\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7822",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives",title:"Second Language Acquisition",subtitle:"Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This volume presents a collection of current research on pedagogies, practices and perspectives in the field of second language acquisition. It brings together different aspects of learning, teaching and researching a second language with chapters covering a range of topics from emotional communication, pragmatic competence, transformative pedagogy, inclusion, reflective teaching and innovative research methodologies. The authors address a global audience to offer insights into contemporary theories, research, policies and practices in second language acquisition. This collection of work is aimed at students, teachers and researchers wishing to reflect on current developments and identify potential research directions.",isbn:"978-1-78985-242-4",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-241-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-340-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77639",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"second-language-acquisition-pedagogies-practices-and-perspectives",numberOfPages:146,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"fc5086868a638baf9f0f09eac83cb346",bookSignature:"Christine Savvidou",publishedDate:"July 29th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7822.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4857,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:10,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:19,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 16th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 7th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 6th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 25th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 23rd 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"1264",title:"Dr.",name:"Christine",middleName:null,surname:"Savvidou",slug:"christine-savvidou",fullName:"Christine Savvidou",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1264/images/system/1264.jpg",biography:"Christine Savvidou is an assistant professor at the University\nof Nicosia, Cyprus, and has a doctorate in Teacher Education\nfrom the University of Nottingham, UK. Her research focuses on\nteacher education, professional development, and professional\nknowledge and identity in second language teaching. A member\nof several professional associations, she is an active researcher\nand has published her work in several international refereed\njournals (Intercultural Education, Technology, Pedagogy and Education, Journal of\nTeacher Development, Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice). She is also a regular reviewer for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of Nicosia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Nicosia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Cyprus"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"266",title:"Educational Psychology",slug:"educational-psychology"}],chapters:[{id:"70506",title:"Introductory Chapter: Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90562",slug:"introductory-chapter-second-language-acquisition-pedagogies-practices-and-perspectives",totalDownloads:549,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Christine Savvidou",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70506",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70506",authors:[{id:"1264",title:"Dr.",name:"Christine",surname:"Savvidou",slug:"christine-savvidou",fullName:"Christine Savvidou"}],corrections:null},{id:"68219",title:"Teaching the Prosody of Emotive Communication in a Second Language",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87210",slug:"teaching-the-prosody-of-emotive-communication-in-a-second-language",totalDownloads:686,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The expression and the perception of emotional states in a foreign language represent a difficult task for the learners. One of the reasons is the fact that, more than other aspects related to speech, the expression of emotional states in second language requires full control of the prosodic resources that contribute to their realization. The aim of this chapter is to give an overview of the main tenets of the interface between prosody and pragmatic competence in L2 and in particular the expression and perception of emotions. The chapter will also outline some of the outcomes of the research in the field, focusing on experimental studies that have been conducted with learners of Italian as L2. The second part of the chapter will be devoted on the instructional practice aimed at developing the awareness of pragmatic-prosodic aspects of emotive communication in speech. Teaching practices such as a training focused on the expression of emotions (anger, joy, sadness, disgust, fear, and surprise) and video dubbing projects have proven to be useful tools to improve the performance of learners both in production and in perception of prosodic patterns of emotional communication.",signatures:"Anna De Marco",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68219",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68219",authors:[{id:"293679",title:"Prof.",name:"Anna",surname:"De Marco",slug:"anna-de-marco",fullName:"Anna De Marco"}],corrections:null},{id:"68456",title:"Offer Refusals in L2 French",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87189",slug:"offer-refusals-in-l2-french",totalDownloads:880,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This study examines the production of offer refusals in native and non-native French. Data were obtained through written discourse completion tasks by a group of Canadian learners of French as a second language, a group of L1 French speakers, and a group of English native speakers. The aim was to compare offer refusal strategies in French L1, French L2, and English L1 and to locate traces of pragmatic transfer in L2 French refusal behavior. Significant differences were found between the French L1 speakers and the French L2 learners with respect to the use of direct refusals, indirect refusals, and adjuncts to refusals. For instance, it was found that the French L2 learners use a very limited repertoire of linguistic realizations to express the inability to accept offers. At the level of indirect refusals, the results reveal some similarities between the L2 French learners, the L1 French speakers, and the L1 English speakers: the three groups use reasons more often than any other strategy in their refusal utterances. Differences emerge, however, in the linguistic realization of this pragmatic category. Implications of the findings for L2 French pedagogy were also discussed.",signatures:"Bernard Mulo Farenkia",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68456",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68456",authors:[{id:"283073",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernard",surname:"Mulo Farenkia",slug:"bernard-mulo-farenkia",fullName:"Bernard Mulo Farenkia"}],corrections:null},{id:"70044",title:"‘Transformative Pedagogy’ in Language Teacher Education",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89470",slug:"-transformative-pedagogy-in-language-teacher-education",totalDownloads:621,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"‘Transformative language pedagogy’ (‘transformative pedagogy’) emerged from three systemically linked, qualitative studies carried out by the author in collaboration with educators at the National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland, King’s College London, and Boston College, MA, and neighbouring, post-primary schools. The context for the studies is language teacher education. ‘Transformative pedagogy’ enhances the social-psychological model of autonomous language teaching and learning by underpinning it with an intercultural and moral-philosophical foundation. It supports the target language teacher in developing a more encompassing, professional identity that incorporates practitioner-researcher and leader. Researching practice requires justifying pedagogical decisions by testing that they are evidence informed and based on moral values and opening them to external scrutiny. An original model for ‘transformative research’ is outlined.",signatures:"Patrick Farren",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70044",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70044",authors:[{id:"296568",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrick",surname:"Farren",slug:"patrick-farren",fullName:"Patrick Farren"}],corrections:null},{id:"69246",title:"Multidimensional Networks for Functional Diversity in Higher Education: The Case of Second Language Education",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88073",slug:"multidimensional-networks-for-functional-diversity-in-higher-education-the-case-of-second-language-e",totalDownloads:816,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter provides a theoretical approach to the multidimensional relationship of the student with functional diversity with his/her own educational and sociocultural context. Inclusion is a key issue in a foreign language classroom where the ability to communicate is of paramount importance. Students with different special needs are bound to find challenges in those language skills that pose problems related to their functional diversity. In order to address these challenges, higher education institutions need to organize multidimensional networks that pay attention to the different stages, events, and situations of the educational process. Furthermore, the ability to communicate that students with functional diversity develop in the foreign language classroom may become an instrumental competence that will become useful for other subjects as well as to respond to daily life challenges. The theoretical model proposed here acknowledges that there are two paradigms that coalesce into a defined educational model. On the one hand, the syntagmatic paradigm ensures that subjects offered in the educational programs are designed bearing in mind the needs of students with functional diversity and are flexible enough to accommodate those needs. On the other hand, the organizational paradigm relates the needs of the students and their teachers to institutional services and protocols.",signatures:"Mari Carmen Campoy-Cubillo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69246",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69246",authors:[{id:"298151",title:"Dr.",name:"Mari Carmen",surname:"Campoy-Cubillo",slug:"mari-carmen-campoy-cubillo",fullName:"Mari Carmen Campoy-Cubillo"}],corrections:null},{id:"72706",title:"Rethinking the Role of Research in Pre-service Training of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language: Case of the University Teacher-Training College in Burundi",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93120",slug:"rethinking-the-role-of-research-in-pre-service-training-of-teachers-of-english-as-a-foreign-language",totalDownloads:546,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Teachers of EFL in under-resourced countries often find themselves confronted with teaching and learning issues that cannot always find timely and sustainable solutions within the wealth of language knowledge acquired through academic lectures, or in the kind of responses offered by means of in-service training programs. In Burundi, the tradition has long been for teachers to look to the Ministry of Education for answers to curriculum implementation challenges, especially in the case of new reforms. This paper argues that such an attitude can be transformed among teachers of English at secondary school level if initial teacher-training courses promote reflective teaching and equip them with classroom research skills as part of the training process. The authors take a critical look at the pre-service teacher education practice in the university teacher-training college “Ecole Normale Supérieure” in Burundi. They suggest improvements that can help the College bridge the gaps in the current training practices in order to better prepare teachers for active participation in their professional development.",signatures:"Marie-Immaculée Ndayimirije and Rachel Nsimire Bigawa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72706",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72706",authors:[{id:"299400",title:"Dr.",name:"Marie-Immaclee",surname:"Ndayimirije",slug:"marie-immaclee-ndayimirije",fullName:"Marie-Immaclee Ndayimirije"},{id:"299403",title:"MSc.",name:"Rachel",surname:"Nsimire Bigawa",slug:"rachel-nsimire-bigawa",fullName:"Rachel Nsimire Bigawa"}],corrections:null},{id:"71945",title:"Trends in Usage-Based and Pragmatic Language Processing and Learning: A Bibliometric Analysis on Psycholinguistics and Second-Language Acquisition Studies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92204",slug:"trends-in-usage-based-and-pragmatic-language-processing-and-learning-a-bibliometric-analysis-on-psyc",totalDownloads:762,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter provides bibliometric analyses of novel trends in the research toward pragmatic aspects of language processing and learning in the studies of psycholinguistics and second-language acquisition. Growing interests in the relevant themes are shown with the analysis of the co-occurrence of keywords in a common literature and the bibliographic coupling between literatures. The emergence of novel experimental methodologies, including the application of neuroimaging and machine learning approaches to the psycholinguistic research, provides new opportunities of looking into the pragmatic aspects of language acquisition and invites new empirical research to validate the theories and extend the boundaries of second-language acquisition research in the real-world setting.",signatures:"Xiaoming Jiang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71945",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71945",authors:[{id:"189844",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiaoming",surname:"Jiang",slug:"xiaoming-jiang",fullName:"Xiaoming Jiang"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6225",title:"Health and Academic Achievement",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"425b40a61d608a8cf110f9089b8d2611",slug:"health-and-academic-achievement",bookSignature:"Blandina 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More importantly, the advent in the advances of computing power has enabled more advanced econometric techniques to be computed with ease. Econometrics uses statistical methods and real-world data to predict and establish specific trends within economics and other social sciences.
\r\n\r\n\tThis volume attempts to explore the practical aspects of econometrics to economics, and other social sciences that use econometric methods. This volume is expected to cover a broad range of topics that include but are not limited to spatial econometrics, time series, forecasting, and machine learning, This volume hopes to attract dynamic stochastic general equilibrium (DSGE) models which are gaining prominence in applied macroeconomics. This proposed volume could serve as a reference for academicians, researchers, policy-makers, graduate students, and very abled undergraduate students who are seeking current research on the various applications of econometrics as used in research and to answer specific policy questions.
