the web of effector mechanisms that also sways to parasite expulsion [111]. The commencement of the immune response by TH 2 cell trails through ILC 2 and subsets of dendritic cells. The sensed and trigger signals, however, of PAMP and DAMP results in the activation of different subsets of ILC 2 bundle, dendritic cells, various types of T cell types, basophils and nonimmune intestinal epithelial cells (IEC) against intestinal helminthes. The heterogeneous intestinal epithelium contains seven different cells that can sense helminth invasion into the epithelial cells to initiate TH 2 cell mediated immunity [103].
Total serum protein in goats is in the range 6.75–7.53 g/dL [112, 113]. In the group of proteins, fibrinogen levels in goats fall between 0.1 and 0.4 g/dL, which are less compared to cows. In some instances hyperfibrinogenemia occurs with neutrophilia after inflammatory responses. In goats, however, maximum plasma fibrinogen levels are 1.1 g/dL during inflammation [114]. In the protein gamma globulins share considerably. In goat, there are three main immunoglobulins; Ig G, Ig A, and Ig M. In caprine, like in cattle and sheep, there are further two distinct IgG subclasses, IgG1 and IgG2 [115]. At the birth, IgG1 is present in the colostrum. Moreover, IgG2 is preferentially transported to mammary glands from serum as IgG1 share high affinity to IgG1 for Fc receptors on mammary epithelial cells [116]. The goat IgG1 is the subclass that is predominant circulating antibody which is produced in response to any infection which later isotopically switch to Ig E functions [117]. Locally generated IgG1 is also detected after arthritis encephalitis (CAE) virus infection in the synovial fluid [118]. Very few work has been done for caprine IgM concentrations and activities. All the ruminant species observe little structural and functional differences [119]. Caprine IgA, on the other hand, is detectable from serum, colostrum, milk, saliva, and urine. IgA is the primary immunoglobulin present in mucosal surfaces. The secretory element to IgA could be found in either free-state or bound to IgA molecule. The serum very small amount of IgA is linked to secretory component [120]. Goat mucosal immune system produces sIgA by antibody producing cells differentiated from activated B cells. Immunoglobulin class switch do occur from IgA in gut-associated lymphoid (GAL) in Peyer’s patches, MLNs, and ILFs within the lamina propria [28, 121]. The humoral immunoglobulin isotype switch occurs through intestinal pDCs, T cell-independent manner and B cell-activating factors (BAFFs) and A proliferation-inducing ligand (APRIL) proliferation inducing ligand [73]. Like in all ruminants, including goats, IgE typically associated to its biologic activities. Today IgE is accepted as useful marker in identifying different phases of parasites and parasite resistance. Nucleic acid sequencing in caprine IgE DNA is part of the overall effort [110, 122]. Goat’s complement system is provided with limited concentrations [123]. Dynamic studies showed that in less than 6 month old young and adult indicate significant hemolytic, conglutinating, and bactericidal complement activities [124] (Figure 9).
miRNA regulation of immune response against Helminth infection.
Recent literature cites of the immune cells that are communicated through from one cell to other by transferring regulatory RNAs, microRNAs in particular. Many studies pin point that some sort of functional, regulatory extracellular RNAs plays a key role in cell-to-cell communication in various cellular processes [125]. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are group of short RNA non coding sequences that are highly conserved between different eukaryotic species [126]. These are ~19–28 nucleotides long sequences that regulate(s) gene expression [127, 128]. miRNAs are particularly important in the cellular function that show time dependent responses [129]. miRNA literature show that they partake a mesmerizing role in both immune system and as an immune system [130]. These small RNAs lead to vertebrates transcriptional silences like a rheostat that act to fine tune (rather than complete shut-off) of translational products. The miRNA targeting could result in 3-fold decrease of mRNA transcripts [131]. In many studies, till now, more than 60% miRNA expression profiles are developed and tested in variety of tissues from livestock. These profiling post transcriptional regulate gene expression in several cellular processes such as differentiation, and transformation processes in cell cycle through signal transduction [127, 132]. miRNA molecules could broadly act as regulators on shorter time scale on protein transcriptional repressors that effect inflammation. They can also show quicker results without engaging translational or translocational machinery within the nucleus and controlling regulators. One example to this is the miR 155 regulation [129, 133]. Together with these options opens up many avenues that provide novel and exciting products in therapeutic as well as in clinical use, specifically for immunity and inflammation Today miRNA functionality can be dissected in leukocyte differentiation, innate signaling, and TH cell biology [132]. In-silico studies using various tools on miRNAs on computation or experiments gathered about 35 Helminthes (11 Trematodes, 8 Cestodes, and 16 Nematodes, and two plant origin parasitic Nematodes). These analysis show that greater than 620 plus pre-miRNAs that are listed in miRBase of parasitic origin. Interestingly, the first miRNA was discovered in C. elegans, a nematode [133]. All known parasite miRNA database entries are analogous to miR database. The emerging, neglected disease of Schistosoma, a trematode, is one of the iRNA models in the whole family [134]. The miR database showed that there are 79 and 225 mature miRNAs associated to S. japonicum and S. mansoni respectively. These findings indicates that not only large number of variations do occur within the helminthes, but male and female worms also show differences. This also give insight to the role in morphogenesis, development and reproduction [135]. A similar picture arises from Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) and bioinformatic analysis and experimentation with stem-loop qRT-PCR identifies 13 species specific miRs in two species Fasciola hepatica and F. gigantica [134]. Studies on infection, more than 130 miRNA (analogy to other parasitic miRNA), are seen to flocculate in expression profile [135, 136]. It is shown at many instances that miR 155, miR 223, miR 146 are negative, suppressors of cytokine in a regulatory loop. In other studies, miR 155 is also interactive to transcriptional factor cMaf and tempers with TH 2 within the CD 4 group. In another analogy to a mouse model, same miRNA 34c, miR, miR199, miR 134, miR 223, and miR 214 are shown to effect 220 miRNA parasitic immune response silhouette [133, 137]. The powerful approaches of bioinformatics extrapolations along with stem-loop real-time PCR analysis on the C. sinensis showed that there are a total of 62,512 conserved miRNA sequences which includes six novel identified miRNA [138]. Pak and coworkers [135] demonstrated that there is an upregulation miR 16-2, miR 93, miR 95, miR 153, miR195, miR 199a-3p, and silences with miR let7a, let 7i, and miR 124a in the presence of EVs of C. sinensis [133, 139].