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Also, a skilled communicator who excels at interacting with students and motivating them to achieve their educational and career goals.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"452331",title:"Dr.",name:"Brian",middleName:null,surname:"Sloboda",slug:"brian-sloboda",fullName:"Brian Sloboda",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/452331/images/system/452331.jpg",biography:"Professional Profile Accredited as an Accredited Professional Statistician™ (PSTAT) by the American Statistical Association (ASA). Reaccredited through Aug.2022.\n\nComputer-proficient researcher skilled in statistical and econometric software, including E-Views, STATA, SPSS, and SAS Studio®. Working knowledge of MATHLAB and Dynare.\n\nResearch Fellow, Global Labor Organization (GLO), Oct.2017 to present\nAcademic and Professional Profiles \nResearch gate Profile:https: // www. researchgate. net/ profile/ Brian_ Sloboda\nORCID:https: // orcid. org/ 0000-0003-0007-1725\nGoogle Scholar Profile https: // scholar. google. com/ citations? user= RSLTrCsAAAAJ&hl= en\nEducation: Ph.D. Economics, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale,1997.\nThesis: The Economic Impact of Southern Illinois University on the State of Illinois: The Human Capital Approach\nM.S. Economics, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale,1992.\nB.A. Economics, Rowan University,1990.Minor: Mathematics.\nFields of Interest: Regional Economics, Economic Growth, Labor Economics, Economic and Statistical Education",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Global Campus",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"7",title:"Business, Management and Economics",slug:"business-management-and-economics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"429339",firstName:"Jelena",lastName:"Vrdoljak",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/429339/images/20012_n.jpg",email:"jelena.v@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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In this paper biological diversity means “…the dynamic network of biological, chemical, and physical interactions that sustain a community and allow it to respond to changes in environmental conditions” (in [2], p. 41). Consequently PA means biological diversity conservation, or ecosystem conservation as a whole, with their geographical, biological and different types of resilience to different types of human activities resulting pressures. By adopting this definition we will be following the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity that indicates the importance of looking at biodiversity conservation under an ecosystem approach rather than focusing on the individual components within the ecosystems.
PA’s are the groundwork of conservation policies [3-7], and therefore, traditional biological conservation management practices have been based on them [7-8] and on the Safe Minimum Standard Principle (SMS), in line with the ecological perspective of sustainability as defined by the Daily Rule [9]. The SMS principle states that a sufficient area of ecosystem must be conserved to ensure the continued provision of ecosystem services unless the social costs of conservation are unacceptably high. The Daily Rule states “never reduce the stock of natural capital below a level that generates a sustained yield unless good substitutes are currently available to the services generated” (In [9], p. 112, citing Daly H. (1996) Beyond Growth: The Economics of Sustainable Development. Boston: Beacon Press. 81-82).
Nevertheless, PA’s based conservation policy by itself seems not to be sufficient to achieving the required conservation levels for outstanding ecosystems, with resident populations, located near urban centres and with good means of access and especially within a low or middle income country context [10]. Over the last century there has been a growing realisation that biodiversity is being lost at an alarming rate, in spite of the national efforts to expand protected areas to incorporate a wide variety of ecosystems put into danger by the human population expansion, increasing damaging pressure placed by human activities like deforestation, pollution, poaching, or intensification of agriculture. One reason for such insufficiency is that biodiversity in general and PAs in particular, exist neither in isolation nor are independent of human activity. Over 50% of the 20,000 official PAs established over the last 200 years are on land historically occupied by indigenous peoples [8]. Furthermore, some stress that official conservation initiatives have tended to neglect some of the subsequently protected environments as the result of their long-term interaction with humans. This is surely the case of Europe, and Portugal in particular. In these regions, landscapes encompass large areas of semi-natural vegetation interspersed with grazing areas, hedgerows, farmland, and small villages and towns. Or, as in the case of wetlands, the coastline is frequently host to important urban communities depending on fishing activities and/or other marine activities and/or tourism.
Despite the richness and historical record of such human environmental interaction, earlier conservation practices have implemented an ideology primarily based on nature and some kind of “conservation ethic” potentially devaluing those values and systems that sustained human ecological practices in their respective contexts. Currently, while most of the governmental conservation agencies broadly recognise and accept the notion of “conservation-with-use” [8] by explicitly integrating it into national conservation legislation most state-declared PA local communities have not been active participants in designating or managing their surroundings. This state-imposed development and conservation, leaving local community on the peripheries of power, has created local antagonism and suspicion [8]. PA inhabitants, be they local farmers, herders or fisherman, all complain about being marginalised. When the state sets aside PAs, residents claim it does so at the cost of their own land, resources, and livelihoods, mostly without proper compensation for loss of property or forgone revenues [11]. The act of conservation is thus interpreted as a misfortune rather than an opportunity for sustainable development, accordingly to the Triple Bottom-Line methodology. This thereby leads to increasing evasion of conservation regulations while the government delays in answering the worsening conservation problems resulting from those individual actions [12,13].
Although current economic investigation is proving that enforced resource conservation measures like PA’s are efficient in the sense that they do not cause Pareto inefficiency and that Pareto optimal allocations cannot only be reached through competitive markets [14], we would additionally state conservation practices have to change sharply, and must stretch beyond the SMS principle through both engaging locals and other users with the conservation process and creating a broad consensus as to the existence and objectives of conservation initiatives.
Within this framework, Co-Managed Protected Areas (CMPA) is emerging. CMPA are official state-established PAs managed with the effective engagement of other social actors, including indigenous and local communities [8]. They are universally accepted means of community enforcement [8] with three objectives: the conservation of local natural and cultural heritage, the participation of civil society in the management process and the equitable distribution of benefits and costs. Community empowerment has to be reinforced with the implementation of incentive measures to enforce actor compliance, reinforce capacity building and provide intelligible information about the value of nature conservation (for example, see [2, 12] for a comprehensive description about incentive measures for biodiversity; or [15] as an example of how to use a travel cost approach to estimate the value of an entrance fee for a National Park). One of the means of achieving the aforementioned community empowerment is to make people aware that a PA is a sort of capital, - the natural capital -, and is as valuable as any other sort of capital goods like houses, land, art, factories, or infrastructures being able in generating flows of monetary benefits. Following [16], natural capital is generally defined as the stock of environmentally provided assets (e.g. soil, atmosphere, forests, water, wetlands, minerals) generating flows of goods and services, that are appropriate by economic sector and society at free cost. Locals must be aware that setting land aside by government for conservation purposes, instead of being a curse, may be a way of earning money and meliorating their way of living. The key idea is to ensure PA inhabitants as the owners of the natural capital, gain a strong economic interest in protecting that capital and therefore to guarantee the sustainability of the environment they live in, either for their own profit or to maintain resale value [9]. This is by no means an easy task for policy-makers and is packed with social, scientific, and practical difficulties and ambiguities [17-18]. Furthermore, biodiversity policy has its own respective complexities, differing to classical pollution problems, including heterogeneity, irreversibility, accumulation of impacts, information gaps, mix of values and pressures [2]. Since economic decisions are market-based, it may be necessary to apply economic instruments to conservation policy, like economic incentives, prices, or information concerning the monetary values of the benefits generated by the natural capital, and the monetary value of the natural capital stock itself. This is profit-based conservation and we defend its application in conjunction with the SMS principle to improve conservation policy rather than as any simplistic alternative. As several economists and ecologists have been warning, too little nature will be conserved by market force alone [13, 19].
In this chapter, we discuss the advantages and disadvantages of economic valuation of ecosystems as an incentive measure to enforce local community co-operation in conservation decisions and management. This issue is not new to economic and ecological literature. However, the literature mostly serves to demonstrate that economic valuation is anything but exhausted as an issue for discussion. Misleading pro and contra arguments and definitions are often used, both by economists and ecologists, making any understanding of monetary evaluation of biodiversity and its respective methodology more complicated than is justifiable. By recognising such difficulties, this chapter tries to assess the main points of discussion around the economic valuation of biodiversity, including the advantages and disadvantages of applying it as an incentive tool to enforce conservation attitudes. Analysis is only provided from the economist’s point of view and does not seek to be exhaustive. The chapter is organised as follows. We proceed by clarifying what “value” means to economics. In section 3, we describe the most important steps required for ascertaining the most accurate possible monetary value. In section 4, we describe why monetary valuation is an important and reliable tool in policy and conservation management despite these difficulties and controversies. Finally, conclusions are drawn.
In common usage, “value” means importance or desirability. To an economist, an ecosystem is a non-marketed good, and therefore its value is related to the contribution it makes to human wellbeing (see for instance [20-21] to read more about the state of non-market valuation of environmental resources). Human wellbeing depends on the basic requirements for a good quality of life including freedom of choice, health, good social relations and security and may be broadly understood as happiness. Wellbeing, as experienced and perceived by humans, is situation-dependent as it reflects the local geography, culture and environmental circumstances. We are dealing with a very clear anthropocentric, utilitarian viewpoint according to which ecosystems are valuable insofar as they serve humans or to the extent they confer any sort of satisfaction on humans [21, 22].
The utilitarian approach allows value to arise in a number of ways depending on how individuals use ecosystems [21, 23]. The “prior” or “primary value” consists of the system characteristics upon which all ecological functions depend (resilience capacity, individual resource stability, biodiversity retention). The value arises in the sense that the ecosystem produces other functions with value – “secondary functions”, and, as such, in principle, has economic value. These secondary functions and associated values depend on the maintenance, health, existence and the operationality of the ecosystem as a whole. Hence, economists have generally settled for taxonomy of total ecosystem value interpreted as a Total Economic Value [23] (TEV) that distinguishes between Direct Use Values and Passive (Non-use) Values. Passive Use is now used interchangeably with Non-use or Existence Value. Other terms that have been used include preservation value, stewardship value, bequest value, inherent value, intrinsic value, vicarious consumption and intangibles [24]. Figure 1 provides a diagram detailing the relationship between the TEV’s taxonomy of use and non-use values and the ecosystem’s service concept.
Use Values include Direct Use Values and Indirect Use Values (see [2, 25-26] for a more detailed definition of the different type of uses). Direct Use Values derive from the actual use (consumptive and non-consumptive) of natural resources for: commercial or self-consumption purposes (e.g. harvesting timber, fishing, collecting herbs and minerals); tourism and recreation; education and research; aesthetic, spiritual, and cultural ends. These are the so called primary functions of the ecosystems. One of the more recognised and important sources of ecosystem’s use value, is that associated to knowledge. According to a report for the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, the basic source of over $60 billion in current market value was obtained from biodiversity (plants and insects). Furthermore, several of the most productive and robust grain species were genetically derived from wild specimens. Currently, most drug and biotechnological companies are well aware of the strategic, commercial and scientific value of ecosystems as vital depositories of the strategic, commercial and scientific value of ecosystems (see for instance [27] for more details and [18 ] for their interesting parabolic perspective of ecosystem and biodiversity in terms of Noah’s Ark). Indirect Uses are related with the use society makes from ecosystem functions (or secondary functions) indirectly, like watershed values (e.g. erosion control, local flood reduction or regulation of stream-flows) or ecological processes (e.g. fixing and cycling nutrients, soil formation, cleaning air and water). Indirect Use values may further include “Vicarious Use value” addressing the possibility that an individual may gain satisfaction indirectly, from pictures, books, or broadcasts of natural ecosystems even when not able to visit such places. Option Values are related with individual willingness to pay a premium to ensure future ecosystem availability and usage. Some authors also refer to a Quasi-Option Value which reflects the individual willingness to pay a premium to ensure the maintenance of the ecosystems and respective services to get more accurate scientific information in the future. This type of benefit relates with individual perceptions concerning the irreplaceability degree of some ecosystems and with the lack of information about its functioning. Given this type of uncertainty, some individuals prefer to conserve ecosystems instead of destroying them until the moment society will have more accurate information about their real ecological value. Passive (or Non-use) Values include Existence Value: reflects the moral or altruistic satisfaction felt by an individual from knowing that the ecosystem survives, unrelated to current or future use. Finally, Bequest Value considers individual willingness to pay a premium to ensure that their heirs will be able to use the ecosystem in the future.
TEV Taxonomy and Ecosystem Services (adapted from [
TEV and its components has been the subject of huge debate among environmental economists, ecologists, psychologists, and others, about the viability, the usefulness, or the ethics of monetising it, especially passive uses (for a more comprehensive understanding of this debate see for instance [23]. Nevertheless there is actually a growing trend towards using the TEV measure on the grounds that theoretically there is no need to adopt a dichotomy that involves the adoption of arbitrary assumptions. See [28- 29] for a more comprehensive understanding of the total and non-use values discussion. Advances in ecological economic models and theory also seem to stress the value of the overall system as opposed to individual system components only. Currently, ecosystems or environmental resources as a whole are increasingly recognised as assets providing sets of services that are no longer readily available. Increasing demand to measure their value and incorporate them into legal, political, and economic decisions is a clear sign of what we would expect as their scarcity grows [20-21]. This point to the value of the system itself when exhibiting resilience capacity defined as the ability of the ecosystem to maintain its properties of self-organisation and stability while enduring stress and shock [23].
The economic value of an ecosystem to some individual, thus relates to TEV that individual puts on the ecosystem. Individual’s TEV is not an absolute value because economics provides valuations only in comparative terms. When economists say they are valuing an ecosystem, they are really defining a trade-off between two situations involving a change: e.g. maintenance or non-maintenance of the ecosystem. The economic value of the ecosystem is the amount an individual would pay or be paid to be as well off with the ecosystem or without it [30-31]. Economic value is therefore an answer, mostly expressed in monetary terms (although not necessarily), to a carefully defined question in which two alternatives are being compared. The answer (the value) is very dependent on the factors incorporated in that choice: the object and the circumstances of choice [32]. Economics defines objects of choice as any tangible or non-tangible object, process or activity that can be described as allowing choice and are defined by a set of characteristics and attributes that are perceived by individuals but not necessarily by all individuals. In our case, the object of choice is an ecosystem whose specificity is defined by a set of environmental and ecological attributes to a greater or lesser extent perceived by individual users and passive users. The circumstances of choice describe the context in which that choice is made (to accept or not the political option to conserve the ecosystem). It is clearly fundamental to describe to the individual the consequences of his/her choice, specifically in terms of: i) what is foregone by the choice and what is gained; ii) specify the rights of assignment; iii) define the mechanism of choice, that is the manner through which the individual will exercise choice: by voting, through private market transactions or other unspecified behaviours.
The object and circumstances surrounding such choice define its context. In the case of ecosystems, value depends on the ecosystem location and the level of human presence, the actual or threatened level of degradation as well as the degree to which natural services provided can be substituted by other substitute ecosystems. This substitutability is a highly important concept within economic valuation as objects with significant numbers of close substitutes are not rated as valuable as those with few or even no substitutes. In the case of ecosystems, the degree of substitutability is relative depending on factors including the scale and level of aggregation and the time-scale involved. For specifying rights of assignment, there are two possible choice situations. Either the individual gives something up to receive the object of choice that will affect his/her utility or well-being or the individual receives something to give up the object of choice that could affect his/her utility or well-being. The former situation corresponds to Willingness to Pay (WTP) and the latter to Willingness to Accept (WTA) and these are the fundamental monetary measures of value in economics.
These welfare measures applied to non-market transacted objects of choice were first proposed by Mäler [33-34] as an extension of the standard theory of welfare measurement related to market price changes formulated by Hicks [35]. Mäler stated that it was possible to build four measures of individual welfare change associated to choices involving non-market goods. If the object of choice (for instance, a conservation policy) generates an improvement in individual well-being (that is a rising utility), two situations become possible. Either the individual is WTP an amount to secure that change, termed Compensated Willingness to Pay (WTPC) or he/she is willing to accept a minimum of compensation to forgo it, the Equivalent Willingness to Accept measure (WTAE). If the object of choice generates a deterioration (for instance, some ecosystem destruction, related with a particular human activity) in well-being (that is, a decreasing utility), again two situations are possible. Either the individual is WTP to avoid this situation, termed the Equivalent Willingness to Pay measure (WTPE) or he/she is WTA compensation to tolerate the damages suffered, the Compensated Willingness to Accept measure (WTAC). When economists talk about the value of an ecosystem they are referring to an individual TEV measured by one of these four welfare measures: WTPC/WTAE if the individual faces an improvement of wellbeing; or WTPE/WTAC where the individual faces deterioration in well-being.
Mäler used the following basic model of individual utility to define welfare measures. Let U = U(x,q) be the utility function of an individual with preferences for various conventional market commodities and where consumption is denoted by the vector x, and for non-market environmental amenities denoted q. q may be a scalar where related to a single amenity or is a vector where related to several amenities as is the case of q representing the ecosystem one wishes to value. The individual takes q as given which means q is a public good. It is also assumed that preferences represented by the utility function are continuous, non-decreasing and strictly quasi-concave in x. The specific form of the utility function will affect the shape of the indifference curves. The shape of the indifference curves indicates the preferences the individual has for x and q. In this case, to say the utility function is quasi-concave is merely for the sake of analytical convenience. To say this is realistic or not is considered by utilitarian theory as being a merely empirical question [36]. The individual faces a budget constraint based on their disposable income m, and the prices of market commodities, p. The individual maximisation utility problem of decision is then formalised as:
meaning, each individual is trying to decide what is the affordable quantity of good X (x*) that must be purchased in order to get the maximum level of utility (or satisfaction), given his/her per capita income, the prices of the good, and the level of amenity q, all remaining constant. The solution of problem (1) yields a set of ordinary or marshalian demand functions for x denoted
The dual problem states that individual i wants to make the lowest possible expenditure (denoted
Each compensated demand function shows how the quantity demanded of good X changes as the price rises, holding utility and the amenity q unchangeable. The expenditure function shows the relationship between the minimal expenditures with the good X necessary to achieve the specific level of utility.
Let us now suppose q is going to change from the current state q0 to another different state q1 so that the individual i will have to choose between the state q0 or the state q1, while holding constant the individual per capita income m and the prices p. If he or she chooses q0, the level of utility is given by
The relationship between the Hicksian CV and EV utility measures and the WTP and WTA Malher’s utility measures
If U1 > U0, that is if there is an improvement of the individual’s utility or level of satisfaction associated with an improvement of the ecosystem, utility CV measure are WTPC to secure that change, or EV measure WTAE to forgo it. If U1 < U0, that is if there is a decrease of the individual’s utility or of the level of satisfaction associated with the depreciation or destruction of the ecosystem, utility CV measure are WTAC to tolerate the damage, and EV measure WTPE to avoid that change. Given the duality between the indirect utility function and the expenditure function, the fundamental monetary measures are, therefore, given by equations (4) and (5), respectively:
In short, when environmental change is positive and individual’s utility rises, he/she will be able to pay a maximum amount of money given by WTPC to secure the environmental improvement, or he/she will accept a minimum amount of money given by WTPE to forego the environmental improvement. When environmental change is negative and individual’s utility declines, WTAC is the minimum amount of money that must be given to the individual to compensate him from the environmental damage effects and
WTP (equivalent or compensated) and WTA (equivalent or compensated) may or may not produce differing monetary information for the same object under valuation. The difference between the two measures is explained by the income elasticity (that is the sensitivity of the quantity demanded at a given price to income changes) and the budget share of the ecosystem. The smaller the income elasticity or the smaller the budget share, the closer are the measures to each other. WTP is equal to WTA where there is no income effect and individual is neutral to losses and gains, and where there are perfect substitutes of the object under valuation. Generally, WTA is greater than WTP which stems from the different welfare measure definitions and contexts of choice: as proved by numerous empirical estimations of WTP/WTA, WTA is always greater than the WTP because the latter is limited by the individual’s budget restriction and by the existence or non-existence of substitutes, while the former is not. See [37-38] for a more comprehensive discussion about the WTP and WTA differences and the consequences they have on the valuation of environmental services.