As a critical role of miRNA post transcriptional regulation in transformation within immune cells show that these tiny molecules can reduce the expression of various genes by 3 orders of magnitude during maturation [140]. Studies showed that different miRNAs are involved in the thymocytes development by Dicer or Drosha knockouts experiments. Obstruction in the process consequential drop of mature Tαβ and natural killer T (NKT) cells [141]. In animals’ helminthic studies, absence or presence of miR 155, showed that it can effect TH 2 differentiation involving apoptotic processes [131]. miRNA machinery knockout experiments demonstrate that some of the miRNA are of absolute requirement for Thymic development and peripheral function of nTreg cells. However, dicer knockout of Fox P3 cells consequences to nTreg cells without oppressive role. Treg cells can also transform into T follicular helper cells that resulted in loss of immunomodulation and B cell activation in this scenario miR 155 is a regulator of nTreg cells. It should be remembered that miR 155 is expressed in all adaptive immune cells [142]. The expression and formation of active miR 181a is found to be tightly regulated intrathymic T cell development. The activities modulates the T cell antigen receptor (TCR) retort the down regulation through phosphatases which plays pivotal role in reducing TCR cell signaling. Thus the activities of miR 181a acts to modulates of TCR sensitivity towards T cell development in the lymphoid organ [131]. Blockage with antagomir (oligonucleotide) to miR 126 reduces the differentiation of TH 2 which are linked to helminthic pathogenesis during innate immune system activation. During this impasse, TH 17 cells regulate another miR 326 within their reach by up regulation [143]. These cells are differentiated and regulated by cytokine IL 23 [144]. It is shown that miR 17 polarizes then TH 2 cells, required in type 2 immune response to helminthes infection [141]. Mature TH cells are further influenced by miR 182 in response to IL 2 cytokine synthesis. This regulation is post transcriptionally controlled with transcriptional factor Foxo 1 [145]. The ILC 2 bundle of cells are differentiated by GATA 3 factor, as discussed above. This transcriptional factor induces TH 2 differentiation and produces larger quantities of IL 4, IL-5, and IL-10 in vivo and IL 13 [31, 141]. It is documented that miR 126 regulation effects TH 2 polarization. In mice, an activator of transcription is targeted through POU 2F3. Furthermore, PU-1 significantly inhibits specific binding GATA 3 factor. Another molecule of interest is miR 126 where in vivo studies proved that it reduces TH 2 cells to specifically allergy promoting dust mite antigens [146]. miRNA machinery knockout experiments demonstrate that some of the miRNA are of absolute requirement for thymic development and peripheral function of nTreg cells. However, dicer knockout of Fox P3 cells consequence to nTreg cells but without oppressive role. Treg cells can also transform into T follicular helper cells that resulted in loss of immunomodulation and B cell activation in this scenario miR 155 is a regulator of nTreg cells. The suppressive part of miRNAs by the Treg cells can act on two points; (i) Treg regulating themselves, (ii) modified response of target cells on Treg cells [147].
Like T cell lineage, B cells also are tangled up with various miRNA classes that regulate their differentiation and development within the bone marrow. The miR 181 overexpression in hematopoietic bone marrow increase in the fraction of B cell subtypes. Similarly miR 150 effect the B cell development at pro- and pre-B cell transformation due the apoptosis. Knockdown miR 155 mice reveals skewed CD 4 T cell polarization in the TH 2 subset [141]. B cell studies show that two miRNA, miR 155-5p and miR 155-3p, are expressed solely in these cells [148]. These miRNAs are positioned in Integration Cluster gene (BIC) area that positively prompt to various stimuli within the immune system [149]. Germline studies on miR-155 showed that its deletion induces reduction of B cell germinal centers [131, 150]. In mice, upregulation of miR 34a in the progenitor cells are acknowledged. Constitutively miR 34a expressed in B cell studies conclude that it block differentiation of pro-B to its next stage of pro-B cell and to mature B cell. The disparity occurs through Foxp 1 [148, 150]. Number of expression profile studies show that dysregulation is found for miR 182, miR 96, miR 183, miR 31 and miR 155 that effects B- and T-cells. Recent finding on miR 150, miR 127 and miR 379 also showed that there upregulation effects splenic maturation processes. The miR 150 levels are predominantly present in both B-cells and T-cells not on to their progenitors. On the other hand, miR 15 activities that it correlates to autoantibody production [150]. Another regulator The miR 17, encode several miRNAs from same transcript, also show that it negatively influences on pro- and pre-B transition through a blockage of BIM accumulation [131, 150]. Another protein, BMI 1—a ring finger structure, also promotes differentiation of TH 2 in a mouse model that in return stabilizes GATA 3 protein for transcription by protecting it from ubiquitination [141].
Numerous citations show that cell cycle of T cells are directly regulated by miRNAs profile. The regulation is associated cell cycle check points through Cyclin T1 levels in Mϕ. It is documented that miR 182, as shown above, functions on expression of generalized transcriptional regulator, FoxO 1. This control regulates CD 4 T cell expansion with Cdk inhibitor, p27Kip1. Negative feedback on FoxO 1 is accomplish by miR 182. These signals activate IL 2. This induction results in TH 1, TH 2, TH 17 and naïve CD 4 cells expansion. Studies in vitro and in vivo showed that in a feedback loop, down regulation of miR 182 results in stoppage of spreading out of CD 4 cells [127, 141]. The nearly all vertebrates, immune system evolved itself to a finely fine-tune, an extraordinarily flexible apparatus within the host defense [125]. Besides direct role of various miRNAs, indirect regulation is also well in place in immune system. This is seen for miR 19a, miR 19b in the miR 17 cluster. These two sequence encode deubiquitylation enzyme, CYC D, which blocks NF-κB activities. Its expression results in Cyclin and other growth factors. In a recent documentation that there is a universal reduction of CD 4 T cells which is one of the hallmark of helminthes infection [141, 151].