For purposes of economic valuation, the ecosystem and its components (q) are considered to be public or quasi-public reproducible natural assets, like structures or equipment. By the fact of being natural assets, they have direct and indirect use values, and passive uses as well, including option, quasi-option and existence values. As people experience satisfaction (utility) with the existence and services of ecosystems, the value of that reproducible natural asset is necessarily linked to its generated value flows of services and passive uses (it is assumed that the satisfaction or utility U(q1) generated by the new state of the ecosystem is a flow that will occurs during a particular time period of time). Hence, according to the asset analogy, TEV is equal to the discounted sum of values (or benefits, or utilities) of those services and passive use benefit flows, so that:
where T is the relevant period of time during which the ecosystem generates the flow of amenities; TEV t is the mean WTP (or WTA) each individual wants to pay for the amenity’s improvement (or be compensated for the destruction of the amenities ) estimated for the relevant population (that is, for the individuals that are going to suffer the effects of the amenity’s change) at a t point period of time period T; and
WTP and WTA are though the fundamental monetary measures of value in economics for market and non-market commodities. When economists set about estimating the individual’s WTP/WTA (or the value) for the market goods and services, they use actual, observed, market-based information, because preferences for private goods are revealed directly when individuals purchase them on the market. However, because ecosystems and most of the services they produce, like the ones associated with indirect use, option or existence values, are not market tradable, we thus have to elicit individual preferences directly in terms of WTP/WTA by use of questionnaires, such as Contingent Valuation (CV). CV provides the means to estimate natural resource value or loss and is the only current method that produces estimations of the ecosystem’s TEV, including all sort of the marketed and non-marketed ecosystem services. For a detailed description of the Contingent Valuation method, see for instance [39] or, more recently, [40]. If you want to apply the method in order to estimate the value of some ecosystem or the value individuals put on some ecosystem’s changes, you may consult [39-41]. For a more detailed description of other economic valuation methods, see for instance [38, 42-43]. So, to estimate (6), one has to go through the following steps: i) to estimate WTP/WTA and TEV via actual individual responses gathered by the CV method; ii) to estimate TEV, using aggregate values of stated WTP/WTA discounted by a certain rate, in accordance with the natural asset analogy.
The use of CV methods to estimate TEV for environmental services has been one of the most fiercely debated issues within environmental economic valuation literature until the 90’s of the last century, more specifically the validity and reliability of CV estimates issue and the inclusion or non-inclusion of passive users as a TEV component [44,16]. Detractors argue that respondents provide answers inconsistent with the basic assumptions of utilitarian rational choice; they question the seriousness of CV answers because the results of surveys are not binding. And a more extreme position even holds that the economic concept of value itself has no link to reality. This has led to the supposition that responses might bias CV value away from theoretical welfare measures. Defenders acknowledge that early applications suffered from many of the problems critics have noted [39]. However, recognition is required of how more recent and more comprehensive studies have dealt and continue to deal with those objections.
The key to a successful evaluation method is that it must be assessed in terms of how closely it represents an accurate measurement of the real value. The closer the real values are to the estimated, the more accurate the valuation method is. If WTP/WTA an ecosystem were observable there would be no problem. But given they are not, it is then necessary to use other complex criteria and “rules of evidence” to assess accuracy. In measurement, accuracy means the reliability and validity of data analysis used for the valuation framework. See [39-40] for a more comprehensive description of these methodological CV problems; and their potential effects upon estimates. See also [16] for a comprehensive survey of literature on such issues.
From the economics perspective, reliability is related with the accuracy of aggregate WTP over appropriately defined aggregates of individuals. Economists tolerate certain amounts of unreliability in the estimated WTP, if random errors in measurement remain within tolerable boundaries. The bias between the theoretical, and the CV estimated WTP/WTA, grows where the latter tends to systematically diverge from the former. The concept validity relates to the CV application process that involves numerous issues that must be resolved mainly based on individual judgement of the CV implementing entity. Because WTP is not observed, inferences as to validity are based on indirect evidence related both with content validity of CV study design and execution, and construct validity dealing with the degree to which the estimated money measure relates to other theoretical measures. To assess the content validity involves examining study procedure content. This involves four steps. Firstly, the researcher defines the scenario that would lead a theoretical consumer to reveal his or her WTP/WTA. More precisely, this is the CV phase where the elements of choice or details of the transaction are presented to the respondent. The transaction must be adequately defined in order to be clearly understood by the participant. The second step is vital to controlling the extent to which participants really understand the proposed transaction as communicated through the scenario defined in the first step. This obliges the introduction of qualitative research procedures to support CV survey design. The third and fourth steps refer to the appropriate statistical and econometric techniques that must be applied to elicit unbiased, higher content validity estimates of WTP/WTA. Contributions towards improving CV studies, from both the theoretical and empirical perspective, have been drawn from the differing fields of academic social science research – economics, psychology, law and politics (see [32] for a more comprehensive study of this issue) - but the most important was that of NOAA Panel Report [45]. Recognising the impossibility of externally validating estimates produced by CV studies, the NOAA Panel recommended researchers adopt an ex ante analysis of the results in place of an ex post analysis, by focusing discussion on how to improve the theoretical and empirical quality of studies thereby improving the accuracy of CV valuation by strengthening result reliability. The Panel guidelines for the study design phase are set out defined for three aspects of the transaction: the good, the payment, and the valuation context. In the case of ecosystem valuation surveys, respondents need to know about the attributes of the ecosystem [46-48], the level of provision of those environmental attributes “with and without intervention” and if there are undamaged substitute commodities. As for payment, the Panel recommended the use of the WTP valuation format and the definition of the “payment vehicle” which may include taxes, property taxes, sales taxes, and entrance fees, changes in the market prices of goods and services or donations to special funds. As for the transaction context, it is important to explain the extent of the “market” by informing respondents of how and when the environmental change will occur as well as the decision rules in use for such provision (e.g. majority vote, individual payment). Researchers must allow respondents the opportunity not to vote. The Panel recommends a conservative survey design, a referendum style choice, and voting choices followed by open-ended questions asking about reasons for voting one way or another. The Panel’s recommendations on survey design are for the most part almost standard practice except: i) the use of a referendum format in substitution of the open ended question eliciting the maximum WTP; ii) and the opportunity to the respondent to choose not to vote. These Panel guidelines are standard practice for any high quality survey. It is recommended to use probability sampling, in-person interviewing, to minimise non-responses, to make careful pre-testing and to examine interviewer effects.
By recognising the impossibility of independent verification of the CV results, the Panel suggested that besides the survey design and administration guidelines, an alternative test of CV reliability must be drawn from the economic theory of rational choice to monitor the rationality of individual WTP responses. This test is called the scope (embedding) test and requires that the stated survey WTP should be related to the size of the object of choice. If the WTP response is inadequate to the scope of the object of choice then the findings of the CV survey are unreliable. The scope test is based on the weakest form of rationality among individual choices. It is reasonable to suppose that more of a good is always better to the individual if not satiated and that he/she is willing to pay more for more of that good. Also, it is reasonable to assume that WTP will decline although not abruptly for additional amounts of the good [45]. The NOAA Panel concluded that the information provided by CV surveys, where in full compliance with the recommendations, can be considered “as reliable by the standards that seem to be implicit in similar contexts, like market analysis for new and innovative products, and the assessment of other damages normally allowed in court proceedings” [45].
More recently there has been a trend to include expertise from other disciplines such as marketing research, survey research, cognitive and social psychology (see [46] for a comprehensive introduction to the psychological perspective on economic valuation to improve the CV methodology) both from the theoretical and empirical point of views. To read more about psychologist’s criticism of the utilitarian approach to ecosystem valuation, see for instance [49], where the problem related with the existence of lexicographic preferences is discussed, and [50], for a review of the some empirical evidence of such preferences for environmental goods. The importance of all these contributions to survey research is almost intuitive because CV is broadly survey valuation method based.
As mentioned earlier in the chapter, the capital asset pricing approach views the ecosystem value as an asset value (natural and reproducible) at a particular point in time as the discounted value of all future services the ecosystem will provide as stated by equation (6). A common economic approach is to assume a rate of discount and further assume that the flows of services provided by the ecosystem during the relevant period of time T will be constant, and that the value of flows will increase in line with the expected rate of inflation. Under these assumptions, one is left with the task of valuing the services at some point in time t discounted at some discount rate, . The problem here is what rate of discount is to be chosen and what flows are to be considered.
The answers to either question are not straightforward to economists because the valuation of ecosystems or the decisions involving nature related sustainability decisions are characterised by several dimensions in which issues are more demanding for economists than those raised by environmental economics. One is the time dimension. The long-term period T applied to ecosystems, not inferior to 50 years and sometimes as long as one, two or even several centuries, is much longer than normally considered in economic analysis, which poses a particular challenge for the economist’s traditional practice of discounting.
A second dimension is related with uncertainty. Over such a long time scale, it is logical to expect that individual preferences will change due to technical and social changes that also affect the flow of individual WTP across time. On the other hand, society’s ecosystem services demand is already so great that trade-offs among competing services have become a rule. This increasing demand is compounded by the increasingly serious degradation of ecosystem capacities to provide services, seriously diminishing the prospects for sustainable human development [51]. It is though important to incorporate the ecosystem TEV into this pressing trend for scarcity. As one cannot ask people to be futurists as to their future WTP patterns, one way of achieving this is to use appropriate discount rates and discount methods that allow for incorporating growing future ecosystem scarcity. The default criterion that has been used for ranking environmental conservation projects is provided for by the discounted utilitarian approach introduced by Bentham in the nineteenth century, and has being dominating more due a lack of convincing alternatives rather than any intrinsic accuracy. According to it, one must choose the greatest present discounted value of net benefits. The project must be rejected where it provides a negative net benefit. A positive utility discount rate reflects what economists refer to as a positive time preference [52], a widespread desire to consume today rather than save for the future. This is a way by which the market penalises investments with long-term payoffs: any investment with high up-front costs and a long stream of future benefits will dramatically undercount future benefits. This is precisely what happens when one has to value ecosystems by discounting the flow of the services they provide over time: at any positive discount rate, the present value of any ecosystem is almost irrelevant and it thus becomes irrational (from the economic point of view) to be concerned about extinction or conservation. And yet societies obviously are worried about such issues and actively continue to consider how to devote substantial and scarce financial resources to them.
How important then is our concern as economists about the time dimension to ecosystem valuation frameworks? The opinion of some authors like Ramsey [53] or Harrod [54] (the original proponents of modern dynamic economics), and that of Heal [55] on environmental subjects, is that discounting is ethically indefensible (see chap. V in [18 ], for a comprehensive theoretical approach to this issue). There is however empirical evidence suggesting the legitimacy of discounting future utilities even where it is not certain that discounting future utilities in the evaluation development programmes is the same as discounting benefits of values [55]). Where empirically proven that people consider some positive discount rate we have to conclude that the traditional discounted utilitarianism approach to value benefits is not particularly suitable to clearly (as far as possible) capturing individual future concerns over the future environment. This is because decision-makers and cost-benefit applying researchers generally use market rates of discount much higher than the appropriate efficient sustainable rate thus depreciating future flows. As a consequence of this controversy, researchers have, in some cases, begun to apply lower discount rates to long-term, intergenerational projects [56]. Others use a declining rate in the future. Unfortunately, both methods result in time-inconsistency problems as long-term projects in the present become near-term projects in the future (see [18] for a more comprehensive discussion of this issue). More recently, attempts have been made to include the uncertainty and its persistence dimensions into the discount rate discussion that seems to dramatically increase the expected net present value of future payoffs [57]. We may conclude that in any calculation of TEV as defined in equation (6), we have to choose the appropriate relevant period of time, discount rate, and method of discounting in order to reflect intergenerational preferences and uncertainty into the valuation process.
A clear answer to this question suggests it be broken down into other two questions. Firstly, given the existence of controversy towards theoretical, methodological, and empirical aspects of ecosystem TEV, what is the usefulness of a monetary measure for ecosystem conservation decisions? Secondly, where the economic value is a theoretical, abstract measure experiencing a somewhat exacerbated controversy, what is the point of estimating it and using it for conservation issues? Let us begin with the first.
When government classifies some region as a protected area, biological resources of that region may be put under threat because the responsibility of management is transferred from people who live inside or close to the protected area to governmental agencies, located far away from the region. However, the direct costs of protection typically fall on the inhabitants who otherwise might have benefited from exploiting the Nature. Thus, there is a problem of justice and of intergenerational equity, which may have severe consequences if inhabitants have an economic disadvantage and, as a consequence, environmental regulations may be easily evaded or avoided.
National governments and local administration always faced difficulties in protecting their natural areas because the implementation and management of protection and conservation programmes are expensive tasks. Although society has been demonstrating the value it places upon intergenerational environmental transfers, by accepting to bear the opportunity cost of setting aside land and resources in their natural or almost natural state only for scientific, educational, recreation, and biodiversity protection or sustainability purposes, protected areas generally have being face budget problems, and insufficient personnel. The aforementioned financial shortages, together with rising economic pressure over environment, are on the alert to the necessity of adopting new mechanisms to improve Nature protection sustainability. Economists, biologists and management conservationists they all increasingly recognise the urgent need for alternative approaches to Nature management to introduce incentives or stimulus specifically used to incite and/or motivate economic, social and administrative agents (the stakeholders) to comply with Nature conservation strategies, to divert resources (e. g. land, capital, and labour) towards Nature conservation, and to incentive the participation of those groups and agents that work in or live within protected areas, to adopt sustainable development options.
Market-based incentives (including ecosystem valuation) are considered as the more adequate to perform the task. The basic underlying idea is that critic Nature has to be incorporated into the market system because Nature exhibit quasi-pure public good characteristics, an open access’s free rider problem, together with lack or insufficiently stated property rights [12,17,58-59]. Because of these market failures individual users have too little incentive to conserve species and ecosystems because they earn immediate, high monetary benefits from exploiting Nature, without paying the full social and economic costs of its depletion. Instead, individual users transfer these costs to society to be paid either now or in the future. Therefore, although users may benefit collectively from managing Nature in a sustainable way on a protected area based conservation management scheme, from the individual point of view he/she can be better off by cheating and increasing their own use. As for the property rights problem it often happens that over exploited environmental resource and landscape tend to be the ones with the weakest or even non-existent ownership. However, in more developed countries like some Europeans, it often happens that biodiversity has private owners. But in the absence of markets, the private owner of the natural resource is not enabled to capture the benefits of Nature conservation. Hence, the private rational option will be to exploit the resources to extinction or its irreversible destruction. This bunch of market failures and its negative consequences upon environment explain why an effective and sustained government intervention is required to meet the values and needs society expects to have from conservation, all together with market forces [12-13, 19]. By using market-based incentives like fees, rewards, fines, compensations for ecosystem services, subsidies, and loans (or credit), land banks, revolving funds or daily wages, financing stimuli, voluntary action stimuli, and involvement of government authorities will be more incentivised. Therefore an increasing of compliance with the Nature conservation legislation is to be expected: firstly, because they may give local communities the financial means to develop sustainable activities; secondly because they must reduce economic pressure on environmental rich lands, by incentive locals to devote them instead to biological conservation and to concentrate economic and social activities on less biological rich lands; thirdly because they must conserve traditional knowledge and cultural systems; and fourthly because they must compensate locals for possible foregone income associated with the protection option.
As for the ecosystem’s economic valuation, many economists and non-economists consider it as a very important conservation tool, an incentive measure, a support for conservation decision-making, and one of the ways to ensure that the private profitability gap between sustainable and unsustainable use of ecosystem services is narrowed or even closed [2, 21]. They see ecosystem valuation as a support for improving political and judicial decision-making within contexts of accruing environmental degradation, especially when compounded by increasing social demand for environmental services. Ecosystem valuation can also play a beneficial role in government land use, conservation, and tax planning, particularly when there is a growing interest in incentive or compelled conservation by private owners and property developers [60]. The basic economic decision methodology more commonly used to make cost-effective choices between different investment alternatives, the Cost-Benefit analysis, has often been under-utilised (or non-utilised at all) for environmental purposes because the monetary value of ecosystems is not took into account as an important variable. The absence of recognition towards the monetary value of ecosystem’s and the services they provide to society is a common flaw of the decision process which happens because the existence of that value itself is not easily recognised by the stakeholders; besides, ecosystem’s valuation is very demanding from the technical and the financial points of view. Further, economic ecosystem’s valuation is important, as economic conservation instruments based on cash payments or tax breaks require the estimation of enough compensation to offset habitat losses elsewhere. Additionally, evaluation will be particularly important whenever ecological assets are not traded, or when it is necessary to make a comparison between ecosystems with different characteristics and, therefore, different values (ecosystem’s value depends crucially on: the ecosystem location; its relationship with human activities and expected ecosystem changes over time), bringing confidence to ecosystem trading schemes in terms of the maximisation of net social benefits [61].
Strong theoretical, empirical, and jurisdictional progress has been made in the last three decades in the USA and Europe [62-64, 2], concerning the estimation and appliance of the economic values estimations to Nature conservation. Recently, one the more important efforts to improve the use of ecosystem valuation as a conservative management tool, was borne at the Heiligendamm Summit on 6-8 June 2007, where the G8 countries and the 5 major leaders newly industrializing countries endorsed a proposal suggested by the German government during the meeting that took place in Potsdamin on 20 March 2007 to make a study to analyze the global economic benefit of biological diversity, the costs of the loss of biodiversity and the failure to take protective measures versus the costs of effective conservation (the Potsdam Initiative for biodiversity). The study called The Economics of Ecosysems and Biodiversity (TEEB), was appointed to Pavan Sukhdev, and the preparatory work was initiated by the German Federal Ministry for the Environment and the European Commission, with the support of several other partners; hosted by UNEP, several countries and organizations have joined TEEB. Several reports were already produced (http://www.teebweb.org/InformationMaterial/TEEBReports/tabid/1278/Default.aspx) concerning the evaluation of costs of the loss and decline of Nature worldwide and their comparison with the costs of effective conservation and sustainable use. The main issue of the study, consisted in making visible the value of ecosystems and services to facilitate development of cost-effective policies [22].
There isn’t, however, a one-hundred per cent consensus about the relevance of using ecosystem valuation as an incentive tool in conservation policies. Some economists argue that evaluation is neither necessary nor sufficient for conservation defending the key theme of conservation as making this policy more attractive than any alternative usage through translating the social benefits of ecosystems into income [17]. In their opinion, this does not necessarily oblige evaluation. However, one can question this opinion by asking how one can translate those ecosystem social benefits into income efficiently, in the absence of markets, invisibility of the ecosystem’s monetary values, within contexts of growing financial resource scarcity, social equity promotion, and efficiency concerns? It clearly seems that valuation is the foundation to achieve that issue. Further, economic valuation constitutes a useful tool for educating and involving local populations and stakeholders by highlighting the connection between the ecosystems’ underlying biophysical properties and benefits associated with the active or passive use of its services. It enables the justification of conservation projects encouraging local inhabitants and stakeholders to accept and to comply. If local people are conveniently alerted to the true economic value of their land, including scarcity, they will anticipate a higher future value and hold back from economic activities that may not be compatible with conservation. This behaviour will be smoothly endogenised by local inhabitants and stakeholders where accompanied by decisions that transform conservation decisions into sustainable income for local communities. In sum, environmental valuation can be seen as an economic conservation instrument that promotes ethics and fairness in conservation policies. Through environmental valuation and improved economic compensation mechanisms, society will reinforce its right to defend social ecosystem services even when such a defence may sometimes imposes severe economic and social restrictions on the use of land that belongs to other people independent of their social-economic development expectations.
Being such an important instrument for convincing people to comply and participate in conservation policy, there remains ongoing debate and a persistent reluctance as to the reliability, and validity of the monetary measures like the one defined by equation (6). Philosophers, ecologists and even some economists not subscribing to the idea of using environmental economic values as conservation tools have their own ethical and philosophical, technical and methodological arguments. It is unquestionable that ecosystem’s TEV is an abstract, theoretical measure and does not measure the real value (but what is really the real value of something, one may questioning) of the thing as commonly understood. Economists tend to structure their thinking around models of perfect rational agents, with fixed preferences, making decisions in order to maximise certain well defined individual objectives, and this is very different from the paradigms characterising the natural sciences or even other social sciences (see [65] where both economic and ecological meaning of value, are compared). As a consequence of this hyper-abstract economic model of thinking, economic value is a relative not an absolute measure. It is the answer to a question involving a choice: how much an individual is willing to pay (to accept) for a unit more (or to forego) of an environmental resource without changing his or her current (future) wellbeing. To say one thing has greater economic value than another is an alternative way of saying that, under the circumstances, this would be chosen in preference to that. A correct understanding of what the economic value concept really means helps in understanding the value paradox (the paradox value is one of the arguments used by psychologists to demonstrate the incoherence of the economic monetary measure and its valuation shortcomings): articles that command great prices are often things that common people consider as being of little intrinsic or useful value, take diamonds or paintings for example. On the other hand, absolutely essential goods are often available at a negligible, or even no price, like water or landscape, at least in regions where such natural resources are abundant. There is, however, no inconsistency where goods that are, overall, immeasurably useful being worth less than the non-essential as economists determine marginal values: a good is worth more than another when the individual is not yet satiated and it is more difficult to obtain an additional unit than another unit of something else. People generally consider a diamond much more valuable than a litre of water, even while knowing the latter’s vital importance, because they recognise the rarity of diamonds and the relative abundance of water. In short, the economic money measure of value basically reflects the scarcity of the good being valued under certain circumstances but not value from a common sense perspective. The economic money measure of value also reflects important issues that affect scarcity as perceived by the individual such as the existence of substitutes as well as the context surrounding the object of choice. In short, one may say that the theoretical, abstract weaknesses of economic valuation, identified by some commentators, is simultaneously its strength when used to improve decisions involving scarce non-market transacted resources, like ecosystems. Thus, while the level of abstraction and technical rigour of the theory underlying the definition of economic value are seen by some as handicaps, others consider them as trump-cards when there is a need for credible support to political and judicial decisions. However, these are complex methodological problems and the high level of economic and econometric expertise needed to estimate ecosystem values lies at the source of another set of criticisms. It is also a very expensive process. Nevertheless, these technical, methodological, or budgetary contras must not be used as arguments to turn our backs on ecosystem valuation although they must be taken into account during the political decision-making process when conservation decisions involve very important ecosystems at the local, national, or regional levels.