Global data on parasitic helminthes speaks loudly of the livestock diseases that affect many area of the world, including Europe. Their infections are related to huge economic losses in loss of fertility, production and body weight [152]. Cumulative responsible statistics show that more than 55% of livestock suffer from these infections outcome. It causes diseases in Europe and cause highly significant losses in productivity and welfare in animals and then in humans and welfare problems globally. Yearly estimates show that in liver fluke (Fasciola hepatica) infections up to US $3 billion per annum are lost [153]. Conservative estimates in the United Kingdom show that gastrointestinal (GI) helminthic infections to sheep industry shares losses of more than £84 million per annum [154]. These infections are traditionally controlled by administration of various anthelmintic drugs [155]. Naïve practice resulted in development of resistance to these medicines. Recent documentations for sheep farming, particularly in New Zealand, Australia and Brazil, showed that Multi Drug resistance (MDR) is much elaborative phenomenon worldwide and have upward trend [156]. Development of these vaccines started some 50 years ago. Most helminth component formulating and their administration showed that they effectively interrupt the dynamic morphological and antigenic changes during parasites life cycle of the worms and can be used as controlling tool [157]. Many helminthes share much sophisticated evasive immune mechanism that is discussed already in detail. This quality of worms make them very hard for scientists to move forward to develop efficient vaccine candidates [158]. Many efforts to develop anthelminthic vaccines in livestock started many years back with limited success [159]. As discussed in detail above, elusive behavior of worms does not provide adequate long-lasting protection at all stages of helminthic maturation [160]. Vaccines provide manifold benefits on improving animal health, welfare and control of animal infection. The use of vaccine also addresses resistance to acaricides, antibiotics and anthelminthic medicinal solutions [158].
At present, there tend to be two strategies to effectively develop vaccine; (i) attenuated and (ii) hidden antigen [159].
These vaccines are developed and used after irradiating L3 larval stage that prevents development of mature adult worms. This protection could reach up to 98% in vitro with two experimental doses. Attenuated larval Dictyocaulus filaria (sheep lungworm) name “DIFIL” for Dictyocaulus filaria larva is effectively used in India since 1981 [160]. A similar approaches are used to develop other vaccines.
Helminthic recombinant integral membrane proteins, part of worm gut, that whenever used provoke high degree of immune recognition and type 1 and type 2 immune responses [158]. In these vaccines enhanced innate and adaptive models suggests logical targeting of TH 2 cells through type 2 arm of immune response. These types will be future vaccines against the helminthes infections [161].
The extracellular vesicles (EVs) of various helminthes are heterogeneous type of membrane vesicles that are on the loose by different types of infecting organism. The EVs, as described in detail above, contain complex mixture of transcriptomic messages [162] for proteins, lipids, galectins and glycans [163, 164]. EVs are of three categories divided on cell of origin, molecular contents, function, physical characteristics, specific protein markers, and isolation techniques [165]. The immunomodulatory effects of excretory secretory molecules and EVs influences both parasite worm as well as in the host [74]. Studies on these molecules show that this unresolved issue of the formation, packaging, cargo transportation, nature and mechanism of interaction, functional spectrum, docking of molecules and fusion [82, 166]. Efficacious helminth vaccines are developed seldomly with wide contrasting technologies [152]. Following early immunization experiments on sheep showed there is a wide variety of concoctions processes that releases various antigens that act as vaccine formulation [167]. These crude methods of administration provided induced partial protective immunity. One example of H11 protein of Haemonchus contortus antigenicity show differential activity of native and recombinant proteins [152]. New vision on the helminth control is formulated to bring new infusion of technology in the helminth research by 2030. The sustainable goals includes; (i) advancement in global diagnostic tools, (ii) innovative vaccine control and breeding methodologies, (iii) anthelmintic with new compounds, (iv) rationalization in integrated future control [168]. Today very few vaccines of helminthic worms are available in veterinary stores. These include nematodes vaccines for cattle lungworm (Dictyocaulus viviparus) vaccine (Bovilis® Huskvac, MSD Animal Health), vaccine against the barber’s pole worm (Haemonchus contortus) in sheep (Barbervax®, Wormvax Australia Pty Ltd.). Scientists are working hard to develop (experimental phase) vaccines against several helminthes species including; Teladorsagia circumcincta in sheep, Ostertagia ostertagi and Cooperia oncophora in cattle, and Fasciola hepatica in ruminants. If these promising trials yield fruitful, wider range helminthes vaccines with be shelved in in the future [169]. In Cestodes, two recombinant vaccines are available for Echinococcus granulosus in ruminants (Providean HidatilEG95®, Tecnovax) and for Taenia solium in pigs (Cysvax®) are marketed. Rapid progress in the domain of proteomics and glycomics, it seems that in near future more and more synthetic vaccines will be solved by 2030.
Presence of double edged sword with poor immunogenicity and evasion phenomenon produced by the worms. Large number of immunomodulatory supplemental molecules, known as Adjuvants, are tried to enhance antigenic processing, recognition, antigen presentation (APC) and immune cell activation through the PAMPs and DAMPs presence. These supplemental material scan be divided into two classes: (i) adjuvants that facilitates vaccine delivery through Liposomes, nanogels, oil-in-water emulsions and (ii) virosomes that stimulates the immune system that includes molecules binding to intracellular receptors including Toll-like receptors (TLRs), Nod-like receptors, and RIG-I–like receptors and to cytosolic DNA sensors [170].
The proteins of the human microbiome, especially the gastrointestinal microbiome, the human proteome, and the immunoglobulin repertoire are also continually processed by APCs and presented to T cells [62, 63]. In examining the immunoglobulinome, it emerged that there is a frequency hierarchy of TCEM. This includes, at one extreme, common motifs found in most immunoglobulin variable regions. These are not limited to motifs encoded by the germline but also include motifs produced by somatic mutation. At the other extreme, very rare motifs are encountered only once in several million B-cell clones [171].