In short one must not agree with the argument any number is better than no number, used by some proponents, as it denotes an indefensible, very resigned attitude. When talking about economic values, economists are not referring to any number but to a number rigorously and theoretically defined and carefully applied in order to capture the value people put on the object of choice under certain circumstances of choice. Rather than saying any number is better than no number is to say an economic number is better as a minimum reference number, than any number at all.
In this chapter, we have discussed the advantages and disadvantages of ecosystem economic valuation as an incentive measure for enforcing local community co-operation in conservation decisions and management. The utilitarian approach allows value to arise in a number of ways depending on individual use of ecosystems. Hence, economists have generally settled for taxonomy of total ecosystem value interpreted as Total Economic Value (TEV) that distinguishes between Direct Use Values and Passive (Non-use) Values. TEV is a relative value and an answer mostly expressed in monetary terms to a carefully defined question in which two alternatives are compared. This answer depends on elements of choice defining the prevailing context. As ecosystems are not purchased on markets, one has to elicit individual preferences directly by the use of questionnaires such as Contingent Valuation (CV) to assess the individual’s WTP and WTA relevant monetary measures. Complex criteria and “rules of evidence” such as those suggested by the NOAA’s Panel must be applied to guarantee the reliability and validity of the CV data. To calculate TEV based on individual CV data and the asset analogy, time and uncertainty have to be considered when discounting service flows. One concludes that TEV may be a useful tool as an incentive, a support for decision-making, and as a tool for education and information. The fact of being a very abstract instrument, and very demanding from the theoretical and technical points of view, becomes an advantage. To date, it is still the only existing, carefully defined and applied and somehow reliable way of society knowing how much an ecosystem is worth within a market-based scenario.
In delusional misidentification syndromes (DMSs), the individual everlastingly misidentifies persons, places, objects, or events. Capgras syndrome (CS) is the most common in the umbrella term DMS [1, 2]. Perhaps the best known form of DMS is the
CS is characterized by the delusional denial of identity of a significant other and the belief that they have been replaced by a double. Some patients with CS may deny the identity of the actual spouse and claim that there are two spouses, the actual and the imposter [6]. Therefore there are four conditions in patient with CS: the person is recognized, and the patient affirms the resemblance of the double to the misidentified significant other; no identity is attributed to the double, who has neither name nor existence; the double is an imposter, pretending to be the original they are replacing; the original has disappeared, his/her absence remaining unquestioned [7].
\nThe rareness of CS, as well as its impressive clinical manifestation as a colorful syndrome, has caused most publications to present case descriptions as scientific curiosities [8, 9]. CS has also attracted the attention of novelists in fictional literature. Dostoevsky provided a dramatic description of the phenomenon in his novel,
It is generally being reported as single case studies in the literature. Although an uncommon psychiatric disorder, Capgras delusion has been central to the development of theories of delusions [6]. It is not dealt with particularly in the DSM-5 and may be classified as delusional disorder, suiting either the persecutory or the unspecified type [13]. With no consensual clinical criteria for this syndrome, it is usual to refer to their original description [7]. The basic manifestation was a false belief that real and familiar persons or oneself is replaced by strange, malicious imposters [14]. In fact, CS is a ‘hypoidentification’ of a person closely related to the patient [6]. CS is more frequent in women than men, with a sex ratio of approximately 2:1, but this result was not found across all studies [7]. Only a few reports have described this syndrome in patients during childhood [15].
\nThe remarkable feature of Capgras delusion is that patients are able to recognize the close relation, the related person’s face, but deny his or her identity and often use subtle misperceived differences in behaviour, personality, or physical appearance to distinguish between him or her and the imagined impersonator [16, 17]. Patients with CS find ways to defend their irrational beliefs [4]. Generally, the patients support their conviction in revealing detail. This sign may be a habit or a personality trait; small misperceived differences, for instance, in physical appearance and behaviour, may vary over time [7]. And these are frequently used to distinguish the imposter from the loved one [18]. Surprisingly, patients may show implicit or explicit awareness of their true situation [6]. Some research suggests that a considerable number of patients with CS have some awareness of the bizarre nature of the misidentification delusions and therefore tend not to report them, especially during initial interviews when they are less likely to be confident with the clinician [19].
\nCommon to all DMS is the delusional denial of identity of objects having affective significance for the patient, and it is exceptional for there to be only one imposter, but these objects are limited in number. CS may be associated with other DMSs, and these frequently evolve from one another because of this relation and similarity [7, 20].
\nIt sometimes occurs isolated, hereby justifying its autonomy as a ‘delusion’ [7]. CS may be accompanied by other delusions and thus may rarely exemplify a ‘monothematic’ delusion [6]. Erotomanic delusions and delusional jealousy [i.e., Othello jealousy] were identified in 9.1% and 6.4% of patients with CS, respectively [21, 22]. However, delusional misidentification syndromes uncommonly appear independent of comorbid pathology [23].
\nThe absence of consensual clinical criteria makes the epidemiological data uncertain [7]. Thus, the prevalence of CS may be underrated. More than half of the patients of the registered cases suffered from mental disorders without any organic association, among which schizophrenia spectrum disorders were diagnosed in 6 of 10 patients with CS [21, 22]. The Capgras delusion has been reported in association with other psychiatric disorders in 60–75% of cases and in organic illnesses in 25–40% of cases [23]. The Capgras delusion has usually been recognized in the contextual relationship of psychiatric disorders and often occurs in conjunction with paranoia, derealization, and depersonalization [6]. The Capgras syndrome may represent a delusional evolution of the phenomena of depersonalization and derealization [24]. Nonspecific, derealization-depersonalization experiences are frequent, especially in psychotic disorders, and are considered a significant core symptom of CS [7]. Studies on the prevalence of this disease or comorbid disease show differences. A study has found that the prevalence of DMS in psychiatric populations was less than 1% [14]. Another study has found that its prevalence in all psychiatric inpatients is 1.3–4.1% [25]. It is around 3% for hospitalized psychotic patients [17]. In a recent prospective study of patients hospitalized for a first psychotic episode, it was found that CS was diagnosed approximately 1 in 10 of patients. The prevalence was maximal among patients presenting schizophreniform psychosis 50%, brief psychosis 34.8%, and unspecified psychosis 23.9%, and the prevalence was moderate for a major depressive episode 15%, schizophrenia 11%, or delusional disorders 11% [14]. The most common psychiatric diagnoses in CS have been paranoid schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, and bipolar affective disorder [23]. CS has been linked with multiple pathologies. It has been described in psychiatric as well as organic disorders. In the last few decades, reports have increasingly stressed the aetiologic importance of heterogeneity of conditions that have been found in the patients with misidentification syndromes like the Capgras delusion, including cerebrovascular disease, post-traumatic encephalopathy, temporal lobe epilepsy, postencephalitic Parkinsonism, viral encephalitis, migraine, vitamin B12 deficiency, hepatic encephalopathy, chronic alcoholism, hypothyroidism, pseudohypoparathyroidism, and dementia [23]. Schizophrenia remains the most common co-occurring mental disorder associated with case reports of Capgras delusion [25, 26]. Also, family history of psychosis is reportedly present in half of CS patients [20]. Medications and drug toxicity have also been reported to cause CS [27].
\nSince initial reports of CS involved patients with psychiatric illness, their close relations, and how they interacted with each other, early explanations of the delusion were predominately psychodynamic interpretations. There are several psychodynamic approaches. Consequently, these explanations included suggestions that CS might develop out of Oedipal issues in women as a defence against hostility or incestuous, guilty desires, or out of hidden homosexuality in men. Later attempts to account for CS resulted in hypotheses of anxiety-induced regression of cognitive and emotional functioning, pathological splitting of internalized object representations, insufficiently repressed conflicting or ambivalent feelings toward the implicated person, and the projection of negative emotions that come to light from these conflicting feelings [17]. In the psychodynamic theory, it is supposed that the delusion is a way in which the patient copes with the ambivalent emotions that he feels toward the close family member who is duplicated [15]. There are several explanations brought about by psychodynamic approaches of misidentification syndromes. Premorbid psychopathology, motivation, and loss of ego functions may be important in determining which vulnerable patients develop CS [6].
\nCapgras delusion can occur due to ‘spatial disorientation, anatomic disconnection, memory and executive process impairment, and loss of ego’ [4]. While psychodynamic theories consist of ambivalence theory, depersonalization theory, and regression theory, neurocognitive hypotheses focus on right hemispheric dysfunction, face-recognition processing abnormalities, and focal structural cerebral abnormalities [28]. There are two components of the visual recognition of a familiar face, one of which is responsible for conscious recognition of the face and the remembrance of associated semantic information, while the other is responsible for the limbic-mediated emotional arousal including the feeling of familiarity that accompanies the conscious recognition of a known face [9].
\nDespite the sharp increase in the number of published cases accompanied by various suggestions regarding an organic etiology, to accurately explain the delusion, it is necessary to embrace the psychodynamic as well as the organic. Even if a specific neuropsychological lesion is found in the end, the psychodynamics of the individual will still be pertinent and remain substantial [29]. An association between CS and depersonalization has been thought to exist onward the time when the disorder was first described. Some authors put forward that depersonalization may be the basis of the disorder which may develop in some individuals. CS can be evaluated as a disorder of ego function which permeates the entire personality [29]. Some authors postulated that cerebral dysfunction leads to feelings of derealization and depersonalization which in turn may develop into Capgras’ syndrome in the presence of paranoid ideation [29].
\nThe psychodynamic conception of the Capgras phenomenon is basically a love-hate conflict that is resolved by reflecting ambivalent feelings onto a fictitious double [29]. On the one hand, there are a long-standing love and on the other hand a visible hatred. In those cases when it occurs, it is very substantial that before the onset of the delusion of doubles, the patient shows an increased love and sexual desire toward the object. This overreaction results from a desire for reassurance regarding the love of the object and fear of losing it simultaneously. Theories suggested that CS could arise out of an Electra complex and incest desires, Oedipal problems, and latent homosexuality. Personality disintegration coupled with an evolutionary regression to more primitive modes of cognitive and emotional functioning; division of internalized object representations; ambivalent feelings toward a familiar other that are not sufficiently suppressed; and the feelings of anxiety, guilt, and anger resulting from this struggle are reflected onto imagined imposter [20]. Instead of approving these demands, the object becomes even more repulsed and is unable to cover up these feelings that clearly aggravate the situation, and a vicious circle is established [29].
\nUsually, we do not strive for facial recognition. The ability to identify people who we met before is a headstone of our social interactions. Face recognition is a multistage process ending with the identification of a person. Prosopagnosia is defined as loss of familiarity to previously known faces and the inability to learn to recognize new faces. Although these patients fail to recognize faces, they are still able to show affective responses to these faces [30, 31]. Several studies have suggested that CS represents a ‘mirror image’ of prosopagnosia, thus suggesting different neural circuits for facial processing: a cognitive circuit (impaired in prosopagnosia) and an affective circuit (impaired in CS). In the affective circuit, the ventral route from the visual centers to the temporal lobes may be protected, also active in conscious face recognition; however, the dorsal visual track that gives the face its emotional significance is damaged. A brief disruption of the ventral visual pathway leads to prosopagnosia, whereas damage to the dorsal visual areas leads to an impaired sense of familiarity for known faces, as in CS [9, 17, 30, 32]. While the ability to identify that person is intact, patient with CS probably has a brain lesion that interferes with the patient’s ability to sense a familiarity toward the significant other [15]. It has been suggested that the impairment seen in the Capgras delusion was linked to a disruption of pathways connecting face-sensitive regions to limbic cortex, which is involved in the accompanying emotional response [30]. Perhaps arising from the conflicting experience of recognizing a known face without any accompanying affective reaction, the patient can understand that the absence of this emotional arousal is to establish the belief that the person he is looking at is an imposter [9, 33]. In another connectivity study, posterior coupled with anterior right hemisphere dysfunction may have involved in the emergence of Capgras delusion [34]. Also, it has been suggested that CS results from the disconnection of the face processing regions in the inferior temporal lobe from structures in the limbic system, especially the amygdala, which is very important in assigning emotional value to familiar faces [34]. Common to the CS is a fixed false belief but infrequently transient [35]. However, anatomical disconnection models fail to efficiently consider the transient nature of the misidentification episodes [34]. Therefore, it has been suggested that CS may be associated with the ‘kindling of subcortical structures’. Kindling refers to repeated subthreshold stimuli which may result in psychomotor outbursts or overt seizure activity [34]. Autonomic responses and eye movements are involved in face perception which may cause the patient believe that the person has been replaced by an imposter. Studies on patient with CS like other psychiatric disorders have shown abnormal scan paths to facial stimuli or abnormal skin conductance response (SCR) in face processing tasks [30, 33]. The absence of identity recognition, accompanied by a lack of SCR, stimulates the patient to explore unfamiliar faces, and identity recognition of familiar faces leads to a more detailed exploration in the eye region, and it results in gaze avoidance of the eye region [33]. Vision is important in accessing reserved knowledge in the etiology of CS. However, surprisingly CS has also been reported in a number of blind patients which suggests that it cannot have an exclusively visual basis [34]. Some theories assume that two deficits are necessary for delusions to occur in the case of Capgras delusion like other DMSs [32, 36]. This is also called ‘two-hit’ process [20]. The first one, the brain’s ability to attach emotional emphasis, may be the lack of autonomic arousal which leads to the abductive inference that the person is an imposter [30]. The other deficit is an impaired ability to reassess beliefs [the global consistency-checking mechanism] which prevents the rejection of the bizarre belief. The second deficit leads to the persistence of that abnormal perception as a delusion resistant to reasoning, also related to the right anterior cortex of the second deficit [9, 30, 32, 36].
\nNeuropsychological deficits in patient with CS were reported across multiple cognitive domains, including memory, executive functioning, and visuospatial processing. These studies suggest that memory was statistically more likely to be impaired than other cognitive domains. Therefore, the memory may be playing an important role in the development of these delusions [32]. The existence of confabulations may have a role in prognosis and predicted significantly longer delusion duration, once more supporting the importance of memory impairment in patients with CS [32]. To mention a little more about the confabulation, some authors are focusing on confabulation in these patients because they are thought to be confabulation and delusion are closely related. When asked how they can explain their beliefs, Capgras patients will often confabulate. Confabulation is a kind of false memory that occurs when patients produce stories that fill in gaps in their memories, whereas a delusion is a mental state, typically thought of as a belief. Confabulation and delusion cannot be completely the same [37, 38]. Some researchers suggested that CS comes out when right hemisphere dysfunction causes a memory disconnection that leads to a failure to put new information together with representations about a significant individual and to keep in reserved over time [17]. Against all of these, although many patients have subtle deficits in face recognition and memory for faces, they do not have difficulty in recognizing faces in everyday life [1, 2]. CS is distinguished by its delusional mechanism: it is neither a hallucination nor an illusion—the object is correctly recognized in its appearance. CS is not a memory disorder. The person is correctly recognized; people are memorized [7]. Language deficits may not be absent, because of the right hemispherical dominance of the lesions [32].
\nIn 1971 a case of Capgras was described in a young man following a head injury, with no previous history of psychiatric disorder. Since then, many patients with CS have undergone more thorough neurological investigations [29]. Identification disorders like CS are very frequent in neurodegenerative diseases [7]. Regarding the organic conditions that occur in Capgras delusion, this appears mainly in various types of dementia like Alzheimer, Lewy bodies, and Parkinson [39]. The prevalence of CS in Lewy body dementia may be as high as 25% and 10% in Alzheimer-type dementia. Identification disorders are much rarer in other types of dementia, especially those associated with Parkinson’s disease [7]. Nearly half of the cases in CS were associated with neurocognitive disorders, such as delirium, traumatic brain encephalopathy, cerebrovascular disease, dementia, meningioma, encephalitis, and multiple sclerosis [21, 22]. Although there is usually a delay in the presentation of Capgras delusion after cerebral events, there are also such cases of immediate presentation [31]. Psychotic disorders with CS tend to present in the late teens and early twenties. It reflects the long mean duration of the delusion in the functional group [26]. Those with neurological disorder associated with the onset of the delusion had a mean age of 60, in keeping with their presentation in middle to late adulthood, especially as Capgras delusion in dementia tends to occur in the later stages [26]. Therefore all individuals with Capgras should be examined for organic pathology [9]. In a literature review of patients with CS who had associated organic factors, there are several single case reports in patients with Capgras delusion which suggest structural and metabolic anomalies in mostly right-sided frontal, temporal, or parietal brain regions. But most of CS patients had bilateral lesions although, for those with unilateral lesions, right hemisphere lesions were much more likely [30]. Some studies give emphasis to the presence of two lesion sites, one in right frontal and the other in right temporal cortex [30]. The identity of the imposter is significantly associated with the reported underlying etiology. Capgras’ delusion is reportedly due to functional psychiatric disorder, which is more likely to view their parent as an imposter, whereas the spouse is involved in those with suspected neurological etiology. There may be mentioned two reasons. The first one is may be because of the different mean age for the groups. The age of onset of Capgras delusion is different between those with organic disorders and those with neurological disorders [26]. The other reason is about Capgras delusion’s feature. Capgras delusion is the phenomenon mostly specific to close relatives. This supports the role of intimacy [9, 26]. Selectivity for familiar persons is essential, though sometimes relative, and the syndrome can extend to persons who are simply known or famous [7]. Against this, the frequency with which strangers and multiple imposters are implicated in all cases of Capgras delusion can be up to 39% [26]. Multiple imposters are significantly more likely to occur in functional cases, while the involvement of inanimate objects would seem to suggest organic etiology [26]. The neuropsychological findings discussed may lead to some account of the possible mechanisms by which an abnormal experience may be generated in a subset of Capgras patients, but some researchers do not think in itself account for the formation of delusional belief [40]. Consequently, the explanation may offer a useful, helpful analysis of a certain step in the pathology of the CS in a subgroup of more neurological patients but could be unlikely to enlighten about delusions more generally or those with Capgras in the context of a functional psychosis such as schizophrenia or bipolar disorder [40].
\nThe term CS does not demonstrate a well-defined mental disorder. Over the years various studies have suggested psychodynamic and neurophysiological interpretations for CS, and various aetiologies have been recommended for the condition’s development [15, 17, 28].
\nAlthough frequently seen in psychotic cases, Capgras has also been associated with neurological disorders suggesting that the syndrome has an organic basis [14]. According to a study, CS patients were classified into groups according to whether or not they had evidence of neurological disorder. Some of the patients identified as having no neurological lesion might be found to have organic brain disease with more sophisticated imaging techniques or at post-mortem evaluation [41]. In another study, approximately one in five of patients with CS presented with organic mental disorders [1, 2]. Multiple hypotheses have been put forth regarding the underlying pathophysiology of CS. Some areas of the brain are responsible for the etiology of this disease. Results of structural and neuroimaging studies of CS provide support for an organic etiology [17]. Multiple studies and reports have remarked on CS in the setting of various neurological and neurodegenerative diseases [42]. There is a study that found more widespread bilateral frontal and temporal cortex atrophy in schizophrenia patients with CS than schizophrenia patients without the syndrome by using computerized tomography (CT) [17]. Likewise other studies using CT found global brain atrophy in combination with right hemisphere lesions in patients with dementia. There is also reported that positron emission tomography [PET] demonstrated abnormal brain glucose metabolism in paralimbic structures and temporal lobes of patients with Alzheimer’s dementia comorbid with CS and other subcategories of delusional misidentification syndromes [17]. Numerous neuropsychological researches support an association between CS and right frontal and temporal lobe abnormalities, and also many study reports indicate that patients with CS tend to have inferior scores on neuropsychological tests of frontal lobe function [17]. Even though less well documented, regions of the prefrontal cortex are also associated within facial processing: projections from the face processing areas in the right ventromedial occipitotemporal regions to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex via the uncinate fasciculus as well as limbic-thalamic pathways are well established [34].