The various kinds of parasitic diseases (GIT or hemo-parasites) mean continuous threat for goats and goat keepers in all over the world for goat Industry. The helminthiasis in caprine is one the prime problem for goat breeders and sheep breeders in the goat and sheep rearing community and countries. These parasites not only pose a problem to goat(s) but a continuous threat for serious damage to their lives causing weakened immune response, less resistance and a great chance for various kinds of parasites not only to harbor in the body of host (goat) but also find a safe place to multiply and reproduce. In parallel to these immune responses in body there is ever increasing demand of using and developing various anthelmintics and vermifuges to curb the ever increasing list of parasites. So the animal immunity or production of resistance either in form of breeds development or discovery of innovative broad spectrum medication or production of vaccines has always been in focus since old and have got a big importance. The immunity in body of host (goat and sheep) plays a very decisive role regarding the selection process against the specific parasites prevalent in the area or on the animal health and on the use of medication. There are or could be several factors in the background of immunity in the body of goat which has been demonstrated by various figures present in the test to understand the mechanism(s) happening in the body in real time. We as authors tried best to demonstrate the up dated knowledge in the chapter for the better understanding of viewers or scientists working or intending to work on very sensitive issue of immunity in the body of animal or goat.
Due to the climate change, the high-impact low-probability extreme weather events, such as hurricane, flood and ice storm, become more frequent and drastic in recent years, which lead to an enormous and irreversible damage to the people’s daily life and the economy activity. One non-negligible damage caused by the natural disasters is the widespread power system outage since electric power provides the foundational support for all industry, from the manufacture production to the lifeline energy warranty. Thus, the outage avoidance and fast recovery from the outage are the key factors for the power systems.
\nThe ability of the power systems to cope with the natural disasters is usually seen as the power grid resilience. Since the uncertain characteristics of a disaster and the complexity of the power systems, the resilience enhancement measures should be taken into account. Targeting the emission reduction of the transformation system on the road network, the electric vehicles (EVs), including battery electric vehicle, hybrid electric vehicle and plug-in electric vehicle, are gaining the worldwide attention increasingly. There is a revolutionary opportunity in improving resilience of power systems during the disaster provided by the EVs, due to the abilities of high electric capacity, mobility, and bidirectional charging of EVs.
\nThus, this paper mainly makes a comprehensive review of the impacts of natural disasters to the power systems, the resilience improvement strategies, especially with consideration of the high increasing penetration of EVs. The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: In Section 2, the introduction of the high-impact low-probability natural disasters and the different impacts to power systems of corresponding natural disasters are given. Then, the definition of resilience and enhancement strategies for power grid, including hardening measures and operation actions are explored in Section 3. Section 4 shows the electric vehicles with characteristics of mobility and bidirectional charging and the utilization methods to improve power grid resilience performance in pre-disaster and post-disaster. Finally, the conclusion of this paper and challenge for future work are given in Section 5.
\nAs the most basic and principal energy sources in the modern society, electric power plays an important role in promoting the development of social economic and improving the quality of people’s life. A possible power outage can not only affect people’s daily life and cause immeasurable losses of social economic, but also may lead to the breakdown of critical infrastructures, such as communication networks, police stations and hospitals, which provide essential services for the disaster relief.
\nNatural disasters can cause devastating damage to the modern society’s infrastructures especially to the electric power system, with their main characteristics of unpredictable, large-scale and inevitable. Although the double circuit configuration for important circuits, automation equipment of distribution network, and a series of protection systems were adopted to improve the reliability of modern electric power system, the power system is still vulnerable to natural disasters. In recent decades, there were a number of large-scale power outages around the world due to the damage of the power system infrastructure caused by the high-impact low-probability natural disasters including hurricane, earthquake, tsunami and floods.
\nThere has been numerous research on the analysis of damage to power system components or other infrastructures which are interdependent with power grids (e.g., transportation, telecommunications), due to natural disasters. It can be confirmed that the vulnerability of power system components to different types of natural disasters is not identical. Thus, the discussion of specific examples about the characteristics of damage to power system components caused by different types of natural disasters will be conducted below.
\nCompared with other natural disasters, substation equipment, which located in a low-lying area is more vulnerable to flood damage. Abi-Sarma and Henry [1] studied the impact of the flood on power substations, which occurred in the Mississippi River basin of the Midwestern US in the summer of 1993 and caused about 10–15 billion of dollars of property damage. Of Union Electric’s (UE, now known as AmerenUE) 1300 stations, there were 19 substations affected by rushing waters and several suffered severely damage. Figure 1 shows the flooded substations during the 1993 flood at UE. They indicated that the flooded substations were affected very differently from those affected by other natural disasters, due to some electric equipment especially power circuit breakers and low-voltage control cabinets were easily affected by even tiny amounts of water and mud, which rendered it unable to function normally. In addition, restoring flooded substations required longer time and considerable manpower than restoring a downed power line damaged by ice or wind.
\nFlooded substations during the 1993 flood at UE.
The impact of hurricane on power system is mainly reflected in the damage to transmission/distribution system and telecommunications. On August 29, 2005, Hurricane Katrina struck the United States Gulf Coast, generating an intense storm surge. Reed et al. [2] focused on the resilience of the electric power delivery systems after the Hurricane Katrina and investigated the correlations between power outage data and weather parameters such as wind speed, rainfall and storm surges. They counted that over 20,000 utility poles, 4000 transformer and 1300 transmission structures were destroyed directly by storm surge in the states of Alabama, Louisiana and Mississippi. Figure 2 shows the damage to grid by Hurricane Katrina near Pt. A La Hache, LA. Kwasinski et al. [3] studied the impact of Hurricane Katrina on the telecommunications power infrastructure including damage in wire-line and wireless networks. Their analysis showed that widespread telecommunications outages were mainly due to power shortages caused by fuel delivery disruptions, flooding and security issues. In addition, the damage to the electric grid was also extensive and severe, especially in the areas affected by the storm surge. The breakdown of above infrastructure has directly hampered the operations of disaster relief, and prevented people living in the hardest hit areas from appealing for assistance.
\nDamage to the electric distribution grid near Pt. A La Hache, LA.