\nSome people with schizophrenia exhibit this syndrome, but it is not related directly to schizophrenia itself; there are people with schizophrenia who do not exhibit CS, as well as people with CS who do not exhibit schizophrenia. The mean age of schizophrenic patients with Capgras syndrome is older than the age at which schizophrenia alone is usually expected to occur. When brain abnormalities of people with schizophrenia affect certain areas, CS and schizophrenia will occur concurrently. Capgras delusion and schizophrenia seem to be statistically related, at least in the case of the paranoid subtype of schizophrenia. It has been claimed that right hemisphere damage is a characteristic of schizophrenia; perhaps the imperfect evaluation of beliefs, which we have suggested, occurs as an outcome of damage to a particular area of the right frontal lobe, which is necessary for the occurrence even of the persecutory and grandiose delusions that are common in paranoid schizophrenia. Accounting the association of Capgras delusion with paranoid schizophrenia, the same neuropsychological deterioration of belief assessment is required for both, and in cases of patients with persecutory or grandiose delusions where the neuropathology also has affected the track from face recognition to the autonomic nervous system, Capgras delusion will also be existing [43, 44]. CS in paranoid schizophrenia may improve with successful treatment. But recurrence of illness may be accompanied by a return of delusional material [44].
\nIt is important to note that the Capgras delusion can be either a primary condition that is part of a ‘mental illness’ or a secondary condition that is the direct result of an organic disease of the brain. Also, the primary and secondary versions differ significantly in their presentation. In primary Capgras syndrome, the patient is more likely to be furious or violent toward the imposter. In secondary CS, the imposters do not change over time. This is different from the situation in schizophrenia where the delusions can vary [45]. The mean age of onset of the delusion was earlier in primary Capgras (mean age 32 years) than in secondary Capgras (mean age 48.5 years). Primary cases are more likely to have a subtle onset which evolved gradually, whereas secondary cases are more likely to have sudden-onset delusions. Primary cases show associated psychotic symptoms, particularly paranoid thought, whereas psychotic symptoms are not very often of the secondary cases. The patients with CS without apparent organic cerebral dysfunction were more likely to have experienced other psychiatric symptoms prior to the onset of the Capgras delusion than those with organic cerebral dysfunction [41]. Patients with neurological impairments were more likely to regard the misidentification as benign or as due to illusory, whereas patients without evidence of neurological basis were more likely to appraise the delusions as being threatening [41]. Thus, hostility and violence are seen much more frequently in those patients diagnosed as schizophrenic than in other patients [46].
\nActing on delusions is a crucial clinical issue. There is a positive relationship between delusions and serious violent acts. Although the pathway from delusions to violent outcomes is not direct, the risk is greatly increased when symptoms are acute, especially at the time of initial presentation and if not treated [19]. And the risk also can be changed according to the etiology of delusions. There is a requirement to be concerned about the patient’s tendency for violence and to evaluate for it thoroughly in Capgras delusion [45]. In patients with CS of an organic nature, violence may be associated with few or no affective manifestations (e.g., hostility, aggression, and auditory hallucinations), and may not be associated with paranoid elements [7]. Delusional symptoms in CS such as persecutory thoughts, threat-control symptoms, command auditory and/or visual hallucinations, and hallucinations of threatening content have all demonstrated to be significant predictors of violence act and aggressive behaviour [28]. If the patients are married, divorced, or separated, the most frequent doubles are the spouse. If the patients are single, the most frequent doubles are the siblings [19]. It should be noted that healthcare professionals may become the objects of delusional misidentification [42]. Because the double is usually assumed to have malicious, the CS could be characterized by hostility toward misidentified objects, and, later, it can lead to physical harm to others [19]. The assault associated with CS, the tendency to violence, cannot be attributed purely to the delusion’s existence. Other factors are presumably to affect the possibility of violent act. A significantly higher tendency for interpersonal violence are men disclosed among male subjects, average age at 40 years old, with a history of aggressive behaviour and substance abuse; social withdrawal prior to the violent act is common, and the violence is usually well planned [19, 21, 22]. Persecutory paranoid motivations have been implicated as a key factor in acts of violence toward family members who constitute the majority of victims in CS [28]. Physical violence was expressed by 58.2% of patients with CS and 62.5% of patients with CS engaged in acts of interpersonal violence toward their close family members and caregivers [21, 22]. Mothers and spouses were the most frequently attacked group of relatives, respectively. Also, it was found that 1 of 10 Capgras patients attempted homicide [21, 22]. Most of the perpetrators were males suffering from mental disorders without organic association. A higher incidence of self-harm and suicide attempts, which is about 1 in 10 of patients with CS, was detected among females even in patients with psychiatric disorders and in patients with neurodegenerative disorders [21, 22]. Although in the usual cases, the misidentified object is a person, hence justifying the title of delusional identification of people, the CS is not restricted to person misidentification but can also involve other living or lifeless objects [7, 19]. Physical violence against objects was also common, such as setting fire to one else’s estate [21, 22].
\nThe differential diagnosis of patients who suffered CS is crucial. It is substantial to rule out the presence of brain disease in every patient with Capgras delusion [45]. Many patients with CS also present with medical illnesses of organic etiologies, associated with delusional misidentification; these patients may respond well to treatment of the medical condition underlying the onset of CS [47]. The syndrome should be differentiated from the quite common false recognitions which occur in confusional states and the transient misidentifications encountered in mania [8]. For this purpose, ending with a complete mental status examination, as well as thorough testing of cognition, is important. Neuropsychological testing and neuroimaging are often indicated. Clinicians should clarify the nature of the underlying psychiatric illness [45].
\nLow platelet monoamine oxidase (MAO) activity is a biochemical abnormality which is present in some psychiatric disease. Some authors suggested that the low platelet MAO activity might be proposed as a potential biochemical marker of CS. It is also thought that reduced
The key features currently considered to be critical to the development of the Capgras delusion are as follows:
There is an abnormal perceptual experience that is a prerequisite for the delusion.
This perceptual experience is accompanied by a paranoid which leads to misattribution of the abnormal perceptual experience.
The loss of normal response to known faces occurs in the context of more generalized derealization-depersonalization [41].
Delusion in CS should be treated timely because it can cause a dangerous condition [42]. However, there are no guidelines to assist clinicians to care for patients presenting with CS in selecting complementary examinations to be performed or in selecting treatment [7]. Likewise, the symptoms of DMS are very refractory to treatment despite various interventions including psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy approaches [19]. The CS like other DMSs is known to develop similar to the comorbid disorder that they accompany, disappearing after remission even though it is not unusual for them to continue after the disappearance of the comorbid disorder [7]. Thus, treatment of the underlying neurological or psychiatric conditions may not lead to remission of CS [27]. The presence of depersonalization, derealization or visual-perceptual disturbances, and other comorbidities may influence the treatment of CS [47]. The syndrome has been linked to dopaminergic overactivity, and serotonin abnormality has been implicated in some but not all studies. Similarly, reduced platelet monoamine oxidase activity has been noted by some but not by others [17]. According to the results of the case studies in the literature, CS patients are sometimes responsive to typical and atypical antipsychotics such as olanzapine, risperidone, quetiapine, sulpiride, trifluoperazine, and pimozide [19]. Pharmacological treatment of CS is based on antipsychotics, antidepressants, anticonvulsant, and benzodiazepines considering patient needs and characteristics, but no control trials are available [49]. In the literature, there have been reported cases with a diagnosis of organic or functional delusional disorder associated with CS whose DMS responded well to pimozide that is well known for the treatment of monosymptomatic delusional disorders [49]. Experience with the new generation of atypical antipsychotics for the treatment of CS is quite limited. Although for patients manifesting any psychotic disorder, atypical antipsychotics are usually recommended because of the reduced risk of adverse effects [6, 47]. A crucial point of a case report is the positive outcome in response to antipsychotic medication [olanzapine] [49]. The combination of antipsychotic drug therapy and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) may produce a positive outcome in patients with CS [15].
\nA case report also suggested the use of clorazepate which is benzodiazepine. In this case report, in addition to the antipsychotic properties of clorazepate, its anticonvulsant properties were also utilized in CS patient with the suggestion of some researches that found an over 90% incidence of electroencephalographic abnormalities in CS patients [26]. According to the results of the case studies, it showed a positive outcome in a patient with CS after treatment with mirtazapine that is also a serotonin 2A receptor antagonist, which could potentially afford its antipsychotic effects resulting in significantly decreasing the symptoms of CS [19, 27].
\nWith patients who have progressive dementia, such as dementia with Lewy bodies, in which misidentification syndromes are common occurred, cholinesterase inhibitors have demonstrated benefit to reduce psychiatric symptoms [6].
\nElectroconvulsive therapy (ECT) has been reported to benefit either alone or in conjunction with antipsychotics, mood stabilizer, or antidepressant medication in patients with CS. It has been suggested that ECT provides permanent effective control of CS [42, 47, 49].
\nPsychotherapy may be beneficial in the treatment of selected patients with CS in order to reform the patient’s relationship with his family. The psychoanalytic theories show that the emotions which the patient experiences in regard to the people with whom he is confronted are transferred to the imposters, and therefore, in this way from a safe delusional distance, the patient gives himself to refuse them without guilt, sometimes manifesting an aggressive behaviour toward them [21, 22]. It has been shown that group psychotherapy may also be beneficial by becoming less prone to feel hostile toward others, thereby weakening the delusional misidentification process for psychotic patients with DMS [40]. Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) may be a utilized form of psychotherapy intervention in some cases by assisting the patient to overcome the delusional beliefs [21, 22].
\nIt is quite common in cases of delusion for his/her family members of the deluded person to be concerned about the delusion and to try to get rid of it by constantly challenging it [43]. It may be beneficial to know that just as an impairment in the interpersonal relationship between the patient and the object may occur before the onset of the delusion, an amelioration in this relationship is an essential factor in the amelioration of symptoms. Therefore treatment must include helping the partner or person implicated to gain insight and perhaps change their attitude toward the patient [29].
\nCS is a different neuropsychiatric symptom of interest to researchers over the past century. No approved questionnaires focus on CS. While noting that the Capgras syndrome has no formal place in recognized diagnostic systems, it should be emphasized that this is of significance. It is crucial to keep them in mind as a possibility and to pursue any possible clues. Capgras delusion is a complex psychopathological phenomenon that presents in a wide range of psychiatric and neurological disorders with differing patterns dependent on the main etiology. Misidentifications in CS are fixed false beliefs and, therefore, represent true delusions. Even if when patients are confronted over and over with the illogical nature of the delusion, they keep their beliefs. Specific questions and interventions may assist to clinicians in successfully identifying patients with CS. In a series of interviews with these patients, some focus on identifying CS, rather than a single interview which is likely to increase the detection of the delusional misidentification. The clinician should always be mindful of the risk of aggression and homicide in CS.
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Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"422262",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paola Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Palmeros-Suárez",slug:"paola-andrea-palmeros-suarez",fullName:"Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. The series on human physiology deals with the various mechanisms of interaction between the various organs, nerves, and cells in the human body.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11408,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. 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