As a special meteorological disaster, ice storm has greatly affected the safe operation of many overhead lines worldwide. Zhang et al. [4] reviewed the procedure of the severe ice storm which took place in southern China in 2008, studied the process of the power gird hit by ice storm and the power restoration, and also summarized emergency strategies and the lesson from this natural disaster. They found that significant ice accumulated on overhead power lines and transmission towers, which led to broken power lines and collapsed towers. Xie and Zhu [5] provided detailed data about the impact of ice storms on Chinese power system. According to the State Grid Corporation of China, there were at least 36,740 transmission lines, 5420 transmission towers, and 2018 transformers damaged, and at least 1841 towers needed to be repaired. Figure 3 shows the transmission tower collapse caused by ice accumulation in 2008.
\nTransmission tower collapse caused by ice accumulation.
Furthermore, the damage to modern power systems by earthquake has historically been enormous. Fujisaki et al. [6] discussed the observations of earthquake aftermath in Japan, New Zealand, US, Chile, China, and Haiti, and focused on high-voltage electric substation equipment and transmission lines in US, China, and Haiti. They indicated that the main reasons for the disruption of the power grid were the collapse of the transmission tower, the damage of transformers, circuit breakers and other high voltage equipment, and the local damage of broken poles and broken-down village transformers. And buried electric transmission and distribution cables may be vulnerable to liquefaction induced ground displacement in a number of earthquakes. Unquestionably, the damage of earthquake on the power system infrastructures was extensive and severe, and the damage to the telecommunication network was also devastating. During the Wenchuan Earthquake in 2008, cellular service was disrupted for more than 60 days in some parts of the earthquake-affected region [7]. Figure 4 shows the damage to equipment in the Ertaishan switchyard after Wenchuan Earthquake. In the Tohoku Earthquake in 2011, due to earthquake and massive tsunami, 18 telecom buildings were totally collapsed, 23 telecom buildings were submerged, 65,000 telecom poles were washed over or damaged and 90 relay transmission routes were cut-off [8].
\nDamage to equipment in the Ertaishan switchyard.
Over the last two decades, under the influence of climate change, many countries and regions have abnormal weather conditions, with extreme weather events more frequent and harmful. And extreme weather events may increase the possibility that modern electric power systems are disrupted terrifically. For example, Typhoon No. 15 landed near Chiba, Japan on September 9, 2019, and led to a power outage in about 935,000 households in the Kanto region. It was reported from Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO) that the large-scale power outage was caused by the blown down of two transmission towers in Kimitsu City, and the damage of about 2000 electric poles in various places. Table 1 shows the major power outages caused by extreme weather events around the world from 2010 to 2019.
\nDate | \nExtreme weather event | \nNumber of customers without power | \nLocation | \n
---|---|---|---|
March 2010 | \nRainstorm | \n>10,0000 | \nWest Australia | \n
March 2011 | \nTohoku Earthquake, Tsunami | \n8900,000 households | \nEast Japan | \n
October 2012 | \nHurricane Sandy | \n8100,000 | \nUnited states | \n
March 2013 | \nHeavy snow | \n200,000 | \nNorthern Ireland | \n
December 2013 | \nIce Storm | \n~300,000 | \nCanada | \n
July 2014 | \nTyphoon Rammasun | \n13,000,000 | \nPhilippine | \n
November 2015 | \nWindstorm | \n700,00 | \nCanada | \n
September 2016 | \nThe Blyth Tornado | \n1700,000 | \nSouth Australia | \n
July 2018 | \nRainstorm | \n>180,000 households | \nWest Japan | \n
September 2019 | \nTyphoon No.15 | \n935,000 households | \nEast Japan | \n
Major power outages worldwide (2010–2019).
Therefore, it is essential for the power system to recover rapidly from the damage caused by the high-impact low-probability natural disasters including extreme weather events, due to continuous power supply being a prerequisite for the operation of other social infrastructures. Based on this background, the concepts of resilience and resilient power grids were proposed, and the research and construction of the resilient power system has gradually become a national strategy for the governments of various countries to focus on.
\nThe definition of resilience was presented by the National Infrastructure Advisory Council (NIAC) in 2010, which offered a broader definition for infrastructure resilience that the ability to mitigate the magnitude and/or duration of low-frequency high-effect events. The effectiveness of a resilient infrastructure depends upon its ability to anticipate, absorb, adapt to, and/or rapidly recover from a potentially disruptive event [9]. The Multidisciplinary Center for Earthquake Engineering Research (MCEER) presented a conceptual framework to define resilience, which can be useful to determine the resiliency of different systems in future research, with four main features: robustness, redundancy, resourcefulness, and rapidity [10].
\nThe NIAC resilience definition was acknowledged by the North American Electric Reliability Corporation to be used in power systems [11]. Therefore, combining the definition mentioned above, a resilient grid can be described as a grid with four basic properties of resilience, which is the anticipation, absorption, recovery and adaptability after the destructive events [12]. Anticipation is the ability to avoid any potential damage due to natural disasters; absorption is the power grid’s ability to minimize the damage caused by natural disasters; recovery refers to the ability of power grid to rebuild functions damaged by natural disasters; adaptability is the process by which a system learns from the past events, to improve its capabilities, and to prepare for the next event [12].
\nIn this subsection, the hardening measure and operational actions for resilience enhancement will be reviewed.
\nVegetation management.
\nDuring a storm or strong wind event, trees touching or damaging transmission/distribution lines and poles are the most common cause of many power outages. Most and Weissman [13] proposed a range of solutions for vegetation management, including pruning/trimming trees around the transmission and distribution lines and replacing potentially problematic trees with species more appropriate for the location. They suggested revising municipal tree ordinances to define tall-growing trees planted under powerlines as “nuisance trees”. In addition, Zahodiakin [14] recommended the utilization of Geographic Information System (GIS), sonic scanning and LIDAR (Light Imaging, Detection, and Ranging), to record pole locations, remove targeted trees, determine which trees are most likely to collapse in a storm, and measure the height of tree canopies to assess risks of trees falling into power line corridors.
\nSelective undergrounding.
\nThe strategy of moving transmission and distribution lines underground can effectively reduce the vulnerability to damage of vegetation, wind, animals, lightning, vandalism, and other natural disasters. However, the extensive use of this measures has been limited by the costs, because it is three times higher for underground systems than that for overhead systems. For instance, in urban areas, underground lines cost an average of $559,293 per line mile, while overhead lines cost an average of $196,628 per line mile [15]. Moreover, the complexity of these underground systems and the difficulty of directly observing damaged lines may increase their restoration time. Therefore, after appropriate risk and cost/benefit analysis, targeted or selective undergrounding of overhead lines may be more feasible than a total conversion, which provides benefits for both damage reduction and costs [16].
\nUpgrade infrastructure of power system.
\nUpgrading power grid components with stronger materials aims to increase the resilience of power grid in the high-impact low-probability natural disasters. Xu et al. [17] proposed a straightforward way that reinforcing utility poles and overhead distribution lines with stronger materials to improve the ability of distribution systems to ride through high-intensity winds, heavy ice storms and other extreme weather events. They also emphasized the importance of identifying and reinforcing vulnerable components for power sources to access critical loads during extreme events. Furthermore, for new distribution systems, using stronger poles for the entire system could reduce life-cycle costs in all cases. Relatively, for older systems, targeted hardening is more economical and effective than hardening the entire system [18].
\nElevated substation and water barrier.
\nAs mentioned earlier, the substation located in a low-lying area is more vulnerable to floods caused by natural disasters. Thus, elevating the substation above the flood levels could help provide protection against flood damage and maintain the normal substation operation. Boggess et al. [19] proposed to modularize substation equipment and install it on elevated foundation plates, platforms or stilts to help mitigate flood damage and avoid external impacts such as weather, contamination and wildlife. They indicated that elevating transmission substations with indoor GIS (gas-insulated switchgear) has proven to be an excellent solution to improve reliability and security of power grid, as well as life-cycle costs, especially in coastal areas. In addition, it is possible to install a permanent barrier at the side or sides of the substation most vulnerable to flooding, for existing substations [1].
\nRelocating facilities and rerouting transmission lines.
\nRelocating facilities, or rerouting transmission and distribution lines to low hazard areas also a practicable ways to reduce the negative impact of floods, storms and other extreme weather events on power systems. Considering the cost of relocating facilities and rerouting lines, a long-term cost–benefit analysis is necessary to determine the convenience of substation relocation or lines rerouting [16].
\nEmergency mobile substation
\nAs reported by [1, 20], providing portable and mobile generators or substations to power supply in disaster-affected areas is one of the traditional emergency strategies of power supply. Mobile substation, composed of power transformer, switchgear and temporary control panel, has the advantages of convenient transportation, perfect equipment and reliable operation. The use of this equipment can quickly replace the damaged substation to maintain power supply in emergency situations such as natural disasters and sudden equipment accidents, especially for remote but critical loads. And the operation of mobile substation in high load season can overcome the shortage of power supply capacity in some areas. Meanwhile, mobile substations can be flexibly used in the field, mountain areas, and other suitable locations where an extreme weather event is forecasted, due to the ease of moving and installing.
\nNatural-disaster-based grid predicting and monitoring system
\nPower systems are highly sensitive and demanding to meteorology, which lead to the production, construction and operation of power systems are greatly affected by meteorological factors. During natural disasters, through gathering the actual and real-time information to effectively predict and monitor potential damage to power grid components by disaster, is an important measure to minimize damage and improve power grid resilience. In [21], a machine learning based prediction method, using historical data of extreme weather events and damages of the grid, were proposed to determine the potential outage of power grid components in response to an imminent hurricane. Such machine learning-based algorithms can be applied to several power grid related problems such as security assessment, risk analysis, distributed fault identification and power outage duration prediction [22, 23, 24, 25]. Furthermore, considering the condition of possibly damaged communication channels by natural disaster, a proposal of using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) to support Airborne Damage Assessment Module (ADAM) was presented in [26]. By using this method, on the one hand, it is possible to survey the disaster area to retrieve real-time data about the power poles and lines, and to determine the shortest possible route for the dispatch of repair personnel based on the information provided. On the other hand, the drones can reach areas that are inaccessible to other vehicles, especially when roads are blocked.
\nSpare part and repair crew management
\nDuring natural disaster, the availability of spare parts is critical to reducing the recovery time of power systems, due to requiring a lot of spare parts for the urgent repair of power grid [27]. However, the power system is complex, including power generation, transmission and distribution systems. When preparing spare parts, many factors have to be considered. Hence, it is suggested that decision-making and priority-confirming are determined by analyzing the components failure rates, consequences, investment cost, and the operation and installment difficulty level [28].
\nAs the crucial response resources for power outage management against natural disasters, repair crews are expected to repair the damaged power components in an optimal order [29]. In [30], a co-optimization model for the repair and restoration of transmission systems was developed to coordinate generators and repair crews to maximize the picked-up loads after damages. The first step in this model was to locate optimal placement of the central station, which aims to locate the spare parts and repair crews, and to determine the optimal path for each crew to traverse to repair damaged components. Analogously, Lei et al. [31] proposed a co-optimization method for disaster recovery logistics, with adopting the dispatch of repair crews and mobile power sources, and operation of distribution system for electric service restoration.
\nDistributed Energy Systems and Microgrids
\nFacing with the hurricane and earthquake, the transmission lines and transmission towers may be destroyed, which can cause huge power outage to the customers. To deal with this problem, the microgrids connected with distributed energy resources, including the wind turbines, photovoltaic panels, fuel generators and electric vehicles, are becoming increasingly popular. This combination is located closer to the customers and delivers the power to them through a few or zero transmission lines. Moreover, when there is a failure of the transmission lines, an island gird can still be generated at a low-voltage level from the microgrid with distributed energy resources to supply electric power so that the power grid resilience can be enhanced. There are two aspects should be considered for microgrids with distributed energy resources in the resilience improvement. On the one hand, the locations and power capacities of the distributed energy resources need to be optimized to achieve the minimization of the investment cost, operation cost and the risk level of unacceptable reliability [31, 32]. On the other hand, the real-time power flow of the microgrid/island grid after the disaster should be optimized to minimize the energy consumption on the grid line and the voltage fluctuation [33].
\nIn this section, the characteristics of electric vehicle will be introduced firstly; then the review of electric vehicles to grid for the resilience of power grid during disaster will be conducted.
\nIn recent years, the renewable energy vehicles have been gaining increasingly attention in the fields of the public, the industry and the government due to its advantage in the independence on fossil energy and emission reduction for establishing an environment-friendly society. In this chapter the electric vehicle powered by the battery is mainly represented for the renewable energy vehicle. Generally, EVs include pure battery electric vehicles (BEVs), hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) and the plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs). Since the first HEV was launched into the market in 1997, the sales of EVs increase year by year. Figure 5 shows the projections of EVs sales in US from 2020 to 2050 and it is clear that the battery powered vehicles will become more popular in the automotive market, especially the long-range pure electric vehicles with large-capacity battery.
\nProjections of EVs sales in US from 2020 to 2050 [34].
Both BEVs and PHEVs are equipped with the devices to charge electric energy from the grid and discharge the energy back to grid with a bi-directional charger. And there is an internal combustion engine, which can be forced to work in high-efficiency and green-emission zone because of the addition electric motor to propel the (P)HEV. Compared to the conventional HEVs, there is a larger-capacity battery package in PHEVs so as to store more electric energy for propelling vehicle during the daily trip. The main physical structures of powertrain of (P)HEV can be classified into parallel, series and power split, as shown in Configuration A, Configuration B and Configuration C of Figure 6, respectively. The mechanical powers from engine and motor by using electricity from battery can propel the vehicle separately since there are two power flows. However, it not possible to use engine to propel motor in regeneration mode without vehicle running since the motor and tires are connected through a gear. In the series structure, there is a generator connecting the engine mechanically and connecting the battery electrically so that the engine can only be used to generate electricity in high efficiency zone. The vehicle is only driven by the motor using power from generator or battery. The third popular powertrain structure is power split, where a planetary gear is equipped to connect the engine, generator and motor through sun gear, ring gear and planet gear, respectively. Like the series structure, the motor is also connected to the tire through a gear. The engine torque can always be in the high-efficiency zone during propelling vehicle mechanically through using the generator to force the engine speed. As the engine and tire (motor) decoupled mechanically in series and power-split structures, it is possible to use engine for electricity generation.
\nPhysical structures of powertrain of (P)HEV [35].
\nTable 2 lists parameters comparison of the main passenger electric vehicles in the automotive market. Since there is a fuel tank in the vehicle, the running distance of PHEVs are much higher than the BEVs, except for the Tesla with supper large battery package. The reason is that the energy density in the battery is also an open problem for BEVs, which leads it not suitable for long distance trip. On the other hand, the temperature management of battery in winter and summer should be taken into consideration since the temperature can influence the battery performance deeply. Even though with disadvantage in above aspects, the BEV is still the most promising vehicle in the future market because of its zero-emission performance.
\nVehicle | \nType | \nTank size (Gallons) | \nBattery capacity (kWh) | \nDistance (mile) | \nElectric distance (mile) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Toyota prius prime | \nPHEV | \n11.3 | \n8.8 | \n640 | \n24 | \n
Nissan leaf | \nBEV | \nNA | \n40/62 | \n149/226 | \n149/226 | \n
Tesla model S | \nBEV | \nNA | \n100 | \n348 | \n348 | \n
BMW i3 | \nBEV | \nNA | \n42.2 | \n153 | \n153 | \n
Audi A3 | \nPHEV | \n10.6 | \n8.8 | \n580 | \n31 | \n
Ford fusion energy | \nPHEV | \n16.5 | \n9 | \n610 | \n26 | \n
Parameters comparison of the main passenger electric vehicles.
With increasing BEVs on the road, the issue of BEVs charging needs to be considered since it may influence the power grid, such as the voltage stability and frequency on the nodes, which play virtual role to industrial manufactory users. Moreover, the peak cut and valley filling of power grid can be achieved by the large-scales BEVs due to its advantage of the large battery storage capacity and the bidirectional charging flexibility. An illustrative conceptual resilience framework of the power grid associated with a disaster is shown in Figure 7, where the horizontal axis and vertical axis denote the time and system performance, respectively. Six states are divided in this figure, which are the resilient, event, post-event, restoration, post-restoration, and recovery. In this article, resilient is called as the pre-disaster period, and post-event, restoration and post-restoration are together named as the post-disaster period. The recovery state is only dependent on the power grid system characteristics. In this part, the beneficial of EVs as mobility of power resource to the power gird when facing the extreme events in pre-disaster and post-disaster times, especially to the distribution grid are discussed.
\nConceptual resilience framework of power grid associated with a disaster [16].
The power grid recovery after a huge disaster is dependent on the quality and quantity of the resource that can be used at the beginning of recovery. However, during and post disaster, the road network may be destroyed so that it is of importance to allocate the resource for recovery in advance, such as oil of diesel generators and the batteries. With consideration of power grid device failure, the probability of it can be estimated through the analysis of weather records and the historical data by using the data-based learning approaches, such as linear regression, Bayesian learning and Monte Carlo simulation. EV, as a part of the mobility of the power sources, has been widely explored for the power system resilience under the natural disasters.
\nConsidering the uncertain of the fault locations, a stochastic mixed integer nonlinear program -based resource allocation problem is formulated to maximize the benefit obtained by difference between serving critical load in restoration and the total allocation cost. Meanwhile, the transportation cost is also calculated through the distance and the amount of the resources [36]. With consideration of the battery degradation cost and the estimation of fault locations, a two-stage stochastic mixed integer second order conic program with binary recourse decisions are developed to optimize the investments in the first stage and re-route the installed mobile energy resource in the second stage. The optimal solutions are derived by the progressive hedging algorithm [37]. On the other hand, a two-stage optimization problem is formulated, where a proactive pro-positioning of mobility power system strategy is developed to enhance the survivability before the disaster, and a dynamic dispatch of mobility power system strategy is developed to coordinate with restoration and infrastructure recovery effort. It is noted that the optimal solution is obtained through the column and constraint generation algorithm in the first stage [38]. Under the inspiration of [38, 39] developed a two-stage restoration strategy to deal with the power grid resilience problem under seismic scenario by employing the mobility of power sources. In the first stage, uncertainty of the seismic scenario is simulated through the Monte Carlo simulation. A mixed integer nonlinear program optimization problem is formulated in the second stage for routing and scheduling the mobility of power sources. Furthermore, for the purpose of co-optimization of power resource dispatch with mobility and repair crew to achieve the minimization of restoration time, a non-convex mixed integer nonlinear program optimization problem is formulated. The simulation validations under IEEE 33 node show the effectiveness of the proposed strategy [39].
\nWhen a disaster event happens, the blackout in the urban city can cause significant damage to the citizens and critical infrastructures. For example, unused of traffic signals leads to traffic accidents for vehicles and pedestrians and traffic disturbance. The aggressive BEVs on the road also mean large-scales second-hand battery packs that are not performance enough for BEVs, but they can be used as the distributed energy infrastructure after the disaster even happens. It is estimated that the end-of-life batteries in Berlin, Germany by 2040 can provide power for emergency traffic signals in the intersections for more than 380 hours, which is time enough for the repair crew to repair the electric power system [40]. On the other hand, the earthquake happened in Fukushima Japan in 2011 damaged the nuclear power plant and only the ships in the sea were survived from the tsunami. In this case, [41] proposed an emergency power supply strategy by using EVs to transform the electricity from ships to the land for hospitals and shelters.
\nDue to the storage capacity and charging flexibility of EVs, they can be used as grid supporting for the microgrid restoration and simulation results show that the active integration of the EV into the microgrid can make a contribution in reducing MG frequency deviations and reducing the unwanted negative and zero sequence voltage components [42]. Further, by utilizing the battery technologies connected to the gird, during the restoration period, [43] proposed a feedback optimal frequency controller with the frequency deviation and SOC deviation as state variables and individual battery charging/discharging power as control input. After the natural disaster, the transmission grid may be destroyed and the power from major grid cannot be transmitted to the distribution grid. Only the remnant equipment of battery and photovoltaic and the EVs are available for power generation. Since the resistance of the distribution line is larger, the power loss in the gird should be taken into account. In [33], an optimization problem of minimizing the distribution grid loss by determining the discharging power nodes from EVs is proposed and both the active power and reactive of the EVs on the nodes are employed.
\nThere are also some strategies focusing on the vehicle to home (V2H) for the resilience improvement of residential customers by providing power from EVs after the disaster. Specially, some PHEV powertrain structures, such as series and power-split, the gasoline engine can be applied for generation of electric power and transform it back for home’s electric appliances. [44] developed a power system management scheme for emergency scenario to energize the small microgrid (V2G) together with other generators, such as wind turbine and solar panels, or the individual house (V2H) by employing the mobility and energy capacity of PHEVs. Moreover, the PHEV structure, where the fossil energy that is available to converted into electricity, is discussed. In [45], the simulation results of different type of EVs under the different cases of summer and winter show that the PHEV, especially with larger tank size, is the better choice than BEV in term of the long-time electric power supply for the house electric appliances and it is suitable as an emergency power supply to be popularized. For example, even without the pre-preparation before the disaster, the Prius with half gasoline and half battery can also provide power for more than 2 days in the emergency scenario. [46] described the problem that maximizes the time duration of V2H supporting residential load in an islanded mode after the disaster as a mixed integer quadratically constrained programming problem, which is solved through the numerical solver. Meanwhile the proposed algorithm is extended to the multi-homes and multi-PHEVs as a microgrid.
\nIn this paper, the state-of-the-art of the high-impact low-probability natural disasters influence on the electric power system is reviewed from the scientifical and technical perspectives. By the analysis of the impacts of different natural disasters to the power grid, it is concluded that the substation equipment in the low-lying area and the transmission lines are susceptibly destroyed by the flood and hurricane, respectively. Whereas the destroy caused by the earthquake is all-around, including the power grid network, communication network and the road network. Further, the definition of the power grid resilience under different natural disasters is explored and the power grid resilience enhancement approaches to deal with these disasters are reviewed from the hardening measures in advance to the real-time operation actions. Moreover, the utilization of the EVs, seen as the mobility energy systems, to improve the power grid resilience performance that aims to reduce the restoration time of the power grid after the disasters, is investigated in periods of both pre-disaster and post-disaster.
\nAlthough, a comprehensive investigation on the power grid resilience has been conducted, there still exist some research areas that are not included in this chapter. Meanwhile, there are unsolved researches and opportunities in the future, and they will be explained in detail in the following parts:
Forecasting the natural disasters
Through the review in this paper, there are some data-based machine learning algorithms to forecast the probability of a natural disasters, however, it may be unsuitable by just employing a black-box model and applying it to a specific disaster event without consideration of the physical mechanisms. The principles in different kinds of natural disasters should be considered and the prediction performance can be improved by the acknowledge combined with the power grid and the meteorology.
Transportation network and communication network
Dealing with the power grid restoration, the distributed generators play a virtual role in providing the power for the microgrid when the transmission line is destroyed. In the current research, only the power grid network performance is taken into account for fast restoration; however, the transportation network and the communication network that support lifeline sustainment may be also destroyed by the disaster, such as the flood and the earthquake. On the one hand, the large-scale rescuing and transportation vehicles may cause congestion. On the other hand, it is unreachable to allocate the restoration materials reasonably if there is not real-time communication in the disaster area.
EVs’ proportion increasement
With the fast proportion increasement of EVs on the transportation network, the exploration of EVs to improve the resilience performance of power grid should be conducted further. Specially, the bidirectional charge property providing electric power back to the grid can be achieved both at home and at the charge station, which should be optimized for different targets and through different strategies. When EVs are treated as the distributed generators, the optimal route planning is needed since the power in the battery used for transportation is necessary. Moreover, the fuel availability for PHEVs to increase the power supplement for power resilience in island mode should also be considered.
Inter-disciplinary techniques
To achieve the best power grid resilience performance facing with the natural disasters, it is not enough if only power system technology is employed due to the complexity of this issue. The researchers in the communities of statistics, optimization, control, communication, hydraulic, and policy can make contribution to this issue. For example, the proposed strategies to deal with the pre-disaster mobile power resources allocation with too many constraints may lead to no solution and the dynamics model should be considered.
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